INTRODUCTION

Convection heat transfer occurs when a temperature difference exists between a solid surface
and a fluid flowing past it. Convection is a process of energy transport affected by the circulation
or mixing of fluid medium. The fluid medium may be a gas, a liquid or a powdery substance
The analysis of convection is complicated because the fluid motion affects the pressure drop,
the drag force and heat transfer. To determine the drag force or a pressure drop, the voltage field in
the immediate vicinity of the surface must be known. To determine the heat transfer by convection
the velocity distribution in the flow also is needed because the velocity enters the energy equation
and the solution of the energy equation yields the temperature distribution in the flow field. The
velocity and temperature distribution in flow are determined from the solution of the equation of
motion and energy.

Laminar Boundary Turbulent Boundary

Layer Transition Layer

s
y cou
Vis ayer
l
sub

Leading x Smooth Trailing

edge Boundary layer Boundary layer edge
thickness thickness layer
Consider the flow of a fluid over a flat plate as shown in figure. The fluid at the leading edge
which is parallel to the plate surface. As the fluid moves in the
x-direction, the particles that make contact with plate surface assume zero velocity.
Therefore, starting from the plate surface there will be a retardation in the x-direction
components of the velocity. That is at the plate surface (y = 0) the axial velocity component is
zero. The retardation effect is reduced when the fluid is moving at a location away from the plate

for larger y. Therefore at each location x along the plate where the axial velocity component
is considered as boundary layer thickness. Thus the flow
field can be separated into two distinct regions,

distance y from the plate. Hence the velocity gradients and the shear stress are considered large.
The velocity gradients and shear stresses are negligible.
The boundary layer starts at the leading edge of the plate as a laminar boundary layer in which
fluid particles move along stream lines. It continues along the plate until small disturbances in
the flow begin which characterizes the end of the laminar boundary layer and the beginning of
transition from the laminar to turbulent boundary layer. In the turbulent boundary layer next to
the wall, there is a very thin layer called the viscous sublayer, where the flow retains its viscous
flow character. Adjacent to the viscous layer, there is a region called the buffer layer, in which
there is fine grained turbulence. In this layer the mean axial velocity rapidly increases with the
distance from the wall. The buffer layer is followed by the turbulent layer in which there is large
scale turbulence. The velocity changes relatively little with the distance from the wall.

It is defined as distance from the boundary in which the

The boundary layer thickness for greater accuracy is defined in terms of

i) Displacement thickness
ii) Momentum thickness
iii) Energy thickness
It is the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary by which the
main or free stream is displaced on the account of formation of boundary layer.
OR
It is an additional wall thickness that would have to be added to compensate for the reduction in
flow rate on account of boundary layer formation.
It is the distance through which the total loss of momentum per second
be equal if it were passing a stationary plate. It may also be defined as the distance measured
perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body by which the boundary should be displaced
to compensate for reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer
formation.
It is the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary should be displaced
to compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid in account of boundary layer
formation.

Reynold's number is mainly used to examine the behavior of flow in the boundary layer.
L
It is given by

Where, Free stream velocity

L Distance from leading edge
Kinematic viscosity of fluid
Critical Reynold's number is one at which transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow takes
place.
For flow over a body, it is taken as
Recr = 5 × 105
However, this critical value is strongly dependent on the surface roughness and the turbulence
level of the free stream.
 If the velocity profile in the boundary layer is known, one can determine the shear stress acting
on the wall at any location x using.
v
x 1
yy 0

x
per unit area is related to the local drag coefficient Cfx.
It is given by the relation.

x Cf 2

Thus knowing the drag coefficient, the force exerted by the fluid flowing over the body can be
determined.
Equating equation 1 and 2
v v2
Cf x
yy 0
2
2 v x
Cf x
v2 yy 1 2
0 v
2
2 v
Cf x
v2 y y 0

Thus, the local drag coefficient can be determined from the above equation, if the velocity profile
in the boundary layer is known.
The average drag coefficient over x = 0 to x = L is given by
L
1 s
CD Cf x dx
L0 1 2
v
2
Knowing the average drag coefficient, the drag force acting on the plate from x = 0 to x = L is
determined as follows
i.e., Drag force FD s As

v2
FD CD As
2
Where As surface area of the plate b L
 Turbulent
y heating
Laminar
,T

Temperature

th

th Tw

x Plate
Whenever a flow of fluid takes place past a heated or cold surface, a temperature field is set up in the
field next to the surface. If the surface of the plate is hotter than fluid the temperature distribution

is called thermal boundary layer.

Thermal boundary layer formed when hot fluid flows over a cold plate
th
surface at which
Tw T
Tw T
The thermal boundary layer concept is analogous to hydrodynamic boundary layer. The
parameters which affect their growth are however different. The velocity profile of hydrodynamic
boundary layer depends mainly on the fluid viscosity, the temperature profile of the thermal
boundary layer depends upon the viscosity, velocity of flow, specific heat and thermal conductivity
of the fluid. If T(x, y) is the temperature distribution, then heat flux from fluid to wall is
dT
q x K x, y
dy y 0

In terms of local heat transfer coefficient, q(x) = hx (T – Tw). From these equations, we get,
dT
dy y 0
hx K
T Tw
 In engineering applications, it is not practical to use conduction equation to calculate the heat
transfer rate between the fluid and the wall. In practice a local heat transfer coefficient hx is used
to calculate the heat flux between the fluid and the wall.
Fluid stream

Tw Flat plate
T

x dx
L
Consider a stream of fluid flows past a stationary plate as shown in figure
If temperature Tw at the plate surface is greater than the free stream temperature then convective
heat transfer occurs from the plate to the fluid. The flow conditions vary from point to point on the
surface and as such as convective film coefficient and heat flux would also vary along the surface.
For the elementary strip dx, located at a distance x from the leading edge is assumed to be
practically constant.
Therefore, local heat flux Qx = hxdA (Tw – T )
Where dA = area of the element
= Bdx B = Breadth of the element
Therefore, Qx = hx Bdx (Tw – T ) hx = Local heat transfer coefficient
The total heat transfer
L L
Q Q x dx h x Bdx Tw T
0 0
L
Q B Tw T hx d x 1
0

Also total heat transfer rate

Q BL h a Tw T 2
ha Average heat transfer coefficient
Comparing 1 and 2
L
B Tw T hx dx B L h a Tw T
0

L
1
ha h x dx
L0
The average value of convection coefficient based upon the total surface area is used in the
Newton - Rikhman relation to calculate the total amount of heat transferred for the given set of
condition.
The local convection efficient becomes the controlling factor when the local temperature in the
boundary layer has a certain temperature limit which is not to be exceeded.
 Considering two dimensional control volume as shown in Fig. The equation of motion for the
laminar boundary layer can be obtained by equating force and momentum transfer on the element.
The assumptions made in the analysis are
y

x
u
u u
dx dy v dy
y y y v dx dx dy
y
dx dy

u
udy udy dy dx
x
dy
pdy dy dy dx
y
u
dx
y

vdx
Force and momentum analysis for laminar boundary layer

5. Unit depth in z direction

According to Newton's second law of motion
d mv x
Fx
dt
where Fx sum of applied forces in x direction, and
d mv x
rate of increase in momentum flux in x direction.
dt

control volume and x directional velocity component at that point.

The rate of mass entering the left face of control volume = r u dy
The rate of momentum entering the left face of control volume = r u dy u = r u2 dy
 u
The rate of mass leaving the right face = u dy + dy dx
x
The rate of momentum leaving the right face
u u
u 2 dy dy dx u2 u 2 dy dy dx u u
x x x
The rate of mass entering the bottom face = vdx
v
v dx dx dy
The rate of mass leaving the top face y
The mass balanced on the control volume
u v
u dy v dx u dy dy dx v dx dx dy
x y
u v
x y
u v
or 0
x y
It is the mass continuity equation for the laminar boundary layer.
The rate of momentum in x direction associated with mass enters the bottom face = vu dx
The rate of momentum in x direction leaves the top face
v u
vu dx dx uv dy uv dx dx dy u v
y y y
The net momentum transfer in x direction
d mv x u u v u
dx dy u u u u
dt x x y y
u v u u
dx dy u u v
x y x y
d mv x u u
or dx dy u v
dt x y
u v
Since u 0
x y
The forces acting in x direction are viscous and pressure forces.
The pressure force on the left face p dy

The pressure force on the right face p dy p dy dx in opposite direction

x
u
The viscous force at bottom face dx
y
 u u
The viscous force at top face dx dx dy
y y
2
p u
Net forces in x direction Fx dx dy dx dy
x y2
Substituting equations, we get
2
u u u p
u v
x y y2 x
The equation is the momentum equation for the laminar boundary layer with constant
properties. If the pressure changes on two side of control volume is negligible than
above equation reduces to
2
u u u 1 2u
u v
x y y2 v y2

Consider the element control volume as shown in Fig.

y

x
u
dy T u
k f dx dy
y y y
vT
TS dy v dx C T C dx dy
y
2
u
Net viscous work dx dy
y
uT
udy C T C dy dx
x
dy
vdy) C T

dx

T
k f dx vdx) C T
y
Energy analysis for laminar boundary layer
Assumptions

The energy balance on the control volume can be expressed as

Energy convected at the left face + energy convected at the bottom face + heat conducted in the
bottom face + net viscous work done on the element = Energy convected out the right face +
energy convected out the top face + heat conducted out the top face.

Energy convected in the left face udy C p T Cp u T dy

Energy convected in the bottom face udx Cp T Cp v T dx
T
Energy conducted in the bottom face f f dx
x
Energy convected in the right face u dy Cp T Cp dy u T dx
x
Energy convected out the top face v dy Cp T Cp dx u T dy
y
2
T T
Energy convected out the top face kf dx dy
y y2
2
T
Net energy change rate, E 'net Cp dxdy uT uT kf dx dy
x y y2
u
The net viscous force FD dx
y
u
It moves through distance per unit time dy
y
2
u
Net viscous work done on the element, WD dx dy
y
Writing the energy balance on the element, we get
2
uT vT u 2
T
Cp kf 2
x y y y
2 2
T T u v u T
or Cp u v T kf
x y x y y y2
Using the continuity equation,
u v
0
x y
Rearranging equation, we get
2
T T k f 2T u
u v
x y Cp y2 Cp y
2 2
T T T v u
or u v
x y y2 Cp y
For low velocity flow, viscous forces are negligibly small in comparison to conduction
term, then
2
T T T
u v
x y y2

Heat transfer rate for the turbulent flow over a flat plate with Prandtle number Pr = 1 is given by
Q dT
w Cp
A dv
q Q
or dv dT Where q heat flux
w Cp A
Integrating
T
q
dv dT
w Cp 0 Tw

q
v T Tw
w Cp

Tw T
q w Cp
Tw T v
Introducing local heat transfer coefficient and friction coefficient
q v2
hx & w Cf x
Tw T 2
Then the above equation become
v 2 Cp
h x Cf x
2 v
Cf x
Cp v
2
hx Cf x
v Cp 2
Cf x
Stx
2
hx x
N ux K hx
Where Stx Stanton number
R e x Pr v x Cp Cp
K
The above equation is called as Reynold's analogy. It is satisfactory for gases with Pr = 1.
Colburn has corrected above equation for fluids having Prandtle number ranging from 0.6 to 50
and it is modified as follows
Cf x
Stx Pr2/3
2
This expression is referred as Reynolds - Colburn analogy for flow over flat plate
Stx Pr2/3 is called Colburn's factor.

The basic concepts on the development of velocity and thermal boundary layer for a flow
along a flat plate is also applied to flow at the entrance region of ducts.

It is defined as an arbitrary length required from the duct

It is defined as an arbitrary length required from the beginning

of heat transfer section to achieve a local Nusselt Number equal to 1.02 times value of the
corresponding fully developed flow.
Hydrodynamic entry region (Lh) Hydrodynamically

r
R
z

(i)

Heat transfer section

Lh
Thermal entrance length (Lt)
 Isothermal section Heat transfer
section

Lh Lt

Consider the flow inside a circular tube as shown in figure (i). The fluid has a uniform velocity
at the tube inlet. As the fluid enters the tube, a velocity boundary layer starts to develop along
the wall surface. The velocity of the fluid particles at the wall surface becomes zero and at the
vicinity of wall, it is retarded. As a result, the velocity in the central portion of the tube increases
to satisfy the requirement of the continuity of flow. The thickness of the velocity boundary layer
continuously grows along the tube surface until it fills the entire tube. The region from the tube
to little beyond the hypothetical location where the boundary layer reaches the tube centre is
called hydrodynamic entry region. In this region the shape of the velocity profile changes in
both the axial and radial direction. The region beyond the hydrodynamic entry length is called as
hydrodynamically developed region because in this region the velocity profile is invariant with
distance along the tube.
If the boundary layer remain laminar until it fills the tube, fully developed laminar flow of
parabolic velocity profile prevails in the hydrodynamically developed region. However, if the
boundary layer changes to turbulent before its thickness reaches the tube centre, fully developed
turbulent flow is experienced in the hydrodynamically developed region. When the flow is
turbulent, the velocity profile is flatter than the parabolic velocity profile of laminar flow.

If the heat transfer to the fluid starts at the moment when the fluid enters the duct, both velocity
and thermal boundary layers begin to develop immediately as shown in fig (ii). In this case the
values of Lh and Lt are measured from the tube inlet.
In case of heat transfer to the fluid begins after and isothermal section, Lh is measured as usual
at the duct inlet. This is because the velocity boundary layer begins to develop as soon as the
fluid enters the duct. However, the thermal boundary layer begins to develop in the heat transfer
section as shown in figure (iii).
The hydrodynamic length Lh depends on the Reynold's number only, where as the thermal
entrance length Lt depends on Peclet number.
When the velocity and temperature profiles develop simultaneously at the entrance region, the
flow is known as simultaneously developing flow. For such type of flow, the thermal entry legth
depends on Prandtle number.
Consider an element of length dz of a flow inside a duct as shown in figure
Let A = Cross-sectional area of the element
s = Perimeter of the element
Equating the pressure force to the shear force at the wall
pPA z pPA z z w s z
w
sdz
pPA z z PAp z w s z

pPz xz pPz s
w
z A
(pA)Z (pA)
Taking Lt as z 0 D
Lt pPz z pPz s
w
z 0 z A
dPp s w
sdz
w
dz A
dPp D 4
w w 1
dz 2 D
D
4
The shear stress w is related to the velocity gradient by
v v
w
y wall
r wall

Equation 1 become
p
dP 4 v
dz D r wall

p
dP 4 v
2
dz D r wall

The friction factor f is defined as

dP
p v 2m
f 3
dz 2D
Where m mean velocity of flow inside the tube
Density of the fluid
Equating 2 and 3
4 v v 2m
f
D r wall 2D
8 v
or f 2
4
m r wall
determined from equation (4)
Let pressure drop p1 p 2 p over the length z 2 z1 L. By integrating equation 3
P2 2 Z2
m
dp f dz
P2
2D Z1
2
P2 m z2
p P1
f z z1
2D
2
m
p2 p1 f z2 z1
2D
2
m
P f L
2D
If V is the volume flow rate through the duct the pumping power required is
Pumping power V P
 3
v x, y 3 y 1 y
v 2 x 2 x
280 x
Where the boundary layer thickness is x
13 v

i Expression for local friction coefficient local drag

We know that local drag coefficient
2 v x, y
Cf x
v2 y y 0
3
v x, y 3 y 1 y
v
y y 0
y 2 x 2 x
y 0

3 1 1 3y 2
v 3
2 x 2 x
y 0

3 1
v 0
2 x
3v
2 x
2 3v
Cf x
v2 2 x
3
Cf x
v x
3
Now Cf x
280 x
13 v
0.646
0.646 Cf x
v x Rex
ii Expression for average drag coefficient
We know that, average drag coefficient
 L
1
Cf Cf x dx
L0
L
1
Cf 0.646 dx
L0 v x
L L
0.646 1/ 2 0.646 x 1/ 2 1
x dx
L v 0
L v 1/ 2 1 0

2 0.646
2 0.646
v L ReL
Cf 2Cf x x L

3
T x, y 3 y 1 y
T Tw 2 th 2 th

x
th x 4.53 1/ 2 1/ 3
R Pex r

The local heat transfer coefficent

T
K
y y 0 T d
hx But T x, y
T Tw y y 0
dy y 0
3
T 3 y 1 y
T Tw
y y 0
y 2 th 2 th
y 0

2
3 1 1 y
3 3 T Tw
2 th 2 th y 0

3 1
T Tw
2 th

3 T Tw
hx K
2 th T Tw
3 K
hx
2 th
Substituting th x value in the above exp ression
3 K K 1/ 2 1/3
hx 0.332 R ex Pr
2 x x
4.53 1/ 2 1/3
R P
ex r
 hx x
0.332 R1/ex2 Pr1/3
K
Nu x 0.332R1/ex2 Pr1/3
Average heat transfer coefficient
L L
1 Pr1/3 1 v x
h h x dx 0.332 K dx
L0 L 0x
L
K 1/3 v 1 1/ 2
0.332 Pr x dx
L L0
K 1/3 v L1/ 2
0.332 Pr
L 1/ 2
K v L
0.332 2 Pr1/3
L
K 1/ 2 1/3
2 0.32 R ex Pr
L x L

2 hx x L

or N u 2Nu x

3 4
u x, y y y y
2 2
u x x x
x 5.83
Where the boundary layer thickness
x R 1/ex2

b 2m. L 2m, T 350K, u o 4m / s

i Local drag coefficient
2 u x, y
Cx u
u2 y y 0
3 4
u y y y
x, y u 2 2
y y x x x
y 0
 u 2 y2 4y3
x, y u 2 3 3 4
y x x x y 0

2
u 0 0
x
2u
x
2 2u
Cx
u2 x
Substituting the value of x
2 2u 4 R 1/ex2
Cx
u2 5.83 x u 5.83 x
R 1/ex2
1/ 2
4 u x
5.83x u u

4 u x
5.83x u u
1/ 2
4
5.83 u x
0.686
Cx
R1/ex2
ii Average drag coefficient
L
1
Cm Cf C x dx
L0
L
1 1
0.686 1/ 2 dx
L 0
R ex
L 1/ 2
1
0.686 dx
L 0
u x
1/ 2 L
1 1/ 2
0.686 x dx
L u 0
1/ 2 L
1 x 1/ 2 1
0.686
L u 1/ 2 1 o
1/ 2
1/ 2
1 x
0.686
L u 1/ 2
 1/ 2

2 0.686
u L
1
2 0.686
R1/ex2 x L

Cf 2 Cx x L

iii Drag force

For air at T 350K From HMT data book, properties of air
6 2 3

Where
CD Cf 2 Cx x L
1/ 2

2 0.686
u L
6 1/ 2

2 0.686
4 2
3
2.22 10
u2
FD Cf As
2
3 1.012 42 2 2
2.22 10
2
FD 0.0718N

3
y y
x, y 2
t t

T x ,y Tw
Where, x, y and t
5.5 R ex0.5 Pr 1/ 3
T Tw x

i The local heat tranfer coefficient

Let
K
y y 0
T x,y Tw
hx
T Tw T Tw T Tw
 3
y y
2 T Tw
y y 0
y t t
y 0

2
0 T Tw
t

2 T Tw
y y 0 t

2 T Tw
hx K
t T Tw
2K
t

2K
5.5 R ex0.5 Pr 1/ 3
2K R 0.5
ex Pr
1/ 3
hx
5.5 x
x hx
0.3636 R 0.5 1/ 3
ex Pr
K
Nu x 0.3636 R 0.5 1/ 3
ex Pr

ii Average heat transfer coefficent

L
1
h h x dx
L0
L
1 R 0.5 P1/ 3
0.3636 ex r K dx
L0 x
1/ 3 L
0.3636 K 1/ 3 u
Pr x y2 x 1 dx
L 0
1/ 2 L
0.3636 K 1/ 3 u x 1/ 2 1
Pr
L 1/ 2 1 0
1/ 2
0.3636 K 1/ 3 u L 2
Pr
L 1
0.3636 K 1/ 2 1/ 3
2 R ex Pr
L x L

h L
N u 2Nu x
K
 2
y T Tw y y
sin and 2
v 2 T Tw th th

v 10m / s, / th Pr1/3 , 25 10 6 Ns / m 2 , K 0.04W / mK, C p 1000J / kgK,

Tw 200o C, T 50o C
The shear stress at the wall
d
s
dy y 0

Using velocity profile

d d y y
v sin v cos
dy dy 2 2 2
v y v
s cos
2 2 y 0 2
Temperature distribution
2
T Tw y y
2
T Tw th th
2
dT d y y
T Tw 2
dy dy th th

1 2y
T Tw 2 2
th th

dT 2 2 T Tw
T Tw
dy y 0 th th

The heat transfer rate at the plate surface

dT
h T Tw K
dy y 0

2 T Tw
th 2K
h K
T Tw th
 h 2K 2
Now
s th v
4K 4K 1/3
Pr
v th v
Cp 2.5 10 5 1000
Pr 0.625
K 0.04
h 4 0.04 1/3
5
0.625 174.18
s 2.5 10 10

Tw T y
i sin
Tw T 0.015
3
Tw T 1 y 3 y
ii
Tw T 2 0.0075 2 0.0075

Convective heat transfer coefficient

K dT
h
Tw T dy y 0

d Tw T d y y
i sin cos
dy Tw T dy 0.015 0.015 0.015
dT
or Tw T cos 0 Tw T
dy y 0
0.015 0.015
K
h Tw T
Tw T 0.015
K 0.03
6.28W / m 2 K
0.015 0.015
3
d Tw T d 1 y 3 y
ii
dy Tw T dy 2 0.0075 2 0.0075
2
3 y 1 3 1
2 0.0015 0.0075 2 0.0075
dT 3
Tw T
dy y 0
2 0.0075
K 3
h Tw T
Tw T 2 0.0075
 3K 3 0.03
6W / m 2 K
2 0.0075 2 0.0075

0.664
Cx
R1/ex2

0.664
Cx ,T 300K, v 15m / s, L ?, b 1m, FD ?
R1/ex2
Properties of air at T 300K are From HMT data book
1.177kg / m3 , 0.168 10 4 m 2 / s
Transition starts at R e cr 5 105
The distance L is
v L 15 L
R e cr 5 105 4
L 0.523m
0.168 10
The average drag coefficient
L L
1 1 0.664
CD Cm C x dx 1/ 2
x y2 dx
L0 L v 0

0.664
2 2C x
R1/eL2 x L

0.664 3
2 1.88 10
5 1/ 2
5 10
Drag force acting on the plate
v2 3 1.177 152
FD bL C D 1 0.523 1.88 10
2 2
0.1302N

T 400K, v 4m / s, L 1m, Tw 300K, h 7.75W / m 2 K, FD ?

400 300
Mean film temperature Tf 350K
2
Properties of air at Tf 350K From HMT data book
 3
p r

From Reynold's Colburn analogy, the average drag coefficient is give by

CD h
Pr1/3
2 CP v
CD 7.75 2/3

3
CD 3.03 10
v2
Drag force FD bL CD
2
2
3
1 1 3.03 10
2
3
FD 24.2 10 N

hx x
Nu x 0.332 Pr1/ 3 R 1/e 2
K

hx x
0.332 Pr1/3 R1/e 2 , T 400K, v 1.5m / s, L 2m. Tw 300K, h ?, Q ?,
K
b 0.5m
Average heat transfer coefficient
L L
1 1 dx
h h x dx 0.332 Pr1/3 R1/e 2
L0 L0 x
1/ 2 L
0.332 v x1/ 2 v x
K Pr1/3 dx R ex
L 0
x
1/ 2 L
0.332 v
K Pr1/3 x 1/ 2
dx
L 0
1/ 2 L
0.332 v x 1/ 2 1
K Pr1/3
L 1/ 2 1 0
1/ 2 1/ 2 L
0.332 v x
K Pr1/3
L 1/ 2 0
1/ 2
2 0.332 v
K Pr1/3 L1/ 2
L
 1/ 2
2 0.332 v L
K Pr1/3
L
h 2 hx x L

Tw
300 400 T
Mean film temperture Tf 350K
2 2
From HMT data book, properties of air at Tf 350K
4 2
r

v L 1.5 2
Re 4
1.43 105
0.21 10
h 2 0.0332 R 1/ex2 Pr1/3 K
1/ 2
1/3 1.43 105
0.03
2
3.34 W / m 2o C
Heat transfer rate Q bLh T Tw
0.5 2 3.34 400 300
334W

T 30o C, Tw 70o C, v 1.5m / s, L ?, FD ?, R e cr 5 105

T 70 30Tw
Mean film temperature Tf 50o C
2 2
From HMT data book, properties of air at Tf 50o C
6 2 3
r

i Length of the plate where transition starts from leading edge

v L 1.5 L
R e cr 5 105 6

ii Drag force acting on the plate

Local drag coefficient at the trailing edge
C fx x L
0.664 R eL0.5 from HMT data book
5 0.5 4
 4 3
CD 2Cfx
1 2
Surface shear stress w v CD
2
1 2 4

2
3 2

Drag force FD av As
2 w/x L As
3

FD 0.0276N

T 300K, v 5m / s, L 1m, b 0.5m, FD 18 10 3 N, h ?

Properties of air at T 300K From HMT data book
1.177kg / m3 , C p 1.006 103 J / kgK, Pr 0.708
From Re ynolds Colburn analogy
h Cm
Pr1/3
Cp v 2
Cm Average drag coefficient
Drag force
1 2
FD av As v b L Cm
2
1
3
18 10 1.177 52 0.5 1 Cm
2
Cm 2.447 10 3
3
h 1/3 2.447 10
0.708
1.177 1.006 103 5 2
2

T 400K, v 4m / s, L 1m, Tw 300K, h 7.75W / m 2 o C, FD ?, b 1m

T Tw 400 300
Mean film temperature Tf 350K
2 2
Properties of air at Tf 350K From HMT data book
3 o
p r

From Reynolds Colburn analogy

h Cm
Pr2/3
Cp v 2
7.75 2/3 Cm

3
Cm 3.03 10
v2
Drag force FD bLCm
2
2
3
1 1 3.03 10
2
3
FD 24.2 10 N

T 200o C, v 5m / s, L 1.5m, Tw 100o C, h 7.5W / m 2 K, FD ?, b 0.75m

200 100
Mean film temperature Tf 150o C
2
Properties of air at Tf 150o C are From HMT data book
0.8345kg / m3 , Cp 1015J / kgK, Pr 0.683
From Reynolds Colburn analogy
h Cm
Pr2/3
Cp v 2
7.5 2/3 Cm
0.683
0.8345 1015 5 2
Cm 2.75 10 3
v2 0.75 1.5 0.8345 52 3
Drag force FD bLCm 2.75 10
2 2
FD 0.0322N
T 10o C, v 3m / s, Tw 60o C, b 0.3m, p 100kPa, x 0.3m, x ?, wx ?,
FD ?, h x ?, Q ?
Tw T
60 10
Mean film temperture Tf 35o C
2 2
Properties of air at Tf 35o C From HMT data book
3 6
r p 1006J / kgK
v x 1.167 3 0.3
Reynold's Number Re x 6
53872 5 105 , flow is laminar

i Boundary layer thickness From HMT data book

5x 5 0.3
x 6.46mm
R ex 53872
ii Local firction coefficnent From HMT data book
0.646 0.646 3
Cf x 2.783 10
R ex 53872
iii Local shear stress From HMT data book
2
v 1.1373 32 3
wx Cf x 2.783 10
2 2
0.0142N / m 2
iv Total drag force local
FD w As 2 wx As 2 0.0142 0.3 0.3
2.564 10 4 N
v Thickness of thermal boundary layer From HMT data book
0.333 0.333
th x r

vi Local heat transfer coefficient

N ux 0.332 R 1/ex2 Pr1/ 3
K
hx 0.332 R1/ex2 Pr1/ 3
x
0.0272 1/ 2 1/ 3
0.332 53872 0.7
0.3
6.2W / m 2 K
vii Heat transfer rate from the plate
 Q hAs T
2h x bL Tw T
2 6.2 0.3 0.3 60 10
Q 55.8W

T 20o C, v 3m / s, b 0.3m, Tw 60o C, x 0.3m, ?, th ?,

hx ?, h av ?, FD ?
Tw T 60 20
Mean film temperature Tf 40o C
2 2
o
Properties of air at Tf 40 C are From HMT data book
1.18kg / m 3 , 17 10 6 m 2 / s, K 0.0272W / mK, C p 1.007 103 J / kgK
Pr 0.705
v x 3 0.3 5
e
17 10 6
Since R e is the lesser than R e cr 5 105 , the flow is laminar.
i Thickness of velocity and thermal boundary layers
Thickness of velocity boundary layer From HMT data book
0.5
5x R ex0.5 5

6.52 10 3 m 6.52mm
Thermal boundary layer thickness
th Pr 1/3 From HMT data book
1/3
6.52 0.705 7.14mm
ii Local and average friction coefficient
Local friction coefficient From HMT data book
0.646 0.646 3
Cf x 2.8 10
Re x 5

Average friction coefficient

3 3
Cf 2 Cf x x L
2 2.8 10 5.61 10
iii Local and average heat transfer coefficients
The local Nusselt number From HMT data book
1/ 2 1/3 1/ 2 1/3
x ex r 105 0.705
 hx x
K
h x 0.3
0.0272
h x 6.16W / m 2 K
Average heat trnasfer coefficient
h av 2h x 2 6.16 12.32W / m 2o C
iv Total drag force
FD w As
v2 5.61 10 3
1.18 32 2
w f
2 2
FD 0.3 0.3 2.68 10 3 N
1

L 0.75m, b 0.25m, v 5m / s, S 0.8, 1 10 4 m 2 / s

i Boundary layer thickness at middle of the plate
v x v x 5 0.375
Re x 18750
1 10 4
Since R e x 5 105 , flow is laminar
5x 5 0.375 3
1/ 2
Rex 18750
ii Shear stess at the middle of plate
0.664
Local drag coefficient Cf x
Rex
0.664 3

18750
v2 3 1 2
w fx
2 2
2

iii Friction drag on one side of the plate

3 3
f fx
 v2
FD Cf As
2
3 0.8 1000 52
2
18.18N

L 0.3 m, T 27 0 C, Tw 77 0 C, ?, K 28.15 W / mK, 18.14 10 6 m 2 / k

3 3
L3 g T 8
r 2 6 2
18.41 10

1
4
r

Pr 2 . G rx
1
4

2 8
0
3

Ans. T = 20oC, V = 3m/s, b = 0.28m, Tw = 56oC, x = 0.28m, K =0.02732 W/moC, Cp= 1.005 kJ/
–6
m2/s, Pr = 0.7, dx = ?, dH = ? hx = ?, h = ? Q = ? FD=?
L 3 0.28
Reynold 's number R e 0.50 105
16.768 10 6
Since R e 5 105 , the flow is laminar.
1 Thickness of velocity boundary layer, From HMT data book
0.5 0.5
x 5xR e 5 0.28 0.5 105 6.261 10 3 m 6.261mm
2 Thickness of thermal boundary layer, From
Form HMT
MMTdata
databook
book
1
th x Pr 3
 1
3
th 6.261 10 0.7 3

3 Local convective heat transfer coefficient

From Data book for Laminar flow
1
N ux 0.332 R 0.5
ex Pr
3

5 0.5 0.333

hx x
N ux
K
h x 0.28
0.02732
hx 6.43 W / m 2 o C
4 Average heat transfer coefficient
h 2h x 2 6.43 12.87 W / m 2 o C
5 Rate of heat transfer
Q hAs Tw T
12.87 0.28 0.28 56 20 36.30W
6 Total drag force
v2
FD Cf AS
2
But Cf 2 Cf x
0.664
2
Re
0.664 1
2
0.5 105 2
3

3 32
D
2
2.38 10 3 N

×
v = 50m/s, T = 27oC, Re = 108, L = ?, Rcr = 5 ×105
From HMT data book, Properties of air at T = 27oC,
 = 1.16 kg/m3, –5
m2/s

vL 50 L
Re 108 5

L 31.82m

vL
R cr

50 L
5 105 6

×
C
1.46 10 6 T 2
kg / ms
110 T

13 1000
1000 10
vL 3600
Re 2.75 107
1.3 10 3
Since R e 5 105 , flow is turbulent

DN 2 0.3 15000
v 471.24 m / s
60 60
p 5 100
Density of air 2.588 kg / ms
RT 0.287 400 273
2
1.46 10 6 400 273
3.3 10 6 kg / ms
110 400 273
VD 2.588 471.24 2 0.3
Re 22.17 107
3.3 10 6
Since R e 5 105 , flow is turbulent.

Properties of air at T = 20oC (HMT data book)

 v L 3 2
R ex 4 105 5 105 Flow is laminar
15 10 6
Boundary layer thickness
4.64x 4.64 2
x 0.0146m 14.67mm
R ex 4 105
Local friction coefficient
0.646 0.646 3
Cfx 1.02 10
R ex 4 10 5

Averagedrag coefficient
3
CD 2 Cfx 2.042 10
Averageshear stress
v2 CD 1.17 32
S 2.042 10 3 0.0107 N / m 2
2 2
Drag force FD S AS 2 2sides
0.0107 2 1 2
0.043 N
4.6 INTRODUCTION
Forced convection heat transfer is one in which heat is transferred from one place to another
by forcing the fluid over a surface or through a duct.
For forcing the fluid, external devices such as pump, fan or blower are used.
Fluid
Fan T
Heated plate
Q T w

Forced convection heat transfer is found in

i) Flow of water in condenser tubes
ii) Cooling of internal combustion engines
iii) Air conditioning
iv) Heat exchangers
v) Evaporators and super heater of high pressure boilers
vi) Electric motors
4.7 APPLICATION OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS FOR FORCED
CONVECTION
Let us consider the case of fluid flowing over a heated surface as shown in figure.

properties
Heat
velocity, v
Fluid, T

Blow
er
Heated surface
TS

The various variables that involved in this process are

i) Characteristics length (L)

iii) Fluid velocity (v)

v) Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)

vii) Heat transfer coefficient (h)

 p

Dimensions of Variables

2
T
Cp 2
T

Selection of Repeating Variables

Repeating variables will be selected one from geometrical property, one from fluid property,
one from flow property and one from thermal property.
These variables are selected in such a way that the product of dimensions of these variables
should posses all four fundamental dimensions.
If there are more than one variable in geometric, fluid, flow and thermal properties, the variable
which consists minimum number of dimensions will be selected.
By applying above procedure, we get repeating variables as

Product of dimensions
T × LT 2 2
T
Now terms become

a2 b2 c2 d2
2 p

Consider

Equating the exponents of fundamental dimensions

L
From the above equations

Substituting the powers in , we get

vL
or

2 La 2 b2
vc2 d2
p

Equating the exponents of fundamental dimensions

2 2

2 2 2 2

2 2 2

From the above equations

2

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
2 2

2 2 2 2 2

2 p

Cp
2

Equating the exponents of fundamental dimensions

From the above equations

hL

Thus function relationship become

vL Cp hL

hL vL Cp
or ,

or N u R e , Pn
hL hD
u mber

vL vD
Re dimensionless group called Reynold's Number

Cp
Pr dimensionless group called Prandtle Number

The usual practice to write the above correlation is

Nu C R ea Prb
The constant a, b and c are evaluated through experiments.
4.8 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS
1) Reynold's Number (Re) : It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force.
Inertia force Fi
i.e., Reynolds Number, R e
Viscous force Fv
v v L L2
Fi mass accelerartion ma V L L L Lv
T T T2 T2
dv v
Fv shear stress area A L2 L2 vL
dy L
L2 v 2 vL vL
Re
vL
 Reynold's Numbers is the indicative of the relative importance of inertia and viscous effects in
a fluid motion. At low Re, the viscous effects dominate and fluid motion is laminar. At high Re, the
inertial effects lead to turbulent flow. The associated turbulence level dominates the momentum
and energy flux.

forced convection heat transfer. Velocity with in the given fields would be similar in magnitude,
direction and turbulence pattern when the Reynolds number is same.
2) Critical Reynold's Number (Re )
cr
It is a value of Reynolds number, where boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent
nature.
For flow over flat plate the transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer occurs when
5
.
For flow through tubes and pipe, the laminar to turbulent boundary layer occurs when critical

3) Prandle Number (Pr): It is the indicative of the relative ability of the fluid to diffuse momentum
and internal energy by molecular mechanism.

diffusivity.
Cp Cp
i.e., Pr

Cp

diffusivity represents the heat energy transport through conduction.

rapid diffusion of momentum by viscous action compared to the diffusion energy.

Prandtle Number for gases is near to unity and accordingly the momentum and energy transfer
by diffusion are comparable.
The liquid metals have Pr
to the momentum diffusion rate.
4) Nusselt Number (Nu): It is the ratio of convection heat flux to conduction heat flux in the fluid
boundary layer.
Convection heat flux h T hL hD
i.e., N u
T
L
L characteristic length of the surface if flow is over the surface
D diameter of the pipe if flow is inside the pipe
Nusselt Number is a convenient measure of the convective heat transfer coefficient. For a
given value of Nusselt number, the convective heat transfer coefficient is directly proportional to
the significant length parameter.
Based on the interpretation, the value of Nu as unity indicates that there is no convection,
the heat transfer is by pure conduction in the boundary layer. Large value of Nu indicates large
convection in the fluid.
5) Stanton Number (St): It is the ratio of the heat transfer at the surface to that transported by
fluid by its thermal capacity.
Heat flux to the fluid from the surface
i.e., St
Heat transfer capacity of fluid
hL
h T h
Cp v T Cp v vL Cp

Nu
R e Pr

number and Prandtle number.

Stanton number is used in correlating forced convection data. Through dimensional analysis
the following possible correlations of convection data for forced convection are obtained.
Nu (Re, Pr) or St 2(Re, Pr)
6) Peclet Number (Pe): It is the ratio of heat transfer capacity to heat transfer by conduction.
Heat transfer capacity
i.e., Pe
Heat transfer by conduction
mC p T vCp L
T
L
vL Cp
R e Pr

4.9 CORRELATIONS FOR FORCED CONVECTION

The basic equation used in determining the value of convection coefficient 'h' are
N f R P C R a P b and S f R P C R m Pn
The numerical values of constants and exponents are determined by obtaining the best fit to
the experimental data. The fluid properties needed for calculating the values of dimensionless

stated otherwise.

cross section were thoroughly mixed in an adiabatic container,

T T
Tb is arithematic mean of the
2

undisturbed temperature of the fluid which flows past it.

 Ts T
i.e., Tf
2
4.9.1 Correlations for Plates and Walls
The local film coefficient for laminar flow past a flat plate is obtained from the correlations.
ux ex r

i) Fluid properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature.

5

The average value of convection coefficient is given by

L

ha h x dx
L
L

r
L x
L

r
L x

r
L

r
L
ha L
e r

u ex x ux

For turbulent flow, the general equations giving the local heat transfer coefficient
5
e

ex r
N ux and
ex r

ux ex r

perature
The average Nusselt numbers is given by
u e r
4.9.2 Correlations for Cylindrical surfaces
Flow across cylinders
Nu e
n
Pr
C and n values are obtained from the following table
Re C n

4.9.3 Flow Inside Pipes and Tubes

Forced flow of fluid through pipes and tubes is quite common in the heat exchange equipment
used for cooling and heating of fluids.
a) For Laminar flow Pr > 0.5 < 100
D
r e
L
u
D
r e
L

i pipe length is much greater than diameter

T T
emperature is Tb
2
iii R e and N u and calculated on the basis of pipe diameter as the length parameter

D
u e r
L
Valid for short tubes. The fulid properties are
D
e
L
b) Turbulent flow
u e r

eated

n temperature
L
e r
D
4.9.4 Correlations for a flow across tube bundles

The tube bundles are used to accomplish a desired total heat transfer in a relatively small space
such as air conditions, cooling coils, steam generators and different type of heat exchangers.
There are two types of tube bundles in use, the inline and staggered.
St
St
Sl
Sl

Inline Arrangement
Fluid, vi

St St

Sl SD
SD
Sl

Staggered Arrangement

Fluid, vi

tubes. The largest velocity may occur at the transverse plane in inline arrangement.
Sl
i.e., vmax vi
St D
vi Velecoity of entering fluid
 In staggered arrangement, the maximum velocity may occur at either the transverse plane or
diagonal plane.
2 2
SD 2 St
max i D l
2 SD D 2
The correleation is
n y

r e

For general fluids other than air

n y

u
obtained from the
above equation is to be multiplied by a correction factor C2.
4.10 METHODS USED FOR DETERMINING CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT
Different method used for determining heat transfer coefficient are
i) Dimensional analysis
ii) Exact mathematical solution of boundary layer equation
iii) Approximate analysis of boundary layer equation by integral method.
iv) Analogy between heat and momentum transfer.
v) Numerical analysis.
 Problems : Flow Over Plates
NOTE: Heat and Mass transfer data book by C. P. Kothandaraman is used for solving problems.

1. Atmospheric air at 25oC flows over both the surfaces of a flat plate 1m long with a
velocity of 5m/s. The plate is maintained at a uniform temperature of 75oC. Determine,
i) the velocity boundary thickness, the surface shear and heat flux at the trailing edge of
the plate, ii) The drag force on the plate and the total heat transfer from the plate to air.
o o
Data: w w D

Leading edge Tw
Trailing
edge
Air
v
T x L
Tw T o
f
2 2
Properties of air at 50oC

m2 r
Reynold's Number at trailing edge
v L 5
eL

5
e

Since R e L R ecr , the flow is laminar at the trailing edge.

i) Velocity boundary layer thickness

5LR
5

Surface shear stress

Local drag coefficient at the trailing edge

Surface shear stress

2
w x L fx ction
2
 2
2
w x L

Heat flux at the trailing edge of the plate

Local Nusselt number at the trailing edge

ux x L eL r

x x
ux

2
x

Heat flux at trailing edge

q h T T
2

ii) Drag force

Fd w As

Average heat transfer coefficient

2
avg x

Average heat transfered

avg avg w
2
avg

2. Air at 30oC flows with a velocity of 10m/s along a flat plate 4m long. The plate is maintained
at a uniform temperature of 130oC. Assuming a critical Reynolds number of 2 × 105 and
width of plate to be 1m, determine, i) the heat flux at trailing edge of the plate, ii) The
heat transfer from the laminar portion of the plate, iii) The total heat transfer from the
turbulent portion of the plate.
o o 5
Data: w e cx laminar

turbulent total
 V
T C
o Tw C
o

Tw T
f
2 2
o

o
f

Heat transfer from Laminar portion

Length of the plate for which laminar flow occurs is given by
5
e cr

ection
ux ex r

ux

h L

hx
2

Average heat transfer coefficient for laminar portion

2

multiply h x by the reciprocal of power of Reynolds No. to obtain h avg

Heat transfer from Laminar portion
Q h A T T
h bL T T

laminar

Heat transfer from turbulent portion

 Length of the plate for turbulent flow
L L L
2

Re ynolds Number
v L2 5
e L2

Since R e L2 R e cr , flow is turbulent

ux 2 ex 2 r

h x2 L2

x2

2
x2

Average heat transfer coefficient

2
avg 2 x2

Heat transfer from turbulent portion

Q turbulent h avg 2 As 2 Tw T

Heat fulx at the trailing edge

Qlaminar Qturbulent
q
A A
2

3. The surface temperature of a thin flat plate located parallel to an air stream is 90oC. The
free stream velocity is 60m/s and the air temperature is 10oC. Assuming the transition
Reynolds number as 4 × 105, determine, i) the average heat transfer coefficient in laminar
and turbulent regions, ii) The rate of heat transfer for the entire plate considering both
sides of the plate.
Assume the plate is 60cm wide and 45cm long in the direction of air stream
The correlations for local Nusselt number are given by
Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 for laminar flow
 Nux = 0.0288 Rex0.8 Pr1/3 for turbulent flow
o o 5
Data:
ux ex r ux ex r or turbulent flow

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

Heat transfer coefficient in Laminar region

5

ux ex r

u .52
hL

Heat transfer rate Q hA T T

laminar

Heat transfer coefficient in turbulent region

Length of plate in which turbulent flow occurs

vL 2
Reynolds Number R e L2
5

ux ex r

uavg ux

h 2L2

2
 2
2

Heat transfer rate Q turbulent h 2 A 2 Tw T

Total heat transfer rate from both sides

Q 2 Qlaminar Q turbulent

4. Water flows over a flat plate measuring 1m × 1m with a velocity of 2m/s. The plate is at a
uniform temperature of 90oC and the water temperature is 10oC. Estimate the length of
the plate over which the flow is laminar and the rate of heat transfer from the entire part.
Data: o o

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

r
5
e cr

i Length of the plate over which flow is laminar

v L 5 2 L
e cr

, forced convection we get

ux ex r

ux

u ux

h L

Heat transfer rate from laminar portion

Q hA T T
 ii Heat transfer rate from turbulent portion
Length of plate over which flow is turbulent

v L2 5
e L2

w , we have
ux e L2 r

Nu

2 2 2
u

2
2

Q turbulent h2 As2 Tw T

iii Total heat transfer rate from the entire length both the surface
Q 2 Q laminar Q turbulent

5. Atmospheric air at 275 K and free stream velocity 20 m/s flows over a flat plate of length
1.5 m long maintained at 325 K. Calculate :
i. The average heat transfer coefficient over the region where the boundary layer is
laminar.
ii. Find the total heat transfer over the entire length 1.5 m of the plate.
iii. Calculate the total transfer rate from the plate to the air over the length of 1.5 m and
width 1m. Assume transition occurs at a Reynolds number 2 x 105. Take air properties
at mean temperature of 300 K.
K=0.026 W/m0 -6
m2 -5
kg/m-s VTU June 2014
Data : w la min ar total total

5
Length of the plate for Laminar Flow
L
R ecr

Average heat transfer coefficient over the Laminar region

2
ux ex r

5 2

Average heat transfer over entire plate

Length of plate for turbulent flow

L2 5 5
e

Flow is turbulent
For turbulent flow

ux 2 e2 r

u2

h 2 L2 2e
u2

2
2

Average heat treansfer rate for the entire plate length

Q total Q laminar Q turbulent
hA T T h A T T
hA h A T T
6. Air at a pressure of 8kN/m2 and the temperature of 78oC flows over a flat plate 0.3m long
at a velocity of 8m/s. If the plate is maintained at temperature of 250oC, estimate the rate
of heat to be removed continuously from the plate.
o o
Data: w
2
2
2

o
f
2
o 2
f

r
2

2
2 2

Now, we have
p
p
p
2

v L 5
Re
2
5
e gth of the plate.

ux ex r

u ux e r

hL

Total heat removed both the surfaces

s w

7. A rectangular plate is 120cm long in the direction of flow and 200cm wide. The plate is
maintained at 80oC when placed in nitrogen that has a velocity of 2.5m/s and a temperature
of 0oC. Determine. i) the average heat transfer coefficient, ii) Total heat transfer from the
plate.
 o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o

v L 5
Re
5
e length
Cp Cp
r

i Average heat transfer coefficient

w forced convection
ux ex r

Average Nusselt Number

u ex r

hL
u

Rate of heat transfer from the plate From one side

Q hA Tw T

8. Engine oil at 25oC is forced over a 30cm × 20cm plate at a velocity of 1.5m/s. The flow is
parallel to the 30cm side of the plate which is heated to a uniform temperature of 55oC.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer from the plate to the oil.
Data: o o

Tw T 55 25 o
f
2 2
o

Since Pr is very high, the correlation become

 ex r
N ux
forced convection
Pr
v L
ex 5

N ux

hx L

x 2
x

2
avg x

Heat transfer rate from plate to oil

s w

9. Air at 20oC and 1atm flows over a flat plate at 40m/s. The plate is 80cm long and is
maintained at 60oC. Assuming unit depth in Z-direction, calculate the heat transfer rate
from the plate.
o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f r are
p

v L 5
ReL 5

5
eL er

ux e r tion
5

N ux
u
 h L

Heat transfer rate

Q hAs Tw T

10. Air at 0oC and a free stream velocity of 20m/s, flows over a flat plate of 1.5m long, which
is maintained at a uniform temperature of 50oC. Calculate the following, i) the average
heat transfer coefficient over the region where the boundary layer is laminar assuming
the critical Reynolds Number 2 × 105, ii) Average heat transfer coefficient over the entire
length of the plate, iii) The total heat transfer rate from the plate to air per unit width of
the plate. V T U Jan - 2006
o o 5
Data:
Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

i Heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer rate of laminar part

5

the leading edge

low
u ux ex r

Heat transfer rate Q hA T T

ii Average heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer rate over the entire length of the plate
Reynolds Number for the entire length of plate
 v L 5
eL

u r eL

h avg L

avg

2
avg

The total heat transfer rate from the plate

Q h avg A s Tw T

11. Air at atmospheric pressure and temperature 30oC flows with a velocity of 1.5m/s along
the plate of 70oC. Find, i) distance from the leading edge of the plate where transition
begins from laminar to turbulent flow, ii) The drag force acting per m width of the plate
over the distance from the leading edge to the transition starts. Assume transition Re as
5 × 105. V T U Jan - 2008 (06)
o 5 o
Data: d e cr w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

Air

L
i Length of the plate over which flow is laminar
v L
R e cr

e leading edge
 ed convection

Surface shear stress v2 C

2

Drag force Fd w As

12. Air at 20 C is flowing along a heated plate at 134oC and at a velocity of 3m/s. The heat
o

transfer from the first 40cm from the leading edge of the plate is 1.45kW. Determine the
width of the plate. Use Nux = 0.332 Re0.5 Pr0.333. V T U Dec 2010 (02)
Data: w

ux er r

Tw T
f
2 2
o

o
f

v L 5
ReL
5
eL

ux er r

u ux

h L
 2

Q h b L Tw T

13. Air at 20oC and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2m/s. Calculate the boundary
layer thickness at a distance of 40cm from the leading edge of the plate.
Data: o VTU Dec - 2011 (02)
o

v L
Re ynolds number R e L
5

5
eL

d convection

14. Air at standard conditions of 760mm of Hg at 20oC flows over a flat plate at 3m/s. The
plate is 50cm × 25cm. Find the heat lost per/h if air flow is parallel to 50cm side of
the plate. If 25cm is kept parallel to the flow, what will be the effect on heat transfer?
Temperature of the plate is 100oC. V T U Dec - 2011 (06)
o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o

i Heat lost from the plate when flow is parallel t

v L 5
eL

5
eL

ux ex r
 5
u ux

h L

s w

ii Heat lost from the plate when flow is parallel

5
eL

u ux ex r

Nu

s w

ide.
15. Air at 30 C flows with a velocity of 2.8m/s over a plate 1000mm × 600mm × 25mm. The
o

top surface of the plate is maintained at 90oC. If the thermal conductivity of the plate is
25W/moC. Calculate
i) Heat lost by the plate
ii) Bottom temperature of the plate for the steady state condition.
Data: o
w
o
plate
o

bottom

Tw T o
f
2 2
o

i Heat lost by the plate

Reynold's number at the trailing edge
 v L 5
eL

5
eL

u ux eL r

Nu
hL

2o

Heat lost by the plate Q hAs Tw T

ii Bottom temperature of the plate

Heat lost by the plate is conducted from bottom to top.
Tw Tbottom
plate

bottom

o
bottom

16. Air at a temperature of 200, flows over a flat plate at 3 m/s. The plate is 50cm x 25 cm.
Find the heat lost per hour if air flow is parallel to 50 cm side of the plate. If 25 cm side is
kept parallel to the air flow, what will be the effect on heat transfer? Temperature of the
plate is 1000 C. VTU Dec/Jan 2015
Ans. T w
C

f
2
f

Pr operties of air are

r

Heat transfer rate when 50cm side is parallel to heat flow

v 5 5
e

Flow is laminar

ux er r
 u ux

h L
u

Heat transfer rate when 25cm side is parallel to heat flow

5 5
e

Flow is laminar

ux er r

u ux

h L
u

Heat transfer rate is more in latter case.

17. Air at 27oC and 1 atm pressure flows over a heated plate with a velocity of 2m/s. The plate
is at uniform temperature of 60oC. Calculate the heat transfer rate from first 0.2m length
of the plate. (VTU Dec 2017 / Jan 2018)
Data : T o
w
o

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

5
e

Flow is laminar

un e r

x x
un

2
x
 2
x

18. Air at velocity 3m/s and 20oC flows over a flat plate along its length. The length, width
and thickness of the plate are 100cm, 50cm and 2cm respectively. The top surface of the
plate is maintained at 100oC. Calculate the heat lost by the plate and temperature of
bottom surface of the plate for the steady state condition. The thermal conductivity of
plate may be taken as 23 W/mK. (VTU Dec 2017 / Jan 2018)
Data : v o o

Tbottom plate
T T o
f
2 2
o
f

v L 5 5
e

Flow is laminar
over plates

u e r

2
u

Temperature at the bottom surface of plate

plate bottom T bottom
Q
o
bottom

19. Air at a free stream temperature T and velocity U flows over a flat plate maintained
at a constant temperature Tw. Dimensions of the flat plate is 50 cm x 25 cm. Compare
the heat transfer co-efficient when the flow direction is along 50 cm side and 25 cm side.
Assume laminar flow over entire plate. VTU June/July 2015
Ans. For Laminar flow
u e r

u L
u r

u L
u 25 r
 u
r

u
5 Pr
Nu
Nu 25 u
r

N
N u 25

25 25

20. A refrigerated truck is moving on a highway at 90km/hr in a desert area, where the
ambient air temperature is 50°C. The body of the truck is a rectangular box measuring
10m (length) × 4m(width) × 3m(height). Assume that the boundary layer on the four
walls is turbulent. The heat transfer takes place only from the four surfaces and the
wall surfaces of the truck is maintained at 10°C. Neglecting heat transfer from front and
back and assuming flow to be parallel to 10m long side, calculate : i) A heat lost from
the four surfaces ii) The power required to overcome the resistance acting on the four
surfaces. The properties of air (at tf = 30°C) are: = 1.165kg/m3 , Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg °C , K
= 0.02673W/m °C , = 16 × 10–6 m2/S , Pr = 0.701. VTU Dec 2015 / Jan 2016
Ans. o
C, l
Turbulent flow, Tw o

T T o
f
2 2
o
f

r p

5
e

ux e r

hx L

2
x

2
 Q hA s T Tw
h 2 l b l h T Tw

Total drag force

v2 As
FD Cf
2
But Cf 2.5 fx e

2
25
D
2

Power required
P Fd v

21. Air at 20°C flows past a 800 mm long plate at velocity of 45 m/sec. If the surface of the plate
is maintained at 300°C. Determine (i) The heat transferred from the entire plate length to
air taking into consideration both laminar and turbulent portion of the boundary layer.
(ii) The percentage error if the boundary layer is assumed to be of turbulent nature from
the very leading edge of the plate. Assume unit width of the plate and critical Reynolds
number to be 5 × 105. [VTU June/July 2016]
Data : T o o
C, Qtotal

Tw T o
f
2 2
Properties of air at Tf C,are m2 r
Case (i) Heat transfer rate considering laminar and turbulent flows
Length of laminar portion
v L
R ec

5
For Laminar flow
2
ux ex r

5 2

u ux

hL
Nu

Q hA T T

Heat transfer from turbulent portion

Length of turbulent portion
L2
v L2 5
eL

ux ex r

u u2

2 2 2
u

2
2

Q turbulent h 2 AS2 Tw T

Q Q Q Q
Case (ii) Heat transfer when boundary layer is considering as turbulent throughout
v L 5
e

ux ex r

Q2 hA S Tw T

Q Q2
%error
Q
 Problems on Flow across Cylinders
1. A metallic bar of 25mm dia, carrying electric current is cooled by air at 30oC, cross
flowing past the bar with a velocity of 2.5m/s. If the surface temperature of the bar is not
to exceed 85oC. Calculate, i) Heat transfer coefficient, ii) Heat transfer rate for 1m length
of bar. V T U July - 2009 (06)
Data: o
C, v w
o

L
Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

v d
ed

i Heat transfer coefficient

F ed convection
u ed r

hd

ii Heat transfer rate Q hAs Tw T

2. Air at 1atm pressure and temperature 25oC flowing with a velocity 50m/s crosses an
industrial heater made of long solid rod of dia 20mm. The surface temperature of the
heater is 475oC. Determine the allowable electrical power density (W/m3) within the
heater per m length. V T U June - 2008 (06)
Data: o
w
o

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
 r

v d
ed

ed

Nu C R ed Pr

Heat transfer rate from the heater

Q h dL Tw T

Q
Allowable power density
V

, C = 900kJ/kgK) of
3

diameter 1cm is installed in a duct in which air moves in cross flow over the heating
element at a temperature of 27oC with a velocity of 10m/s. Estimate the steady state
surface temperature of heater when electrical energy is being generated at a rate of
1000W/m length of the cylinder.
Data: o
C, Tw
Air v

L
Since Tw
Hence, the problem is solved by trial and error method.
Trial 1:
Calculations are started by using the properties of air at T .
o

r
 v d
ed

arge due to temperature var iation,

u ed ed r

hd
u

Now Q h dL Tw T
w
o
w

Trial 2:
Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

v d
ed

2
h
Q h dL Tw T
w
o
w

Trial 3:
Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

ed
 u

Q h dL Tw T
w
o
w
Trial 4:
o
f
2
o
f

ed

2
h
Q h dL Tw T

w
o
w

w w terations can be stopped at this stage.

o

4. Assuming that a man can be represented by a cylinder of 30cm diameter and 1.7m high
with a surface temperature of 30oC, calculate the heat he would lose while standing in
36km/h wind at 10oC.
o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

r
 v D 5
ed

u ed r

ed

u ed r

h D

The rate of heat lost by the man

Q h DL Tw T

5. Assuming a mass as a cylinder of 4cm diameter and 1.72m high, with a surface temperature
of 37oC, calculate heat lost from its body while placing it in wind flowing at 20km/h at
17oC. Use the relation NuD = 0.027 ReD0.805 Pr1/3. V T U Dec - 2011 (02)
Data: w
o o

uD eD r

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

v D 5
R ed

u ed r

h D
 2

Heat lost by the cylinder

w

6. Air at 30oC is flowing across a tube with a velocity of 25m/s. The tube would be either
a square with a side of 5cm or a circular cylinder of dia 5cm. Compare the rate of heat
transfer in each case if the tube surface temperature is maintained at 124oC.
o o
w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

v D
ed

i Circular tube of diamter 5cm

Nu C R ed Pr
ed

u ed r
Data:

h D

Rate of heat transfer

w

ii Square tube of 5 cm side

s

u ed r
 2

2 D
Rate of heat transfer
w

Qcirular
square

7. Air at 27oC is moving at 0.3m/s across a 100W electric bulb at 127oC. If the bulb is
approximated as a 10cm dia and 1m high, estimate the heat transfer rate and percentage
of power loss due to convection. V T U Feb - 2003
Data: o
w
o

o
f
2
o
f
5 2
r

v D
ed 5

Nu C R e d Pr
ed

u ed r

h D

Heat transfer rate Q h DL Tw T

' ' Indicates that there is a heat loss or power lo

8. Air stream at 27oC moving at 0.3m/s across 100W incandescent bulb glow at 127oC. If the
bulb is approximated by a 60mm diameter sphere, estimate the heat transfer rate and the
percentage of power lost due to convection. Use Nu = 0.37 Re0.6. V T U Dec - 2010 (06)
Data: o
w
o

u e

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
5 2
r

v D
R ed 5

u e

h D

Heat transfer rate Q hAs Tw T

2
w
2
 Problems on Flow through pipes (Internal flows)
1. Air flows through a 10cm internal diameter tube at the rate of 75kg/h. Measurements
indicate that at a particular point in the tube the pressure and temperature of air are 1.5
bar and 325oC. Make calculations for the heat transfer rate from 1m length in the region
of this point. The correlation for turbulent flow in the tube is Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4 Fluid
properties to be calculated at bulk temperature. Assume tube wall temperature as 375oC.
Data: b u R e Pr
o
w
o
b

vD
R ed

But volume flow rate V av

a a 2

ed

ed

u ed r ion

Heat transfer rate

s w

2. Within a condenser cell, water flows through 100 thin walled circular tubes (dia = 22.5mm,
length = 5m) which have been arranged in parallel. The mass flow rate of water is 65kg/s
and its inlet and outlet temperatures are known to be 22 and 28oC. Predict the average
convection coefficient associated with water flow.
Data: o o

T T
b
2
25o C
2
o
b

Cp
r

vD V D m
Reynolds number R e d
A A D2 Dm

ed

t condition
u ed r

h D

3. Liquid mercury flows through a copper tube of 2cm inner diameter at the rate of 1.25kg/s.
The mercury enters at 15oC and is heated to 25oC as it passes through the tube. Determine
the tube length which would satisfy the conditions of a constant heat flux at the wall
which is at an average temperature of 40oC. Assume the following correlation for liquid
metal Nu = 7 + 0.025 Pe0.8, Pe = Pecelet number.
Data: 25 P
T T
b
2
o

2
o
b C
p r

Heat gained by the mercury

R ed

u e

ed r

h D

Length of the tube :

s b w

4. 1000kg/h of cream cheese at 15oC is pumped through 1.5m length, 8cm inner diameter
tube which is maintained at 50oC. Estimate the temperature of cheese leaving the heated
section and the rate of heat transfer from the tube to the cheese. The relevant thermo
physical properties of cheese are
3 2
, C = 2750J/kgK, K= 0.42W/mK. Use the following relation
for laminar flow inside a tube.
d
e r
L
u
d
e r
L
 o o
Data:

ed

Cp
r

D
e r
L
u
D
e r
L

h D

Heat gained by the cheese convective heat flow from the tube to cheese
mC T T hA T T

2
2
2
Simplifing, we get
o
2

5. Lubricating oil at a temperature of 60oC enters a 1cm diameter tube with a velocity of
2.5m/s. The tube surface is maintained at 30oC. Calculate the length of tube required to
cool the oil to 45o 3
,
–3
kg/ms, C= 1.6kJ/kgK,K= 0.12W/[Link] Nu= 0.023 Re Pr . VTU Aug - 2001
0.8 0.4

Data:
p u R e Pr

ed
 Cp
r

u e r

h D

Heat flow rate Q mC T T

es place
Again Q hA s Tb Tw
T T
h DL Tw
2

6. Air at atmospheric pressure and 100oC enters a 2m long tube of 4cm dia with a velocity
of 9m/s. A 1kW electric heater is wound on the outer surface of the tube. Find, i) Exit
temperature of air, ii) Mass flow rate of air, iii) Wall temperature. Assume that the rate
of heat absorption by air / unit area is uniform throughout the length of the tube. Take
for air R = 0.28kJ/kgK, Cp = 1.005kJ/kgK.
Data: o

p
o

2
 ii Exit temperature of air
Q mC T T

2
o
2

iii Surface temperature of the tube

T T o
b
2 2
o
b

ed

ed

u ed r

h D

Now Q h As Tw Tb
w
o
w

7. Air at 2atm and 200oC is heated as it flows at a velocity of 12m/s through a tube with a
diameter of 3cm. A constant heat flux condition is maintained at the wall and the wall
temperature is 20oC above the air temperature all along the length of the tube. Calculate,
i) Heat transfer per unit length of tube, ii) Increase in bulk temperature of air over a 4m
length.
Properties of air at 200oC are Pr –5
kg/m-s, K=0.0386W/mK,
C = 1.025kJ/kgK.
o
Data:
o 5
w r

Density of air at p 2atm

 vD
R ed 5

ed

u e r

hD

i Heat transfer rate

Temperature of air all along the length of the tube is same
i.e., T T
T T o
b
2
Heat transfer rate Q hAs Tw Tb

Now Q m p b v

o
b

8. Consider the flow of water at a rate of 0.015kg/s through a square duct 2cm × 2cm whose
walls are maintained at a uniform temperature of 100oC. Assuming that the flow is
thermodynamically and thermally developed, determine the length of the duct required
to heat water from 30oC to 70oC. V T U Jan - 2006
o o o
Data:
T T o
b
2 2
o
b
 r p

m Av
2

vDh
R e Dh

vD h

e Dh

ith laminar fully developed

u

Heat transfer rate Q mC T T

Also Q hAs Tw Tb

9. Water is heated while flowing through 1.5cm × 3.5cm rectangular cross-section tube
at a velocity of 10m/s. The entering temperature of water is 40oC and the tube wall is
maintained at 100oC. Determine the length of the tube required in order to raise the
temperature of water by 40oC. V T U Dec - 2010 (02)
Data: o o o

T T o
b
2 2
o

r p

Hydraulid diamet h
 vD h 5
e Dh

e Dh

u eDh r

Nu
h Dh

Heat transfer rate Q mC T T

Also Q hA s Tw T
5

L 5.
10. Air at a temperature of 20oC flows through a rectangular duct with a velocity of 10m/s.
The duct is 30cm × 20cm in size and air leaves at 34oC. Find the heat gained by the air
when it is passed through 10m long duct. Also determine heat transfer coefficient.
V T U June - 2011 (06)
o o

T T o
Data: b
2 2
o
b

r p

Hydra h

vD h 5
e Dh

e Dh

u eDh r

5
 h Dh

2
2

Heat transfer rate

Q mC T T

11. Water at a velocity of 1.5m/s enters a 2cm dia heat exchanger tube at 40oC. The heat
exchanger tube wall is maintained at 100oC. If the water is heated to a temperature of
80oC in the heat exchanger tube, find the length of the exchanger tube required.
V T U June - 2010 (06)
o o o
Data:
T T o
b
2 2
o
b

r p

Re ynolds numbe ed

ed

u ed r

h D
u

Length of the heat exchanger tube :

Heat transfer rate Q mC T T
 2

Also Q hA s Tw Tb

12. Water at 25oC flows through a tube of 50mm diameter. Determine the flow rate that
will result in a Reynolds number of 1600. The tube is provided with a nichrome heating
element on its surface and receives a constant heat flux of 800W/m length of the tube.
Determine the average heat transfer coefficient between the water and the tube wall
assuming fully developed conditions. Also determine the length of the tube for the bulk
temperature of water to rise from 25oC to 50oC. VTU Dec - 2010 (06)
Data: o o

T T o
b
2 2
o
b C
r p

ii Average heat transfer coefficient

eD

For fully developed flow with constant heat flux

u ,
h D

iii Length of heat exchanger tube

Heat transfer rate for the total length of the tube
 Q mC T T

Length of the tube rquired

Total heat transfer rate
L
Heat trans

13. 50kg of water per minute is heated from 30oC to 50oC by passing through a pipe of
2cm diameter. The pipe is heated by condensing the steam on its surface at 100oC. Find
the length of pipe required. Take for water of 40o 3
, K = 0.585W/mK,
Cp m /s.
–6 2
V T U June - 2011 (06)
Data: o o o

o
b
2
2

vD
Reynold's number, R e D

eD

u eD r

Cp
u r

Cp

Heat transfer rate Q mC T T

 Also, Q hA s Tw Tb

14. A surface condenser consists of 200 thin walled circular tubes (each tube is 22.5mm
diameter and 5m long) arranged in parallel, through which water flows. If the mass flow
rate of water through the tube bank is 160kg/s and its inlet and outlet temperatures are
known to be 21oC and 29oC respectively, calculate the average heat transfer coefficient
associated with flow of water. VTU June - 2012 (06)
o o
Data:
o
b
2
o
Properties of water at Tb 25 C
r p

eD

eD

u eD r

15. In a staggered tube bank, water is passed through the tubes while the air is passed
in cross flow over the tubes. There are seven rows of tubes in the air flow direction.
The temperature and velocity of air are 15oC and 6m/s. The longitudinal and transverse
pitches are both equal to 20.5mm. The tube outside diameter is 16.4mm. Calculate the
air side heat transfer coefficient and the pressure drop across the tube bundle. The tube
surface temperature is 70oC.
o o
Data: t l w C
o
f
2
 o
f

2 2
2 St
Diagnal pitch Sd S l
2

2 2
2

St
max
t

v max D
e max

Sl St

of tubes
n

St Sl
D D

Pressure drop
v 2max
P Nf g
2

e max
Sl D
D
 2

2
2

16. Air flow at a rate of 0.314m3/s over across flow heat exchanger consisting of 7 tubes in the
direction of flow and 8 tubes in the direction perpendicular to flow arrange in an inline
fashion. The length of each tube is 1.25m and its outer diameter is 1.9cm. The longitudinal
and transverse pitches are 38mm and 28.6mm. The temperature of air entering the heat
exchanger is 200oC and the tube surface temperature is 96oC. Estimate the convective
heat transfer coefficient between the air and the tubes.
l t
Data: o
w

T Tw o
f
2 2
o
f

V V
v max
minimum area of flow Area of flow ahead of tubes Projected area of tubes

max

v max D
e max 5

Sl St

n
Now N C R P C
Sl St
For inline a
D D

u
 h D

17. Water flows at a velocity of 12m/s in a straight tube of 60mm diameter. The tube
surface temperature is maintained at 70°C and the flowing water is heated from the in
let temperature of 15°C to an outlet temperature of 45°C. Taking the physical properties
of water at the mean bulk temperate of 30°C as = 995.7kg/m3 , Cp = 4.174 kJ/kg K, K =
0.61718 W/m K , = 0.805 × 10–6 m2/s and Pr = 5.42. Calculate i) heat transfer coefficient
from the tube surface to the water ii) the heat transferred and iii) the length of the tube.
VTU Dec 2016 / Jan 2017
Data : v w
o
C, T o
C, T2 o
C
, CP m2
Pr
o
b
2
v d v d
ed

ed

u ed r

Heat transfer rateQ mC T T

Av C T T

Q hAS Tw Tb

18. Hot air at atmospheric pressure and 80°C enters an 8 m long uninsulated square duct of
cross section 0.2m x 0.2 m that passes through the attic of a house at a rate at 0.15 m3/s.
The duct is observed to be nearly isothermal at 60°C. Determine the exit temperature of
the air and the rate of heat loss from the duct to the attic space. VTU June/July 2015
Ans. T o

o
w 2
o

v Dh
e

S e

u e r

hD h

T T
Q mC T T hA T
2
T T
AVC T T hA T
2
2
2
2
o
2
2. Explain the significance of following
i) Nusselt Number
ii) Reynold's Number
iii) Prandtle Number
iv) Stanton Number
v) Peclet Number
o
C. o

Calculate the amount of heat transferred per m width from both sides of the plate over a

[Ans: 7850.9W]
o

laminar or turbulent boundary layer. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over the
surface under these conditions.

o
C and the air temperature
is 5 C. Compute the heat loss.
o

C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer for the value of critical

o

5 5
.
o

o
C, when the air is in cross flow over the

o
C and is exposed to atmospheric air at
o

o
C and the flowing water is heated from the inlet temperature
o o
C. Calculate the following.
i) The heat transfer coefficient from the tube surface to the water
ii) The length of the tube
[Ans: 29714.9W/m2oC, 17.479m]
o

temperature of wire.

o o

o
C. Determine the average heat transfer

o
C. Assume hydrodynamically developed flow, determine the tube length required to heat
o
C.
[Ans: 5m]

mass flow rate through the pipe line.

temperature of water.
[Ans: 72oC]

the tube at 25o o

C, determine the total heat transfer to the oil
and oil outlet temperature.

C. Determine the temperature of air

o

at the end of the manifold.

C and after getting heated it leaves the tube at 25oC. Calculate

o

the tube length for constant heat flux at the wall which is maintained at an average temperature
o
C.
[Ans: 0.437m]
4.11 INTRODUCTION
Free or Natural convection is the process of heat transfer which occurs due to movement of the
fluid particles by density change, associated with temperature differential in a fluid.
Examples:
i) Cooling of transmission lines, electric transformers and rectifiers.
ii) The heating of rooms by the use of radiators.
iii) Architectural projects, roads and concrete structures.
iv) Furnaces
In free convection, the flow velocities encountered are lower compared to flow velocities in forced
convection, consequently the values of convection coefficient is lower. Hence, for a given rate of heat
transfer, large area could be required. As there is no need for additional devices to force the liquid, this
mode is used for heat transfer in simple devices which have to be left unattended for long periods.
4.11.1 Application of dimensional analysis for free convection

Heat
L
Tw
Hot
surface

Fluid
T
The different variables affecting on the behavior of natural convection heat transfer are

iii) Specific heat of fluid, CP

iv) Fluid thermal conductivity, K
v) Acceleration due to the gravity, g

viii) Significant length, L

ix) Heat transfer coefficient, h
p

1 2 3
Repeating Variables L, , , K
Geometirc property L
Flow property
Fluid property between hot and cold particles.)
Thermal property K
Dimensions of variables
3 3

2 1 1

2 2 1
p
2 1 2

3 1

T oC
L m L
2 3 1
h
Now 1 La1 b1 c1
K d1 T
2 La 2 b2 c2
Kd2 g
3 La 3 b3 c3
K c3C p
L K h
a1 b1 c1 d1
1 L K T
b1 c1 d1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1

T 1 1

From iv d1 1
1 1 1 1

1 1

a1 2
2 2 3
1 L K1 T
L2 2 K T
3
 2 La 2 b2 c2
Kd2 g
b2 c2 d2

2 2 2

2 2 2 2

2 2

From iv d 1
2 2

2 2

2 2

2 L K g
L g
2
K
a3 b3 c3
3 L K d3Cp
b3 c3 d3

3 3 3

3 3 3 3

3 3

From iv d3 1
3 3

3 3

3 3

3 L K Cp
Cp
3
K
L K h
 iii

From iv d 1

L K h
hL
K
1 2
)
always appear together as a single dimension - less group. The parameter so formed is called
Grashoff Number.
L2 2 K T L g L3 2
i.e., G r 1 2 3 2
g T
K
L3 g T
Gr 2

The terms and are called Prandtle and Nusselt numbers

Cp
3 Prandtle number Pr
K
hL
Nusselt number N
K
L3 g T Cp hL
2
K K
r r u

or N u G r Pr
Nu C G rn1 Prn 2 where, C, n1 and n 2 are constants

or N u G r Pr
Nu C G rn1 Prn 2 where, C, n1 and n 2 are constants
4.11.2 Significance of Dimensionless Numbers
1) Grashoff Number (Gr): It indicates the relative strength of buoyant force to viscous force.
L3 2 g T
Gr 2
L3 g T 2

v 2 L2
L3 g T 2
vL

Iniertia force
2
viscous force
Grashoff number represents the ratio of product of the buoyant and inertia forces to the square
of the viscous force. Grashoff number has a roll in free convection similar to that played by
Reynolds number in forced convection. Free convection is usually suppressed at sufficiently
small Grashoff numbers begins at some critical value of Gr and then becomes more and more
effective as Gr increases.
Correlation for Free or Natural convection
The basic equation developed from dimensional analysis for use in determining the value of
convection coefficient h is
Nu P
r r r
a
Prb
The constants C, a, b, are depends upon the nature of flow (laminar or turbulent), geometrical
configuration (Plate or cylinder) and its orientation (vertical or horizontal)
Fluid properties are calculated at the mean film temperature.
Correlation for horizontal plates, cylinders and wires
wn

u r r

r r

u r r

r r

up

u r r nar flow
r r

u r r

r r

L
D
u r r

r r
 u r r

r r

pipes

u r r

The characteristic length is the cylinder diameter

u r r

Characteristic lenght is the wire diameter

6 Vertical plates and cylinders

u r r

r r
y3
u r r

r r

The charateristic length is the vertical dimension of plate or cylinder.

off number by cos , where is angle of
inclination from the vertical and use vertical plate constants

u r r

r r
 SOLVED PROBLEMS
NOTE: Heat and Mass transfer data book by C. P. Kothandaraman is used for solving problems.
1. A circular plate of 25cm diameter with both surfaces maintained at a uniform
temperature of 100oC is suspended horizontally in atmospheric air at 20oC. Determine
the heat transfer from the plate.
Data: w
o o

D2
C

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 1 3

Tf
3 3
L C3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

6 6
r r

When heated surface is facing upward with constant wall temperature

6
u r r r r

h top L
K
top

2
top

When heated surface facing downward

u r r r r on
6

h bottom L
K
bottom
 2
bottom

Total heat transferred from the plate

top bottom
2
D
Tw T h top h bottom
2

2. An electrically heated plate (vertical) of size 25cm × 25cm is insulated on one side and
dissipates heat from the other surface at a constant rate of 600W/m2 by free convection
into atmospheric air at 30oC. Determine the surface temperature of plate.
o 2
Data: w

Since Tw is not given the above problem is solved by trial and error method by assuiming
suitable value of Tw .
o
Trail 1 : w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 1 3

f 2

g qx
Grashoff number G r for constant heat flux
K 2

6 2

6.
r r

r r

u x r r

hL
u
K
 2

q h Tw T

2
Since q is sma higher value for Tw .
o
Trial 2 : w

o
f
2
1 3

o
f
6 2
r
3
g qx
Gr
K 2 6 2

r r

u r r

w
2 2

o
Trial 3 : w

o
f
2
o
f
6 2
r

1 3

Gt
6 2
 r r

2 2

o
Trial 4 : w

o
f
2
1 3

o
f
6 2
r

Gr
6 2

r r

2
The above valu
o

3. Calculate the convection heat loss from a radiator 0.5m wide and 1m high maintained at
a temperature of 84oC in a room at 20oC. Treat the radiator as a vertical plate.
VTU June - 2011 (02)
 o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 1 3

f
3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

u r r

h L
u
K

2
h
Heat loss from the radiator
s w

4. A hot plate 1m × 0.5m at 180oC is kept in still air at 20oC. Find, i) Heat transfer coefficient,
ii) Initial rate of cooling of the plate, iii) Time required for cooling from 180oC to 80oC, if
the heat transfer is due to convection only. Mass of the plate is 20kg, specific heat is 400J/
kgoC. Assume that 0.5m side is vertical. VTU Dec - 2011 (02)
Data: w
o o

o o
i

o
f
2
o
f
3 6 2
r p
 1 3

3
ii Heat transfer coefficient
3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

r r

u r r

ii Initial rate of cooling

Rate of decrease of internal energy Rate of heat convection from the plate
dT
mC p hA s Tw T
dt
dT
dt
dT o o

dt
o

hAs t hAs t
T T VC
e e mc
Ti T

5. A square plate (0.5m × 0.5m) with one surface insulated and the other surface maintained
at temperature of 885K is placed in ambient air at a temperature of 315K. Calculate the
average heat transfer coefficient for free convection for the following orientations of the
hot surface.
i) The plate is horizontal and hot surface faces up
ii) The plate is horizontal and hot surface faces down. VTU Jan - 2010 (06)
Data: w

Tw T
f
2 2
1 3

f
6 2
r

Characteristic length LC
P
L3C g T
Grashoff No. G r 2

3 3

6 2

6 6
r r

i Hot surface facing up

u r r r r

h LC
K

ii Hot surface facing down

u r r

h LC
K

2
6. A horizontal plate 1m × 0.8m is kept in a water tank with the top surface at 60oC providing
heat to warm stagnant water at 20oC. Determine the value of convection coefficient.
Repeat the problem for heating on bottom surface. VTU June - 2010 (06)
o o 2
Data: w s

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 3

3 3
L3C g T
r 2 6 2

i Hot surface facing up

r r

u r r

11

h LC
K

ii Hot surface facing down

u r r

11

163.36
h LC
163.36
K
h
2

7. Consider an electrically heated plate 25cm × 25cm in which the surface is thermally
insulated and the other surface is dissipating heat by free convection into atmospheric
 air at 30oC. The heat flux over the surface is uniform and results in mean temperature of
50oC. The plate is inclined at 50o from the vertical. Determine the heat loss for (i) heated
surface facing up, (ii) heated surface facing downward.
o o
Data: w

For inclined plate with cons tan t heat flux, properties are evaluated at
e w w
o

o
o
e
6 2
r

1 1 3

3 3
L3 T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

For the inclined plate heated surface facing upward

u r r tion

36.3
h L
36.3
K
36.3
2
top

top top s w
2

When the heated surface facing down wards

u r r on

h bottom L 2
bottom

bottom bottom s w
2
8. A Nuclear reactor with its core constructed of parallel vertical plates 2.25m high and
1.5m wide has been designed in free convection heating of liquid bismuth. Metallurgical
consideration limit the maximum surface temperature of the plate to 975oC and the
lowest allowable temperature of bismuth is 325oC. Estimate the maximum possible heat
dissipation from both sides of each plate.
The appropriate correlation for the convection coefficient is Nu = 0.13 (Gr Pr)1/3.
VTU Jan - 2008 (06)
o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

1 1 3

Cp
Pr
K
3 2 3
L3 2
g T
Gr 2 2

13

13 12
r r

hL
u r r
K
12

2o

For both sides

s

9. A vertical plate is under free convection with ambient still air at 20oC. If the plate is
heated from one side and maintained at 30oC workout the local heat transfer coefficient
at 20cm from the lower edge. What would be the average value of coefficient over the
20cm length? Use the following correlation for the local Nusselt number
Pr
x r r
r
Data: o
w
o
x

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 3

i Local heat transfer coefficient

x3 g T
Local Grashoff No. G rx 2

3 3

6 2

Pr
x r r
r

hx x
K
x

2
x

ii Average heat transfer coefficient

L
1
h h x dx
L
L
1 K
Nu x dx
L x
L
1 K Pr
r r
r

1LK Pr x3 g T
2 r
r
 K Pr g T
L x3
2 r dx
r x
Pr
2 r
r

3
Pr
2 r
r

hx
3 x L
Average heat transfer coefficient

a
3
2

10. A hot square plate 50cm × 50cm at 100oC is exposed to atmospheric air at 20oC. Find the
heat loss from both surfaces of the plate if
i) Plate is kept in vertical plane
ii) Plate is kept in horizontal plane
Find the percentage change of heat flow due to the position of the plate.
o o
Data: w

o
f
2
o
f
3 6 2 6 2

1 1 3

Cp 6

3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

i When plate is vertical

u r r r r
 h L
K

s w

vertical

ii When the plate is horizontal

nvection

3 3
L3C g T
r 2 6 2

GrPr
6 11
u r r r r

h top L C top
u
K
2
top
2
top top s w

top

b Lower surface

u r r

h bottom Lc
u
K
bottom

2
bottom
2
bottom bottom s w
 top bottom horizontal

% of change of heat flow due to the position of the plate

vertical horizontal

vertical

11. Vertical door of the hot oven is 0.5m high and is maintained at 200oC. It is exposed to
atmospheric air at 20oC. Find i) Local heat transfer coefficient half way up the door, ii)
Thickness of free convection boundary layer at the top of the door, iii) Average h
o o
Data: w x

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f

1 1 3
2.61
f

3 3
L3 g T
Grashoff number Grx 2 2

r r

r r

ection

x r r rx

The local heat transfer coefficient

Nu x K 2
x

ii Average heat transfer coefficient

3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 2
 r r

u r r

h L
u
K

2
h 6.3

r r r on
x

12. Two vertical plates each 80mm high and at 85oC are placed in a tank of water at 15oC.
Calculate the minimum spacing which will prevent interface of free convection boundary
layer.
o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2

b
o
f
3 6 2
r

1 3

Grashoff No. over a plate length L

 3 2 3
L3 2
g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

r r r on
x

13. Water is heated in a tank by dipping a vertical square plate of side 300mm. The
surface temperature of plate on both sides is maintained at 140oC. Assuming the initial
temperature of water surrounding the plate is 20oC, find the heat loss from the plate per
hour. Use the correlation Nu = 0.10 Ra0.333, where Ra = Rayleigh Number.
VTU June - 2008 (06)
Data: w u a

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 3

3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

11

11
a r r

Flow is turbulent

u a

h L
K
 2

Heat loss from the plate

w
2

3
h
14. A motor cycle cylinder consists of 10 fins each 15cm outside diameter and 7.5cm inside
diameter. Calculate the heat dissipation rate from the cylinder when the motor cycle is
stationery. The atmospheric air is at 20oC and the average fin temperature is 480oC.
o o
Data: o i w

o 3
f

o
f
6 2
r

Assuming fin as a sin gle horizontal flat plate

C o
3 3 3
L g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

u r r r r

ction
6
u

Since both sides of each fin are exposed to the air.

s w

2 2
o i w

2 2

1131.2W
15. The exact expression for local Nusselt Number for the laminar flow along a surface is
given by
hx x
x r ex
K
Show that the average heat transfer coefficient from x = 0 to x = L over the length 'L' of
the surface is given by 2hL, where hL is the local value at x= L.
Data:
L
1
h h x dx
L
L
1 K
r ex
L x
L
1 vx dx
r
L x
L
1 vx x
r
L x
L
1 vx
r
L
L
1 vx x
r

1 vx
2 K r
L
1 vL
r
L
K
r e
L
Nu x K
2
L
h 2 hx
16. A steam pipe 100mm diameter maintained at 170oC is exposed to air at 30oC. The length
of the pipe is 2m and is kept horizontal. Determine the heat lost by the pipe per hour.
VTU May - 2007
o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r
 1 3

D3 g T
Grashoff Number G r 2

3 3

6 2

6 6
r r

For horizontal cylinder

m
Nu C G r Pr
r r

6
u

h D
K

s w

17. A vertical cylinder 1.8m height, 7.5cm in diameter is maintained at a temperature of

90oC in an atmospheric environment at 30oC. Calculate the heat loss by free convection
from this cylinder. The cylinder may be treated as vertical plate. VTU Feb - 2006 (06)
o o
Data: w

o
f
2
o
f
6 2
r

1 3

3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 6 2
 r r

u r r ection

h L
K

Heat lost by the cylinder

s w

18. Hot fluid at 300oC flows through a horizontal pipe of 30cm outside dia and 90cm long.
The pipe is exposed to atmospheric air maintained at 20oC. Determine the rate of natural
convection heat transfer. VTU Jan - 2010 (02)
o o
Data: w
Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 3

3 3
D3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

r r

m
Now N u C G r Pr

h D
K
 2

Rate o s w

19. A tube is 0.036m OD and 40cm length is maintained at 100oC. It is exposed to air at a
temperature of 20oC. Determine the rate of heat transfer from the surface when, (i) tube
is vertical, (ii) tube is horizontal. VTU June - 2009 (08)
Data: w
o o

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 3

i When tube is vertical

3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

u r r

h L
K

s w

ii When tube is horizontal

3 3
D3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r
 n
m
Nu C G r Pr

h D
K

s w

20. Considering the body of a man as a vertical cylinder of 300mm diameter and 170cm
height, calculate the heat generated by the body in one day. Take the body temperature
as 36oC and atmospheric temperature as 14oC. VTU June - 2011 (06)
o o
Data: w

o
f
2
o

6 2
r

1 3

3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

r r

u r r

216.31
h L
216.31
K
216..31
2
 Hea s w

21. A steam pipe 5cm diameter is lagged with insulating material of 2.5cm thick. The surface
temperature is 80oC and emissivity is 0.93. Find the total heat loss from 10m length of
pipe considering the heat loss by natural convection and radiation. The temperature of
the air surrounding the pipe is 20oC. Also find the overall heat transfer coefficient and
heat transfer coefficient of radiation. VTU June - 2012 (06)
o
Data: 1 1 2 w 3
o

o
f
2
o
f
3 3 6 2
p

1 1 3

D32 2 g Tw T
Grashoff Number G r 2

3 2 3

6 2

Cp 6 3

6
r r

m
Nu C G r Pr

r r

u r r

6
 h D2
u
K

Heat dissipation rate by natural convection

conv s w

Heat dissipation rate by radiation

rad s w

conv rad

Overall heat transfer coefficient

s Tw T

Radiation heat transfer coefficient

rad r s w

r
2
r

22. A pipe carrying steam runs in a large room and is exposed to air at a temperature of
30oC. The pipe surface temperature is 200oC. The pipe diameter is 20cm. If the total heat
loss from the pipe per m length is 1.9193kW/m, determine the pipe surface emissivity.
Use correlation Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)1/4.
o o 3 y
Data: w u r r

Tw T o
f
2 2
o

6 2 1 1
r
f
 D3 g Tw T 3 1
Gr 2 6 2

r r

u r r

Nu K 2

Heat dissipation rate by free convection

conv s w

3
rad conv

rad s w

23. Soft drink cans, 65mm dia and 150mm length are to be cooled from an initial temperature
of 20oC by placing them in a bottle cooler with an ambient air temperature of 1oC.
Compare the initial cooling rates, when the cans are laid horizontally to when they are
laid vertically.
o o
Data: w

o
f
2
o
f

1 1

i When cans are laid horizontally

1 3
D3 g Tw T
Gr 2 6 2

6 6
r r
 m
Nu C G r Pr
r r

6
u

h D
K

1 s w

ii When cans are laid vertically

3 1
L3 g Tw T
Gr 2 6 2

r r

u r r

h D
K

2
h
2

1 2

horizontally.
24. A horizontal 40W fluorescent tube which is 3.8cm in dia and 120cm long stands in still
air at 1atm and 20oC. If the surface temperature is 40oC and radiation is neglected, what
percentage of power is being dissipated by convection?
o o
Data: w

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 3

3 3
D3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

6
r r

e convection

u r r

h D
K

Heat transfer rate by convection

s w

% heat dissipation by convection

25. Estimate the heat transfer rate from a 100W incandescent bulbs at 140oC to an ambient
at 24oC. Approximate the bulb as 6cm diameter sphere. Calculate the percentage of
power lost by natural convection. Use Nu = 0.60 (Gr Pr)1/4.
Data: w o o
g

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2 3
r
 1 1

3 1
D3 g T 6
Gr 2 6 2

u r r

h D
K

Heat dissipation rate by natural convection

con s w
2
w
2

% of power lost by natural convection

conv

26. Two horizontal steam pipes having 100 mm and 300 mm are so laid in a boiler house that
the mutual heat transfer may be neglected. The surface temperature of each of the steam
pipes is 4750 C. If the temperature of the ambient air is 350 C, Calculate the ratio of heat
transfer coefficients and heat transfer per metre length of the pipes. VTU January 2015
Data : D1 2 b
o
C, T C
1 1

2 2

Ratio of heat transfer coefficient

We have

1
D3 g
Nu C 2
.Pr

3
or N u D
hD 3
D
K
 1
or h 1
D
1 1 1
h1 D2 D2
1
1.316
2 D1 1

Ratio of heat transfer coefficient

s

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

27. A hot plate 1m x 0.5m at 130°C is kept vertically in still air at 20°C. Find :
i) heat transfer co-efficient ii) heat lost to surroundings. VTU June/July 2015
w
o
C , T o

Tw T o
f
2 2
o
f
6 2
r

1 1 3

f
3 3
L3 g T
Gr 2 6 2

r r
1 1
u r r

2
u

S w