Central Department of Environmental Science

Tribhuvan University
Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal

Course Title: Environmental Quality Management

Course No.: ENV 514

Unit 1: Management of Air Pollution

10 hrs

Enna Mool
15 November, 2021
Unit 1. Management of Air Pollution
1.1 Introduction to air quality criteria: Exposure to air pollution, Evaluating
exposure-response relationships, Formulation of air quality criteria or
guidelines, Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity, Criteria for
carcinogenic end points, Ecological effects

1.2 Air quality standards, Advantages and disadvantages of air quality

standards, Adoption of standards, Aspects of air pollution control strategy

1.3 Air quality standards in Nepal : History, Standards, Air quality

measurements, Air quality control in Nepal
Brief Review
• Atmosphere
• Air pollution
• Air pollutants (Primary and Secondary)
• Criteria air pollutants
• Hazardous air pollutants
• Impact of air pollution on environment and health
Air Pollutants
• Primary air pollutants
➢ Directly emitted from sources and includes
▪ Carbon dioxide
▪ Carbon monoxide
▪ Sulphur dioxides
▪ Nitrogen dioxides
▪ Volatile organic compounds
▪ Particulate matter
Air Pollutants
• Secondary air pollutants
➢ Not emitted directly rather formed in the air when primary
pollutants react or interact and includes
▪ Ground level ozone
▪ PAN (Peroxyacetyl nitrate)
▪ Photochemical smog
Air Quality Criteria
• According to Clean Air Act (CAA), Air Quality Criteria are defined as a
summary of the “latest scientific knowledge useful in indicating the
kind and extent of all identifiable effects on public health or welfare
which may be expected from the presence of such pollutant in the
ambient air.”

• Air quality criteria (standards and guidelines) are concentrations (e.g.,

micrograms per cubic metre, or parts per billion) of pollutants in air
measured over a specific period of time (e.g., one hour, 24 hours or
one year).
Air Quality Criteria
• Provides the extent to which the impacts on air quality caused by various
emission sources are considered acceptable

• Specially designed for the welfare of both human health and environment

• Air quality criteria depends on current concentrations of pollutants and

exposure levels; exposure–response relationship; exposure
characterization; risk assessment; acceptability of risk; specific mixture of
air pollutants (interaction); adverse effect on health; sensitive population
Clean Air Act (CAA)
• First of the major federal environmental laws that regulates air
emissions from stationary and mobile sources

• First CAA passed in 1963

• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created on

December 2, 1970 in order to implement the various requirements
included in these acts

• This law authorizes (EPA) to establish National Ambient Air Quality

Standards (NAAQS) for criteria air pollutants
Clean Air Act (CAA)
• Primary and secondary standards were set for criteria air pollutants

• Primary standards provide public health protection, including

protecting the health of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics,
children, and the elderly

• Secondary standards provide public welfare protection, including

protection against decreased visibility and damage to animals, crops,
vegetation, and buildings
Criteria Air Pollutants
• Particulate Matter
• Carbon Monoxide
• Nitrogen Dioxide
• Sulfur Dioxide
• Ground level ozone
• Lead
 Particulate Matter (PM)
• Sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air
• PM10 are the particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 10
micrometers (Esworthy, 2013)
• PM2.5 refers to the atmospheric particulate matter that has an
aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers (Esworthy, 2013)
• Fine particles with a diameter of less than 0.1 μm are categorized as
an ultra-fine particle (PM0.1) (Hasheminassab et al., 2013)
• Esworthy, R. (2013, February). Air quality: EPA's 2013 changes to the particulate matter (PM) standard. Library of Congress,
Congressional Research Service.
• Hasheminassab, S., Daher, N., Schauer, J. J., & Sioutas, C. (2013). Source apportionment and organic compound
characterization of ambient ultrafine particulate matter (PM) in the Los Angeles Basin. Atmospheric Environment, 79, 529-539.
 Figure 1. Size comparison of PM2.5 and PM10 against the average diameter of a human hair (~70
μm) and fine beach sand (~90 μm) (Source: Guaita et al., 2011)

• Guaita, R., Pichiule, M., Maté, T., Linares, C., & Díaz, J. (2011). Short-term impact of particulate matter (PM2. 5) on respiratory
mortality in Madrid. International journal of environmental health research, 21(4), 260-274.
Particulate Matter
• Sources
➢ Combustion of wood and fossil fuels
➢ Construction and demolition activities
➢ Entrainment of road dust into the air
➢ Agricultural operations
➢ Industrial processes
➢ Forest fires
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Silent killer
• Toxic gas which is colorless, odorless and tasteless
• Sources
➢ Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
• When inhaled, binds with haemoglobin
• Reduces the amount of oxygen transported in the blood stream to
critical organs like the heart and brain
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
• Reddish-brown pungent irritating toxic gas
• Sources
➢ Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
➢ Making of nitric acid, welding and using explosives, refining of petrol
and metals, commercial manufacturing, and food manufacturing
➢ React with other gases in the atmosphere to form nitric acid
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
• Colorless but nasty toxic gas
• Sources
➢ Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels or other materials that contain
sulfur
➢ Power plants, metals processing and smelting facilities
• It reacts easily with other substances to form harmful compounds
such as sulfuric acid and sulfate particles.
Ground Level Ozone (O3)
• Colorless and highly irritating gas that forms just above the earth's
surface (up to about 2 miles above ground)

• Produced when two primary pollutants, nitrogen oxides (NOx)

and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in sunlight and light or
stagnant air

• VOCs sources include combustion of fossil fuels

• Ground-level ozone is less concentrated than stratospheric ozone

(protects from ultraviolet radiation from the sun), however, its
impacts on human health and environment make it "bad ozone.“
Figure 2. Ground level ozone
Figure 3. Sources of ground level ozone
Lead
• Combustion of leaded gasoline and aviation fuel
• Industrial sources (e.g., smelters, waste incinerators, and lead-acid
battery manufacturers)
• Lead-based paint
• Lead-contaminated dust
Health Impacts
• Irritation of the eyes, nose and throat
• Coughing, wheezing, dyspnea (shortness of breath)
• Lung disease – Asthma, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• Central nervous system – Autism
• Depleted immune system
• Cardiovascular disease
• Reproductive system
• Cancer (Lung cancer)
• Premature death
 Clean Air Act (CAA)

Figure 4. Flow diagram illustrating the process by which the EPA administrator reviews and sets a new NAAQS.
CASAC refers to the Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee. Diamonds are used to denote official actions by
the administrator. SOURCE: Greenbaum et al. 2001. Reprinted with permission from the American Journal of
Epidemiology; copyright 2001, Oxford Press.
Air Pollutants Concentration
• ppm: part per million
• pphm: part per hundred million
• ppb: part per billion
• ppt: part per trillion
Air Pollutants Concentration
• Particulate matter: mg/m3 or ug/m3
• Nitrogen dioxide, 1 ppb = 1.91 ug/m3
• Sulphur dioxide, 1 ppb = 2.66 ug/m3
• Ozone, 1 ppb = 2.0 ug/m3
• Carbon monoxide, 1 ppb = 1.16 ug/m3
• Benzene, 1 ppb = 3.24 ug/m3
Exercise
1. CO concentration is given as 90 mg/m3 at 90oC and 6 atm. Express this
concentration in parts per million (ppm). (Ans: 15.94)
2. The air quality for nitrogen dioxide in Delhi is 470 ug/m3 at 25oC and 1
atm of pressure. Find the concentration of NO2. (Ans: 0.2498)
3. The exhaust from a car contains 1.5% by volume of CO. Compute the
concentration of CO in mg/m3 at 25oC and 1 atm of pressure. (Ans: 1.717
*104)
4. For an SO2 emission of 22000 kg/day and an exhaust gas flow rate of 5.0
million m3/hr (after the scrubber) measured at 150oC and 1 atm of
pressure, calculate the concentration (ppm) of SO2 the exhaust gases.
(Ans: 99.42)
 Exposure to Air Pollution
• Exposure, in a generic form, as the contact between an agent (e.g., a
pollutant) and a target (e.g., a human lung) (Zartarian et al., 1997)

• It depends on concentration, duration, magnitude and sequence of

locations of exposure

• Dose is the amount of agent that enters a target organ within a

specified period of time after crossing a contact boundary

• Exposure can exist without dose but not a dose without an exposure

• Zartarian, V. G., OTT, W. R., & Duan, N. (1997). A Quantitative Definition of Exposure and Related. Journal of Exposure Analysis
and Environmental Epidemiology, 7(4), 411-437.
 Figure 4. Graphical representation of the exposure and dosage received by person i at
location (x,y,z) and time t~ to a pollutant in a carrier medium with concentration C(x,y,z,t,)
(Ott, 1982)

• Ott, W. R. (1982). Concepts of human exposure to air pollution. Environment International, 7(3), 179-196.
 Exposure to Air Pollution

Figure 5. Air pollution system conceptualized continuum from source to human health
effects (Lioy, 1990; Smith, 1993; Lioy, 1999)

• Lioy, P.J. (1990) Assessing total human exposure to contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 24, 938–945.
• Smith, K.R. (1993) Fuel combustion, air pollution exposure, and health: the situation in developing countries. Annu. Rev.
Energy Environ. 18, 529–566.
• Lioy, P.J. (1999) The 1998 ISEA Wesolowski Award lecture – exposure analysis: reflections on its growth and aspirations for its
future. J. Exposure Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 9, 273–281.
 Exposure to Air Pollution
• Personal air pollutant intake related to a series of environment-
human interaction processes, including human contacting with the air
pollutants, the concentration of the pollutants over space and time,
and the absorption of the pollutants by human body

• Exposure pathways includes air, water, soil and routes includes

inhalation, ingestion and dermal

• Among the different absorption ways (route of exposure), inhalation

is the major means for air pollutants to enter human body (Weisel,
2002).

• Weisel, C. P. (2002). Assessing exposure to air toxics relative to asthma. Environmental health perspectives, 110(suppl 4), 527-
537.
 Exposure to Air Pollution
• But other routes are often involved. For example, suspended dust
may be inhaled, but settled dust may be ingested when it deposits on
food or semi volatile air pollutants may sorb to surfaces whereupon a
person’s skin, eyes, and nose come into contact with what was
previously an air pollutant

• Inhalation rate varies across individuals; it changes for the same

individual across different situations (staying/sleeping, walking,
running, cycling, physical labor)
 Exposure to Air Pollution
• Personal exposure can be measured either directly (e.g., personal
sampling and biological marker measurement) or indirectly (e.g.,
ambient measurement/modeling and survey) (Monn, 2001)

• Health effects of air pollution are related to both air pollutant

exposure and individual level biophysical characteristics (Silverman &
Ito, 2010)

• Silverman, R. A., & Ito, K. (2010). Age-related association of fine particles and ozone with severe acute asthma in New York
City. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 125(2), 367-373.
• Monn, C. (2001). Exposure assessment of air pollutants: a review on spatial heterogeneity and indoor/outdoor/personal
exposure to suspended particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. Atmospheric environment, 35(1), 1-32.
 People spend varying amounts of time
indoors and outdoors in numerous
locations. Each person has a unique
exposure profile due to varying airborne
concentrations of pollutants and time
spent in each microenvironment. In
addition, unique characteristics of the
person and activity, eg, breathing rate,
also change the amount of pollutant
absorbed, which leads to a unique dose of
the pollutant. In this case, the exposure (E)
equation includes the sum of all exposure
events (j), which are each the mean
concentration (C) integrated with respect
to time of the event j per exposure
duration (T) (Ozkaynak, 2009)

Figure 6. Various scales of air pollution that contribute to personal exposures (Ozkaynak, 2009)

• Ozkaynak, H. (2009). Case Study Applications of Human Exposure Models, in Eurotox 2009 Conference, WHO/IPCS CEC6
Exposure Assessment Course, Dresden, Germany.
 Exposure Assessment
• A process of quantitatively characterizing the relationship between
the dose of an agent and the magnitude or incidence of an adverse
health effect

• The primary issues addressed is whether people are exposed to the

agent at levels that would have an adverse effect on health

• It can be considered as the science that describes how an individual

or population comes in contact with a contaminant, including
quantification of that amount across space and time, for individuals
and populations (Lioy, 1990)

• Lioy, P.J. (1990) Assessing total human exposure to contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 24, 938–945.
Exposure Assessment
• Quantitative or qualitative evaluation of that contact; it describes the
intensity, frequency, and duration of contact, and often evaluates the
rates at which the chemical crosses the boundary (chemical intake or
uptake rates), the route by which it crosses the boundary (exposure
route; e.g., dermal, oral, or respiratory), and the resulting amount of
the chemical that actually crosses the boundary (a dose) and the
amount absorbed (internal dose)
 Exposure Assessment
• One of the four key components in health risk assessment

• Exposure analysis is closely related to

1. Traditional environmental science that deals with sources and

environmental fate (transport and transformation) of pollutants

2. Toxicology that deals with toxicologic mechanisms (accumulation,

transformation, and elimination) of pollutants within the human body

3. Environmental epidemiology that examines associations between

pollution exposure and health outcomes (Lioy, 1999)
• Lioy, P.J. (1999) The 1998 ISEA Wesolowski Award lecture – exposure analysis: reflections on its growth and aspirations for its
future. J. Exposure Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 9, 273–281.
Purpose of Exposure Assessment
• Risk Assessment
• Status and trends
• Epidemiologic studies
Approaches to Quantification of Exposure
1. Measurement of exposure at the point of contact
• It evaluates the exposure by measuring the chemical concentrations
at the interface between the person and the environment as a
function of time, resulting in an exposure profile
• It measures exposure directly, and providing that the measurement
devices are accurate, is likely to give the most accurate exposure
value for the period of time over which the measurement was taken
• Limitations: expensive, require assumptions to be made concerning
the relationship between short-term sampling and long-term
exposures, not source-specific
Approaches to Quantification of Exposure
• Methods:
a. Radiation dosimeter
i. small badge-like device measures exposure to radiation as it occurs
and provides an integrated estimate of exposure for the period of
time over which the measurement has been taken
b. Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM)
i. A small pump with a collector and absorbent attached to a person’s
clothing to measure his or her exposure to airborne solvents or
other pollutants as it occurred
c. Carbon monoxide (CO) point-of-contact measurement
i. carry a small CO measuring device for several days
Approaches to Quantification of Exposure
2. Estimates of exposure from scenario evaluation
• It determine the concentrations of chemicals in a medium or location and
link this information with the time that individuals or populations contact
the chemical
• An exposure scenario is the set of assumptions about how this contact
takes place
• Chemical concentration characterization done to develop estimates of
exposure concentration
• It is accomplished indirectly by measuring, modeling, or using existing data
on concentrations in the bulk media, rather than at the point of contact
Approaches to Quantification of Exposure
• Time of contact characterized to identify exposed population and to
develop estimates of the frequency and duration of exposure
• It is done indirectly by use of demographic data, survey statistics,
behavior observation, activity diaries, activity models, or, in the
absence of more substantive information, assumptions about
behavior
• It is best used when some knowledge exists about the soundness,
validity, and uncertainty of the underlying assumptions, evaluation
can be performed with little or no data and least expensive method
among three approaches
• Limitations: the limiting assumptions or boundary conditions used to
derive them do not always hold true
Approaches to Quantification of Exposure
3. Exposure estimation by reconstruction of internal dose
• An average past exposure rate can be estimated if a total dose is known, or
can be reconstructed, and information about intake and uptake rates is
available
• Biological monitoring can be used to evaluate the amount of a chemical in
the body
• It demonstrates exposure to and absorption of the chemical has actually
taken place, and it theoretically can give a good indication of past exposure
• Limitations: will not work for every chemical due to interferences or the
reactive nature of the chemical, expensive
Evaluating Exposure-response Relationships
• The relationship between exposure level and the incidence of adverse
effects
• Describes the magnitude of the response of an organism, as
a function of exposure (or doses) to a stimulus or stressor (usually
a chemical) after a certain exposure time.
• It is important in determining "safe", "hazardous" and (where
relevant) beneficial levels and dosages for pollutants to which
humans or other organisms are exposed
• It may be used in individuals or in populations
Effects from Exposure to Air Pollution
• Short-term effects
▪ Temporary
▪ Include illnesses like pneumonia or bronchitis; irritation to the nose,
throat, eyes or skin; headaches; dizziness; nausea

• Long-term effects
▪ Last for years or for an entire lifetime or even lead to person’s death
▪ Include illnesses like heart disease; lung cancer; respiratory diseases;
long-term damage to people’s nerves, brain, kidneys, liver; cause
birth defects
Effects from Exposure to Air Pollution
Pollutant Health Effects

Particulate Matter Aggravates respiratory illnesses; long-term exposure may cause increased incidence of
chronic conditions such as bronchitis; linked to heart disease; suppresses immune system;
cause cancer or other tissue damage
Carbon monoxide Reduces blood’s ability to transport oxygen; headache and fatigue at lower levels; mental
impairment or death at high levels
Nitrogen Dioxide Irritate respiratory tract; respiratory disease particularly asthma, heart disease; suppresses
immune system; cause cancer or other tissue damage
Sulfur Dioxide Irritate respiratory tract; long-term exposure may cause increased incidence of chronic
conditions such as bronchitis; linked to heart disease; suppresses immune system; cause
cancer or other tissue damage
Ground level ozone Irritate eyes; irritates respiratory tract; produces chest discomfort; aggravates respiratory
conditions such as asthma and chronic bronchitis
Lead Neurological; kidney; gastrointestinal; cardiovascular; reproductive; developmental effects;
immune system
 Air pollution & cardiovascular injury:
Epidemiology, Toxicology, and Mechanisms
(Simkhovich et al., 2008)

Figure 7. Pathophysiological mechanisms of lung and

circulation – mediated cardiovascular toxicity of particulate
air pollutants

• Simkhovich, B. Z., Kleinman, M. T., & Kloner, R. A. (2008). Air pollution and
cardiovascular injury: epidemiology, toxicology, and mechanisms. Journal
of the American College of Cardiology, 52(9), 719-726.
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of NOAEL/LOAEL
➢Criteria for selection of adverse effect
➢Criteria for selection of uncertainty factors
➢Criteria for selection of averaging times
➢Criteria for consideration of sensory effects
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of NOAEL/LOAEL
• While setting guidelines, the NOAEL must be the highest level of
exposure at which no adverse effects are detected
• It is difficult to be sure that this has been identified unless the level of
exposure at which adverse effects begin to appear has also been
defined
• The level of exposure of concern in terms of human health is more
easily related to the LOAEL, and this level was therefore used
whenever possible
No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) – Highest dose at which there was not an observed toxic or adverse effect
Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level (LOAEL) – Lowest dose at which there was an observed toxic or adverse effect
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of NOAEL/LOAEL
• There are several factors (species, sex, age, strain, development
status, group size, sensitivity of applied methods, selection of dose
levels) that can influence the magnitude of the observed values
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of adverse effect
• Definition of a distinction between adverse and non-adverse effects
poses considerable difficulties
• Adverse effect is “any effect resulting in functional impairment and/or
pathological lesions that may affect the performance of the whole
organism or which contributes to a reduced ability to respond to an
additional challenge”
• A significant degree of subjectivity and uncertainty remains
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of adverse effect
• To resolve this difficulty, the evidence ranked in three categories
▪ The first category comprises observations which were not used as a
basis for guideline values
▪ The second category is a lowest-observed-effect level (or no-
observed-effect level) that is supported by other scientific
information
▪ The third category comprises levels of exposure at which there is
clear evidence for substantial pathological changes and have a major
influence on the derivation of the guidelines
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of uncertainty factors
• A guideline derived from studies of effects on laboratory animals in
the absence of human studies generally requires the application of an
increased uncertainty factor
• Human may be more susceptible than laboratory animal species
• Negative data from human studies will tend to reduce the magnitude
of this uncertainty factor
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of uncertainty factors
• Scientific judgement about uncertainty factors should take into
account the biochemical toxicology of pollutants which includes the
types of metabolite formed, the variability in metabolism or response
in humans suggesting the existence of hypersusceptible groups, and
the likelihood that the compound or its metabolites will accumulate
in the body.
• Environmental Health Criteria No. 170 (1) was a valuable source of
information
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of uncertainty factors
• When the database is strong, expert judgement can be used to set a
guideline which indicates the low level of uncertainty
• If the database is weak, then a larger level of uncertainty will exist. At
this time, a standardized approach will be used. For this, application
of a substantial uncertainty factor will be involved
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for selection of averaging times
• Toxicity is a complex function of the interaction between
concentration of a pollutant and duration of exposure
• The damaged can be caused by both short term exposures to high
concentration as well as by long-term exposures to low concentration
• The specified averaging times are based on effects on health
• Short-term averaging times are recommended if the short-term
exposures lead to adverse effects
• Long-term averaging period are recommended based on the
knowledge of the exposure-response relationship
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for consideration of sensory effects
• Intensity, quality, acceptability, annoyance and their respective levels
considered for the evaluation of sensory effects
• Intensity, where the detection threshold level is defined as the lower
limit of the perceived intensity range (by convention the lowest
concentration that can be detected in 50% of the cases in which it is
present);
• Quality, where the recognition threshold level is defined as the lowest
concentration at which the sensory effect, such as odour, can be
recognized correctly in 50% of the cases; and
Criteria for endpoints other than for carcinogenicity
➢Criteria for consideration of sensory effects
• Acceptability and annoyance, where the nuisance threshold level is
defined as the concentration at which not more than a small
proportion of the population (less than 5%) experiences annoyance
for a small part of the time (less than 2%); since annoyance will be
influenced by a number of psychological and socioeconomic factors, a
nuisance threshold level cannot be defined on the basis of
concentration alone
• The problems of irritation (for example, of the skin) and headache
were also considered as possible problems of annoyance
Criteria for carcinogenic endpoints
• Cancer risk assessment basically involves qualitative assessment of
how likely it is that an agent is a human carcinogen, and a
quantitative assessment of the cancer risk that is likely to occur at
given levels and duration of exposure
➢Qualitative assessment of carcinogenicity
➢Quantitative assessment of carcinogenic potency
Criteria for carcinogenic endpoints
➢Qualitative assessment of carcinogenicity
• A substance is considered as a carcinogen based on the qualitative
evaluation of all available information on carcinogenicity, ensuring
that the association is unlikely to be due to chance alone
Criteria for carcinogenic endpoints
➢Qualitative assessment of carcinogenicity
• International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have been applied
for the classification criteria
• Group 1: Proven human carcinogen
• Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans
• Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans
• Group 3: Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans
• Group 4: Noncarcinogenic to humans
Criteria for carcinogenic endpoints
➢Quantitative assessment of carcinogenic potency
• It includes the extrapolation of risk from relatively high dose levels to
relatively low dose levels
• High dose levels are characteristic of animal experiments or
occupational exposures where cancer responses can be measured
• Low dose levels are concern with environmental protection where
such risks are too small to be measured directly, performed either by
animal studies or by epidemiological studies
Criteria for carcinogenic endpoints
➢Quantitative assessment of carcinogenic potency
• The risk associated with lifetime exposure to a certain concentration
of a carcinogen in the air has been estimated by linear extrapolation
• The carcinogenic potency can be expressed as the incremental unit
risk estimate
• The incremental unit risk estimate for an air pollutant is defined as
“the additional lifetime cancer risk occurring in a hypothetical
population in which all individuals are exposed continuously from
birth throughout their lifetimes to a concentration of 1 μg/m3 of the
agent in the air they breathe”
 Ecological Effects

Pollutant Major pollutants Acute effects Long-term effects

class and precursors
Acidic Sulfuric acid, nitric acid Direct toxic effects to Progressive deterioration of soil quality due to
deposition Precursors: Sulfur dioxide, plant leaves and nutrient leaching. Forest health decline. Acidification
nitrogen oxides aquatic organisms of surface waters. Reduction in acid neutralizing
capacity in lakes and streams. Enhancement of
bioavailability of toxic metals (aluminum) to aquatic
biota.
Nitrogen Nitrogen compounds (e.g., N/A Nitrogen saturation of terrestrial ecosystems, causing
Deposition nitrogen oxides) nutrient imbalances and reduced forest health. Soil
and water acidification. Reduction in acid
neutralizing capacity in lakes and streams.
Progressive nitrogen enrichment of coastal estuaries
causing eutrophication. Changes in the global
nitrogen cycle.
 Ecological Effects

Pollutant class Major pollutants Acute effects Long-term effects

and precursors
Ozone Tropospheric ozone Precursors: Direct toxic effects to Alterations of ecosystem wide patterns
Nitrogen oxides and volatile plants. of energy flow and nutrient cycling;
organic compounds (VOCs) community changes.

Hazardous Air Mercury, dioxins Direct toxic effects to Conservation of mercury and dioxins in
Pollutants (HAPs) animals. biogeochemical cycles and accumulation
in the food chain. Sublethal impacts.
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
• Air pollution control depends on four basic philosophies
1. Emission standards
2. Air quality standards
3. Emission taxes
4. Cost benefit standards
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
1. Emission standards
• Maximum possible or practical degree of emission control exists
• It varies between various classes of emitters however presumably can
be determined for each
• This philosophy considered as cleanest possible air
• The maximum emissions of different classes will keep the pollution
emission rate at lowest possibility and each class is required to limit
emissions to this maxima
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
2. Air quality standards
• A limit on the amount of a given pollutant in the air
• It is usually enshrined in national (or federal) law and are legally
binding
• It is considered to be the level of an air pollutant such as
concentration that is adopted by a regulatory authority as
enforceable
• The effect based level and the averaging time have to be specified in
the formulation of a standard
• Primary standards provide public health protection, including
protecting the health of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics,
children, and the elderly
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
• Secondary standards provide public welfare protection, including
protection against decreased visibility and damage to animals, crops,
vegetation, and buildings
• AQS at the national level, a legislative framework usually provides the
basis for the evaluation and decision-making process
• Standards setting strongly depends on the type of risk management
strategy adopted
❖Identification and selection of pollutants to which the legislative
instrument will apply
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
❖The numeric value of the standards for the various pollutants,
applicable detection methods and monitoring methodology, etc.
should be published
❖Actions to be taken to implement the standard, considering emission
control measures and necessary
❖The departmental process for making decisions about the
appropriate standards
• AQS is incorporated in CAA
• AQS is a Zero-damage philosophy
• Review- NAAQS, criteria pollutants
Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Quality
Standards
• The cost-effectiveness is good but not excellent
• It has the advantages of concentrating pollution control investments
in the areas with the worst air pollution problems and also allows
lower pollution control costs in areas with less serious problems
• However, once a set of air quality standards is set in place, the
standards must be met everywhere even in areas people seldom or
never visit
Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Quality
Standards
• The flexibility is fair as the standards can be met by multiple ways
• Each national or local agency can formulate its best considered
regulations within limits
• Special cases and emergencies can be handled locally
Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Quality
Standards
• The evolutionary ability is fair as standards can be changed based on
new data.
• However, its expensive as well as time consuming
• For more detail,
Nevers, N. D. (1977). Air pollution control philosophies. Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association, 27(3), 197-218.
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
3. Emission taxes
• This philosophy would tax each emitter of major pollutants based on
some published scale related to its emission rate
• Economic tool based on polluters pay principle
• The tax rate is arranged in the way that the major polluters would find
it economical to install pollution control equipment rather than
paying taxes
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
4. Cost benefit standards
• The cost of damage goes high while the cost of pollution control goes
low with the higher level of concentration of a pollutant permitted in
ambient air
• It reflects acceptance level of damage following the amount willing to
be spend to reduce the damage
Adoption of Standards/Guidelines
• The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), US EPA 2015
• Typical Levels of PM10 & CO in Developing Country Homes with WHO
& USEPA Guidelines
• WHO Air Quality Guideline, 2005 (Global Update)
– Interim Targets for Particulate Matter, Annual Mean
Concentration; WHO Interim Targets for Particulate Matter, 24 - Hour
Concentration; WHO Interim Targets for Ozone, 8 – Hour
Concentrations; WHO Interim Targets for Sulfur Dioxide
• WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Selected Pollutants, 2010
Adoption of Standards/Guidelines
• Guidelines for Air Pollutants with Carcinogenic Health Endpoints
• Guidelines for Air Pollutants with Non - Carcinogenic Health
Endpoints
• Classification of Toxic Compounds
• EU Directives, Air Quality Standards (2008)
• All EPA Emission standards, 2016
• EURO Emission Standards (Euro VI)
Air Pollution Control Strategy
• It is a set of specific techniques and measures identified and
implemented to achieve reductions in air pollution to attain an air
quality standard or goal
• It helps to improve the air quality providing a framework that includes
following activities
➢Realistic but challenging objectives
➢Regulation and financial incentives to help achieve the objectives
➢Analysis of costs and benefits
➢Monitoring and research to increase our understanding
➢Information to raise public awareness
Air Pollution Control Strategy
Motives of Control Strategies includes
• Prudent use of natural resources without compromising promotion
and conservation of environmental components
• Healthier lifestyle
• Economic and social growth
Factors in Designing an Effective Air Quality Control Strategy
Environmental Engineering Economic
Ambient air quality Pollutant characteristics Capital cost, operating
conditions, relevant (such as abrasiveness, costs, equipment
meteorological reactivity and toxicity), maintenance, equipment
conditions, location of the gas stream lifetime, and
emissions source, noise characteristics, administrative, legal, and
levels, and any ancillary performance enforcement costs.
pollution from the control characteristics of the
system itself control system, and
adequate utilities (for
example, water for wet
scrubbers)
Air Pollution Control Strategy
Steps in Developing a Control Strategy
• Determine priority pollutants
• Identify measures to control sources of pollution
• Incorporate the control measures
• Public involvement
• Compliance and enforcement programs
Guidelines
• Recommendation or guidance on the protection of human beings or
receptors in the environment from the adverse effects of air
pollutants

• Provide background information for planning and guidance to

concerned authorities in risk management assessment, particular for
setting standards

• Carrying out the local control measures around point sources

WHO Air Quality Guidelines
• The primary aim of the WHO guidelines is to provide a uniform basis for protecting
public health from the effects of air pollution
• They are intended for worldwide use
WHO air quality guideline values
Updates

(Accessed on September 23, 2021)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), 2012
National Indoor Air Quality Standards, 2009
Air Quality Control in Nepal
Air Quality Control in Nepal
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program, 2018
• Department of Environment along with other organizations like
ICIMOD are working in the establishment and operation of
monitoring stations
• Altogether, 11 monitoring stations came into operation whole over
the country
• Parameters of Air Quality Monitored (in all eleven monitoring stations
as per the data available in 2017)
1. Total Suspended Particulate Matter(TSPM)
2. PM10
3. PM2.5
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program, 2018
S.N. Monitoring stations S.N. Monitoring stations
1 Ratnapark 7 Bhaisepati
2 Pulchowk 8 Shankhapark
3 Dhulikhel 9 DHM Pokhara
4 Lumbini 10 Pokhara University
5 Sauraha 11 Gandaki Boarding School
6 Birendra School
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program, 2018
• Each monitoring station has Grimm Electronic Dust Monitor (EDM) 180 to
measure particulate matter of different sizes and uses light-scattering
technology for particle count
• A semiconductor-laser serves as the light-source
• The particle size analyser/dust monitor determines the dust-concentration
(counts/litre) through the optical-light-scattering method directly
• However, the mass concentration is determined by extrapolation
• All eleven are real time monitoring stations and instruments collects data
in every minute
• The measurement from the monitoring stations is communicated to the
public through the website [Link]
Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Current Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

(Accessed from [Link] on November 17, 2021)

Ongoing Research at CDES
BlueSky Air Quality Monitor
Characteristics
Real-time Particulate Matter (PM) sensor that provides
accurate measurements of PM2.5 mass concentration,
temperature and humidity
Can be used at altitudes up to 3000 m (10,000 feet)
Designed to be used outdoors in highly polluted areas
where particulate concentrations can be as high 1000
ug/m3
Helpful for air quality model evaluation (e.g., WRF-
Chem or CMAQ)
Ongoing Research at CDES
Ongoing Research at CDES
Ongoing Research at CDES

Location: CDES
Accessed on November 17, 2021
THANK YOU!!