Cryptography and

Network Security
Seventh Edition
by William Stallings

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 Chapter 2
Introduction to Number Theory

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 Divisibility
• We say that a nonzero b divides a if a = mb for
some m, where a, b, and m are integers

• b divides a if there is no remainder on division

• The notation b | a is commonly used to mean b

divides a

• If b | a we say that b is a divisor of a

The positive divisors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24
13 | 182; - 5 | 30; 17 | 289; - 3 | 33; 17 | 0

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 Properties of Divisibility
• If a | 1, then a = ±1
• If a | b and b | a, then a = ±b
• Any b ≠ 0 divides 0
• If a | b and b | c, then a | c

11 | 66 and 66 | 198 = 11 | 198

• If b | g and b | h, then b | (mg + nh) for arbitrary

integers m and n

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 Properties of Divisibility
• To see this last point, note that:
• If b | g , then g is of the form g = b * g1 for some integer g1
• If b | h , then h is of the form h = b * h1 for some integer h1
• So:
• mg + nh = mbg1 + nbh1 = b * (mg1 + nh1 )
and therefore b divides mg + nh

b = 7; g = 14; h = 63; m = 3; n = 2
7 | 14 and 7 | 63.
To show 7 (3 * 14 + 2 * 63),
we have (3 * 14 + 2 * 63) = 7(3 * 2 + 2 * 9),
and it is obvious that 7 | (7(3 * 2 + 2 * 9)).

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 Division Algorithm

• Given any positive integer n and any

nonnegative integer a, if we divide a by n we
get an integer quotient q and an integer
remainder r that obey the following
relationship:

a = qn + r 0 ≤ r < n; q = [a/n]

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© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 • One of the basic

Euclidean
techniques of number
theory

Algorithm • Procedure for

determining the greatest
common divisor of two
positive integers

• Two integers are

relatively prime if their
only common positive
integer factor is 1

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 Greatest Common Divisor
(GCD)
• The greatest common divisor of a and b is the largest
integer that divides both a and b
• We can use the notation gcd(a,b) to mean the
greatest common divisor of a and b
• We also define gcd(0,0) = 0
• Positive integer c is said to be the gcd of a and b if:
• c is a divisor of a and b
• Any divisor of a and b is a divisor of c

• An equivalent definition is:

gcd(a,b) = max[k, such that k | a and k | b]
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 GCD
• Because we require that the greatest common divisor be positive,
gcd(a,b) = gcd(a,-b) = gcd(-a,b) = gcd(-a,-b)

• In general, gcd(a,b) = gcd(| a |, | b |)

gcd(60, 24) = gcd(60, - 24) = 12

• Also, because all nonzero integers divide 0, we have gcd(a,0) = | a |

• We stated that two integers a and b are relatively prime if their
only common positive integer factor is 1; this is equivalent to
saying that a and b are relatively prime if gcd(a,b) = 1
8 and 15 are relatively prime because the positive divisors of 8 are 1, 2, 4, and
8, and the positive divisors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, and 15. So 1 is the only integer on
both lists.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Table 2.1
Euclidean Algorithm Example

(This table can be found on page 34 in the textbook)

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 Modular Arithmetic
• The modulus
• If a is an integer and n is a positive integer, we
define a mod n to be the remainder when a is
divided by n; the integer n is called the modulus
• Thus, for any integer a:
a = qn + r 0 ≤ r < n; q = [a/ n]
a = [a/ n] * n + ( a mod n)

11 mod 7 = 4; - 11 mod 7 = 3

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 Modular Arithmetic

• Congruent modulo n
• Two integers a and b are said to be congruent
modulo n if (a mod n) = (b mod n)
• This is written as a = b(mod n)2
• Note that if a = 0(mod n), then n | a

73 = 4 (mod 23); 21 = - 9 (mod 10)

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 Properties of Congruences
• Congruences have the following properties:

1. a = b (mod n) if n (a – b)

2. a = b (mod n) implies b = a (mod n)

3. a = b (mod n) and b = c (mod n) imply a = c (mod n)

• To demonstrate the first point, if n (a - b), then (a - b) = kn for

some k
• So we can write a = b + kn
• Therefore, (a mod n) = (remainder when b + kn is divided by n) =
(remainder when b is divided by n) = (b mod n)

23 = 8 (mod 5) because 23 - 8 = 15 = 5 * 3
- 11 = 5 (mod 8) because - 11 - 5 = - 16 = 8 * (- 2)
81 = 0 (mod 27) because 81 - 0 = 81 = 27 * 3
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 Modular Arithmetic
• Modular arithmetic exhibits the following properties:
1. [(a mod n) + (b mod n)] mod n = (a + b) mod n

2. [(a mod n) - (b mod n)] mod n = (a - b) mod n

3. [(a mod n) * (b mod n)] mod n = (a * b) mod n

• We demonstrate the first property:
• Define (a mod n) = ra and (b mod n) = rb. Then we can write a = ra +
jn for some integer j and b = rb + kn for some integer k
• Then:
(a + b) mod n = (ra + jn + rb + kn) mod n
= (ra + rb + (k + j)n) mod n
= (ra + rb) mod n
= [(a mod n) + (b mod n)] mod n

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 Remaining Properties:
• Examples of the three remaining properties:

11 mod 8 = 3; 15 mod 8 = 7
[(11 mod 8) + (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = 10 mod 8 = 2
(11 + 15) mod 8 = 26 mod 8 = 2
[(11 mod 8) - (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = - 4 mod 8 = 4
(11 - 15) mod 8 = - 4 mod 8 = 4
[(11 mod 8) * (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = 21 mod 8 = 5
(11 * 15) mod 8 = 165 mod 8 = 5

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 Table 2.2(a)
Arithmetic Modulo 8

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(This table can be found on page 37 in the textbook)
 Table 2.2(b)
Multiplication Modulo 8

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(This table can be found on page 37 in the textbook)
 Table 2.2(c)

Additive
and
Multiplicative
Inverse
Modulo 8
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(This table can be found on page 37 in the textbook)
 Table 2.3
Properties of Modular Arithmetic for Integers in Zn

(This table can be found on page 38 in the textbook)

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 Table 2.4
Extended Euclidean Algorithm Example

Result: d = 1; x = –111; y = 355

(This table can be found on page 43 in the textbook)

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 Prime Numbers
• Prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and itself
• They cannot be written as a product of other numbers

• Prime numbers are central to number theory

• Any integer a > 1 can be factored in a unique way as

a = p1 a1 * p2 a2 * . . . * pp1 a1

where p1 < p2 < . . . < pt are prime numbers and where

each ai is a positive integer

• This is known as the fundamental theorem of

arithmetic
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 Table 2.5
Primes Under 2000

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. (This table can be found on page 44 in the textbook)
 Fermat's Theorem
• States the following:
• If p is prime and a is a positive integer not
divisible by p then

ap-1 = 1 (mod p)

• An alternate form is:

• If p is prime and a is a positive integer then

ap = a (mod p)

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 Table 2.6
Some Values of Euler’s Totient Function ø(n)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. (This table can be found on page 48 in the textbook)
 Euler's Theorem

• States that for every a and n that are relatively

prime:

aø(n) = 1(mod n)

• An alternative form is:

aø(n)+1 = a(mod n)

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 Miller-Rabin Algorithm
• Typically used to test a large number for primality
• Algorithm is:
TEST (n)

1. • Find integers k, q, with k > 0, q odd, so that (n – 1)=2kq ;

2. • Select a random integer a, 1 < a < n – 1 ;

3. • if aq mod n = 1 then return (“inconclusive") ;

4. • for j = 0 to k – 1 do

5. • if (a2jq mod n = n – 1) then return (“inconclusive") ;

6. • return (“composite") ;

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 Deterministic Primality Algorithm
• Prior to 2002 there was no known method of
efficiently proving the primality of very large
numbers
• All of the algorithms in use produced a
probabilistic result
• In 2002 Agrawal, Kayal, and Saxena developed an
algorithm that efficiently determines whether a
given large number is prime
• Known as the AKS algorithm
• Does not appear to be as efficient as
the Miller-Rabin algorithm

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 Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT)
• Believed to have been discovered by the Chinese mathematician
Sun-Tsu in around 100 A.D.

• One of the most useful results of number theory

• Says it is possible to reconstruct integers in a certain range from

their residues modulo a set of pairwise relatively prime moduli

• Can be stated in several ways

Provides a way to manipulate (potentially very large)

numbers mod M in terms of tuples of smaller numbers
•This can be useful when M is 150 digits or more
•However, it is necessary to know beforehand the
factorization of M

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 Table 2.7
Powers of Integers, Modulo 19

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. (This table can be found on page 57 in the textbook)
 Table 2.8
Tables of Discrete Logarithms, Modulo 19

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 Summary
• Divisibility and the division • Fermat’s Theorem
algorithm
• Euler’s totient function
• The Euclidean algorithm
• Greatest Common Divisor • Euler’s Theorem
• Finding the Greatest Common
Divisor • Testing for primality
• Miller-Rabin algorithm
• A deterministic primality algorithm
• Modular arithmetic • Distribution of primes
• The modulus
• Properties of congruences • The Chinese Remainder
Theorem
• Modular arithmetic operations
• Properties of modular arithmetic • Discrete logarithms
• Euclidean algorithm revisited • Powers of an integer, modulo n
• The extended Euclidean algorithm • Logarithms for modular arithmetic
• Calculation of discrete logarithms
• Prime numbers
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