What is Culture?

Culture refers to the complex web of beliefs, values, customs, traditions, and
behaviours that make up the identity of a group of people. It encompasses a
range of dimensions, including knowledge, language, art, law, morals, and
customs, as well as material objects and artefacts. Culture is learned and shared
among a group of people through communal living, social interactions, and the
sharing of information. It is dynamic and can change over time due to
interactions with other cultures and globalization. Culture plays an important
role in shaping individual and collective identity, contributing to a sense of
belonging and continuity, and providing a framework for cooperation and
collaboration among community members.

Culture can be defined in various ways, but most commonly, it is understood as

the socially acquired and shared ways of functioning among a group of people.
It includes elements such as language, art, music, and cuisine, which contribute
to the unique identities of different communities. Encouraging cultural diversity
promotes understanding and tolerance, breaking down barriers that can lead to
discrimination or prejudice. Additionally, culture can be seen as a complex
whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

Culture as a system

Culture is a system, a dynamic whole that creates and is created by people,

places, and practices. The system and its components are inseparable and
engaged in mutual determination: the whole organizes the parts and the parts
organize the whole (Overton, 2010). People create culture through shared
practices in places, and culture shapes how people engage in practices and build
places.
People are the first essential component of culture as a system: there is no
culture without people and no people without culture. People refers to
population dynamics, social relations, and culture in groups, including families,
communities, and nations. Many definitions of culture underline this component
of the system.

Places are the second essential component of culture as a system: there is no

culture without places and no places without culture. Places refer to ecological
dynamics, institutional influences, and culture in contexts, including homes,
neighbourhoods, schools, and cities. Many definitions of culture underline this
component of the system

Practices are the third essential component of culture as a system: there is

no culture without practices and no practices without culture. Practices refers to
participatory dynamics, community engagement, and culture in action,
including teaching, learning, and participating in everyday activities, traditions,
and rituals.

Link between Language and Culture

1. Interconnection of Language and Culture

Language and culture are closely related and intertwined concepts. Language is
often considered a reflection of a culture's values, norms, and culture is deeply
embedded in the language used by its speakers. This symbiotic relationship
between language and culture is evident in the way language is used to express
cultural values, customs, and worldviews.

Examples

‫ تر قیامته وي‬،‫ تر مرګه وي؛ که دښمن وي‬،‫پښتون که دوست وي‬."

  (Translation: "If a Pashtun is a friend, he is a friend till death; if an enemy, he is an
enemy till the end.")
2. Language as a Means of Cultural Expression

Language is a means of communication, and it is through language that people

express their feelings, needs, beliefs, experiences, and attitudes. Language is
also a system of signs that carries cultural value and symbolizes cultural reality.
The way people use language can reveal their cultural identity and social group
affiliations. Language is also connected to culture—it carries meanings that
reflect traditions, values, and ways of life. The way we speak can show where
we come from and which groups we belong to in society.

Example

" ‫ دوست خداي د میلمه‬.‫" وي‬

 (Translation: "A guest is a friend of God.")

 This highlights the deep-rooted Pashto cultural value of hospitality

(Melmastia), where guests are treated with great respect and generosity.

3. Mutual Influence of Language and Culture

The relationship between language and culture is not limited to the way
language is used to express cultural values, but also includes the way culture is
reflected in language. For example, the use of certain words, phrases, or idioms
can be specific to a particular culture, and understanding these cultural nuances
is crucial for effective communication and translation.

Furthermore, language and culture can influence each other, with language
shaping cultural identity and cultural norms influencing language use. For
instance, the use of language can reveal cultural values and beliefs, and cultural
norms can influence the way language is used in different contexts.

4. Language, Culture, and Translation

In the context of translation, language and culture play a crucial role in ensuring
that the translation accurately conveys the cultural richness and nuances of the
source language. Effective translation requires not only conveying the message
but also preserving the cultural context and background of the source language,
as culture is closely embedded in language.

5. Language as a Reflection of Culture

Language in the most general sense is a reflection of scientific and literary

products and the evolution of human ideas and great thinkers. It reflects how
they affect each other, how the emergence of single ideas in different cultures.
(Arlato, 1994 : 307) [1]

6. Cultural Evolution and Linguistic Change

The language and culture of any human society is constantly evolving and
changing. As society and individuals of society evolve, the language and culture
of society also evolve, and the evolution of culture needs new and new
linguistic words and combinations to name new things and things. (Kamari,
2007: 108)

Culture is transmitted through language and other symbols. When language, in

addition to being spoken, also becomes written, new possibilities for the
accumulation of culture appear and cultural growth accelerates. (Khoshnoodi,
2004: 160) [7]
 7. Cultural Exchange and Borrowed Words

Perhaps one of the most obvious ways to obtain historical data related to various
cultural aspects is to study and evaluate borrowed elements in a particular
language. (Arlato, 1994: 309) [1]

When a nation imitates another nation, it often uses the same words and
expressions. Adapted And most of the words that go from one language to
another are words and expressions related to civilization and culture that is,
related to customs and beliefs and culture, that is, human constructions.

From here, it can be known from which nation of civilization a nation has
learned its history in different periods, and what things it has adapted from
others and has been influenced by the social and cultural factors of Khalaraji.
(Khanlari, 2007: 113) [6]

8. Language as a Manifestation of Culture

According to Gunaf, the language of a society is a manifestation of the culture

of that society. So, getting to know a culture is like getting to know a language.
Because both of them are mental realities and as a result the description of a
language is the description of a culture. (Afkhami,?: 63).

9. Language and Archaeology in Cultural Understanding

In general, when one wants to deal with the human events of the past, one first
goes to the archaeologist. River. The archaeologist excavates the material and
spiritual remains of human cultures in the form of utensils, tools, jewelry and
various artifacts. Examines the construction and location of houses, temples,
and human life. Using what has been obtained, reconstruct and describe the
culture of the people who made and used these objects through language. And
the linguist can use archaeological material to say things about the transmission
of cultural items, such as where they were made and in what directions they
were spread. In this way, the waves of cultural expansion can be drawn through
language. According to some scientists, the existence of a common language
means the existence of a common culture and civilization. This means that all
people who speak a particular language share certain material and immaterial
elements as part of their culture. Of course, the existence of a common culture
does not mean a common language, but the speakers of a language have shared
in a relatively similar culture that we approach that culture by extracting
information from that language. (Arlato, 1994 : 310-312) [1]

10.Culture as Knowledge Learned through Language

For Hagel, culture means the construction or formation of matter or thought.

Here, language plays the role of a means of human socialization and is punished
by culture. And it categorizes the language of the natural and cultural world in a
positive way. Because language is a rich system of classification, and at the
same time, through this system, important clues are obtained for the study of
ideas and cultures. In this case, it should be said that culture is knowledge that is
learned through language and in society, and there is this dependence and
connection between language and culture. (Afkhami,?: 63)

Paralanguage: The Relationship between Language and Culture

Complex is one term that you can use to describe human communication since
paralanguage is used to transmit messages. Paralanguage is specific to a culture,
therefore communication with other ethnic groups can lead to
misunderstandings.

When you grow up in a specific society, it is inevitable to learn the glances,

gestures, and little changes in voice or tone and other communication tools to
emphasize or alter what you want to do or say. These specific communication
techniques of one culture are learned mostly by imitating and observing people,
initially from parents and immediate relatives and later from friends and people
outside the close family circle.

Body language, which is also known as kinesics, is the most obvious type of
paralanguage. These are the postures, expressions, and gestures used as non-
verbal language. However, it is likewise possible to alter the meaning of various
words by changing the character or tone of the voice.

Homologous Relationship Between Language and Culture

The phrase, language is culture and culture is language is often mentioned

when language and culture are discussed. It’s because the two have a
homologous although complex relationship. Language and culture developed
together and influenced each other as they evolved. Using this context, Alfred
L. Krober, a cultural anthropologist from the United States said that culture
started when speech was available, and from that beginning, the enrichment of
either one led the other to develop further.

If culture is a consequence of the interactions of humans, the acts of

communication are their cultural manifestations within a specific community.
Ferruccio Rossi-Landi, a philosopher from Italy whose work focused on
philosophy, semiotics and linguistics said that a speech community is made up
of all the messages that were exchanged with one another using a given
language, which is understood by the entire society. Rossi-Landi further added
that young children learn their language and culture from the society they were
born in. In the process of learning, they develop their cognitive abilities as well.

According to Professor Michael Silverstein, who teaches psychology, linguistics

and anthropology at the University of Chicago, culture’s communicative
pressure represents aspects of reality as well as connects different contexts. It
means that the use of symbols that represent events, identities, feelings and
beliefs is also the method of bringing these things into the current context.

Influencing the Way People Think

The principle of linguistic relativity tells us that language directly influences the
way people view the world. Anthropologist-linguist Edward Sapir of the United
States said that the language habits of specific groups of people built the real
world. He further added that no two languages are similar in such a way that
they would represent one society. The world for each society is different. In
analysis, this means that speaking a language means that the person is assuming
a culture. Knowing another culture, based on this principle, is knowing its
particular language. And we need communication to highlight interpretations
and representations of that world. This is why the relationship between language
and culture is essential when learning any new language.

Inter-Cultural Interactions

What is likely to happen if there is an interaction between two cultures? In

today’s scenario, intercultural interactions are very common. Communication is
necessary for any person who wants to understand and get along with people
whose backgrounds and beliefs are greatly dissimilar from their own.

It is easy to use language to mark cultural identity. But we also use language to
describe processes and developments, like explaining the intentions of a specific
speaker. Specific languages refer to particular cultural groups.

Values, basic assumptions, behavioral conventions, beliefs, and attitudes shared

by an ethnic group make up what we call culture. This set of attributes
influences the behavior of the individual members of the group and their
interpretations of the meanings of the behavior displayed by each member.
It is through language that we express the attributes of culture. We also use
language to point out unique objects in our cultures.

All this means that learning and teaching another language is essential for
international communication and cooperation. The knowledge of other
languages facilitates knowledge of other countries and the specific cultures of
each one. Again, this is why the relationship between language and culture is
critically important.

Transmission of Culture and Language

Language is learned, which means it can be culturally transmitted. Pre-school

children take on their first language from their exposure to random words they
encounter in and out of their homes. When they reach school age, they learn
their first language or another language. If it is the first language, the children
are taught writing and reading, the correct ways to construct sentences, and how
to use formal grammar. However, the child gained initial knowledge about the
essential structure and vocabulary of the first language before the child started
school.

Conversely, culture is transmitted in a large part, by language, through teaching.

Language is the reason why humans have histories that animals do not have. In
the study of animal behavior through the course of history, alterations to their
behavior were the result of the intervention of humans through domestication
and other types of interference.

The culture of humans on the other hand is as different as the world’s

languages. They are likely to change over time. In industrialized countries, the
changes in the language are more rapid.

Language Shapes Culture

Oral instruction, and not imitation, is how we learn the culture. There could be
some imitation if the learner is still young. With language, we have a better way
to understand methods of social control, products, techniques, and skills.
Spoken language offers a vast quantity of usable information for the
community. This helps to quicken new skill acquisition and the techniques to
adapt to new environments or altered circumstances.

The advent of writing increased the process of cultural dissemination. Diffusing

information became much easier thanks to the permanent state of writing. And
thanks to the invention of printing and the increase in literacy, this process
continues to evolve and speed up.

Modern techniques for fast communication transmission across the globe

through broadcasting and the presence of translation services around the world
help make usable knowledge to be accessible to people anywhere in the world.
Thus, the world benefits from the fast transference, availability, and exchange
of social, political, technological, and scientific knowledge.

Assimilation and Social Differentiation, and Language

Through time, variations appeared within a language. Transmission of a

language is self-perpetuating unless there is deliberate interference. However, it
became important for humans to improve their social hierarchies and social
status to advance personally. It’s safe to say that many people cultivate their
dialect phonologically, grammatically, and lexically to fit into new
communities.

An example of this phenomenon is the insistence of immigrants from Europe to

speak American English when they decided to move to the United States. It is
because they realized that speaking American English is a sign of acceptance in
their new home country. Unexpectedly, third-generation immigrants now want
to get in touch with the language of their ancestors.
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

Culture unifies a community although there is diversity within that unity. For
example, the older generation’s speech might differ from the speech younger
people use. Also, different groups speak different languages. This is evident in
the differences present in a professor’s speech compared to a young admin staff
member at the university. People could use a different form of the same
language in online forums, which would vastly differ from the language used by
media and classically trained individuals.

We use language in different ways. Linguistic varieties fall into geographical,

social, and functional subclasses. These factors lead to the formation of dialects
that add diversity to the language.

At Day Translations, Inc., our translators are not only linguistic experts.
Because they are native speakers, each of them understands their own culture
like the backs of their hands. They inherently understand the nuances of their
language as well as the languages they work with. They apply their deep
cultural knowledge to the translation projects they handle because they have a
deep understanding of the relationship between language and culture.
 Language and Identity

In communication, there are many ways that people can express elements of
their identity. There are also many aspects to a person's life that define their
identity. Language can both give someone identity and allows them to share the
aspects of it, such as their age, gender or where they live. We will look at the
relationship between language and identity, how this relates to sociolinguistic
study, and some examples of identity in language use.

1. The relationship between Language and identity

Language and social identity are closely intertwined. The language(s) we speak
and the way we use language can reflect and shape our social identities, which
are the various ways in which we identify ourselves in relation to others.

A person's identity can be influenced by different factors (parents, peers and

region) at different ages. These factors can influence a person’s language use.

 During childhood, a person’s language will mirror their parents’ as they

are who they'll interact with the most.

 When speakers reach secondary school, they may start to adopt

their peers' language features due to socialising with more social groups.

 A person’s regional identity will be shown through their use of a

regional accent. This could change to take on features of different
regions, for example, if someone moves to a different area for a
significant length of time.

Language and identity in sociolinguistics

A person's language is influenced by their social groups, leading us to the field

of sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguistics is the study of how social factors such as age and gender can
affect language use. This takes into account how someone speaks and
the judgements and perceptions associated with language features.

The social factors that can affect a person's language and identity include:

 Region (location)

 Gender

 Age

 Occupation

 Class

 Ethnicity

The use of different language features can imply a sense of belonging to

different social groups. These group-specific features are used to portray a
certain identity to the world. We call language use that shows belonging to a
certain social groups sociolects.

Sociolect is a combination of the terms 'social' and 'dialect'. The term refers to
language use that is specific to people belonging to the same social group and
share the same social factors, such as class, age, or occupation.

For example, teenagers may use slang terms such as 'GOAT' (greatest of all
time), 'lit' (amazing/brilliant), or 'V' (very) so that they can differentiate
themselves from adults and portray their age as a focal point of their identity.

A speaker can also show individual identity by using their idiolect.

Idiolect refers to the specific way an individual speaks. Idiolects have language
features from different social groups, creating a unique mix of features.

Language and identity: examples

Let's look at some examples of how identity is shown in language relating to

two of the main social factors: region and class.

Region

A real-life example of how region (geographical location) can impact language

and be used as a marker for identity can be seen in music. Some singers will
choose to perform in a standard British or American accent to appeal to a larger
audience, even though that's not their original accent.

However, some singers choose to retain their regional accents when singing.
This allows them to show their region as part of their identity.

The Proclaimers (who sang 500 Miles) and Twin Atlantic (who sang Heart and
soul) both sing with their Scottish accents, showing us that they value their
home region as part of their identity and want to share it with their audience.

Singers like these go against the norm of singers opting to sing in a standardised
accent. Think of Adele - she has a strong cockney accent when she's speaking
but swaps to a standard American accent when she sings.

Class

As a general rule regarding class and language, we can state that people with a
higher class are more likely to speak with Received Pronunciation (RP); this is
because RP has historically been the accent used and taught in educational
institutes.
An example of this can be seen in the speech of the Queen. She is of the upper
class and always uses Received Pronunciation. By doing this, she is showing the
upper-class aspect of her identity through her language.

Now that we understand the influence identity has on someone's language, we

can look at how identity applies to sociolinguistic theories.

Language and identity, and sociolinguistic theory

There are many theories which look at the link between language use and
identity and if we went through all of them we'd be here all week! So, in this
article, we'll go through four of the main social groups (region, gender, age, and
class) and look at one theory for each.

Theorists include:

 Carmen Llamas

 George Keith and John Shuttleworth

 Gary Ives

 Michael Nelson

We'll also look at two other theories that apply more to general language use
than to particular social groups.

Theories related to regions

Theories to regional identities include Carmen Llamas's theory.

In 1968, Middlesbrough changed from being part of Yorkshire to being part of

the Teesside County Borough. This meant that the Middlesbrough accent
changed from having primarily Yorkshire accent and dialect features to then
having features typical of the North East.

Linguist Carmen Llamas carried out a study in 2000 into the linguistic
variation in Middlesbrough and found the following:

 Older people used more Yorkshire accent features.

 Younger people used more North-East features.

 There is a strong hostility towards being labelled a 'geordie'.

 The people of Middlesbrough wished to be identified as North-East or

Middlesbrough through their accent.1

Fig. 2 - People from different regions will speak in different accents.

Gender

George Keith and John Shuttleworth explored theories related to gender and
identity.

In 1999, linguists Keith and Shuttleworth carried out a series of conversation

analyses of men's and women's speech.

Their findings concluded that there are typical speech characteristics for each
gender, shown in the table below:

Women Men

 Talk too much  Swear more

 More polite  Avoid emotions

  Hesitant  Insult each other

 Complain or nag  Competitive in conversation

 Ask questions  Dominate conversation

 Support each other  Speak with authority

 More cooperative  Give more commands

 Interrupt more

 Have demeaning names for women

 Talk about women and machines i

same way

 Talk about sports

Keith and Shuttleworth's findings align with typical gender stereotypes. People
may alter how they speak to avoid language that encourages stereotypical
judgements based on gender.2

Age

Linguist Gary Ives interviewed a group of teenagers in West Yorkshire to

document the features of adolescent language use. He found recurring patterns
in the speech of the teens.

These were:

 Their speech is linked by an informal register.

 The most common topic of conversation is relationships.

 Taboo language is part of the teen vernacular.

  Dialect is often used when speaking.

 Slang is common.

 Informal lexical choices are often linked by common themes or topics. 3

Teenagers may use some or all of these features to place themselves in the
group identity of ‘teenager.’ Teenagers who don’t want to be defined by the
stereotype of ‘teenager’ will often choose not to use these features in their
language.

Occupation

Linguist Michael Nelson carried out a study in 2000 into the concept
of business lexis. He concluded that people at work use language in a semantic
field of business, for example:

 business

 people

 companies

 institutions

 money

 time

 technology

These are some words which might fit into the "business" lexical field, for
example.

He also found that certain words or topics were not used, for example:

 weekends
  personal issues

 family

 society

 house and home

 hobbies

Nelson's theory can be linked to identity by looking at a person's workplace

language.

When at work, speakers may:

 Use Nelson’s business lexis to create a professional identity and keep

their home identity private, or;

 Deviate from Nelson’s business lexis and use more of their idiolect
features to create a more personable and approachable identity.4

Now that we've looked at identity and sociolinguistic theories, let's have a look
at a theory that shows how people change their language to show how
they don't belong to certain social groups.

Language and identity: other theories

Some of the other theorists associated with language, identity, and society
include Michael Halliday and Polari.

Michael Halliday's anti-language

Anti-language is the language of an anti-society that exists as an alternative to

'normal' society. Anti-language is linked to identity as it is used when a group
of people seek a covert identity.
A covert identity is a secret identity. The word covert refers to something that
is hidden.

After research into anti-languages and their uses, Halliday found that:

 Anti-languages are generally shown through a specific lexicon.

 They share the same grammar as the main society but have a different
vocabulary.

 Users of anti-languages can communicate meanings to each other that are

inaccessible to a non-user.

 Groups who use anti-language view it as fundamental to their identity.5

The best way to understand the concept of anti-languages is to look at a real-life

example.

Polari: example of anti-language

Polari is an example of an anti-language. Historically, it was used in the UK by

gay men but has now mostly fallen out of use. The lexicon was derived from a
variety of different sources including Cockney rhyming slang, backslang,
Italian, USA airforce slang, and drug-user slang.

Backslang is a form of anti-language where words are said as if they're spelt

backwards.

Examples of backslang are: "erif" (fire), "doog eno" (good one), and "delo"
(old).

This anti-language allowed gay men to communicate without being overheard.

This was important at the time as it allowed them to share an aspect of their
identity (being gay) that was illegal at the time.
Some examples of Polari words are:

 ajax (next to)

 bevvy (drink)

 bona (good)

 naff (awful)

 cod (awful)

 dolly (pretty)

 vada (to look)

Language and Identity - Key Takeaways

 A person's identity can be represented through their language use.

 A person's identity is often influenced by the social groups they're in.

 Social factors that can contribute to someone's identity are region, gender,
age, occupation, class and ethnicity.

 Some key theorists in language and identity include M. Halliday, G. Ives,

C. Llamas, and M. Nelson.

 Anti-language is used by groups of people who want an alternative to

'normal' society and seek a covert identity.