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A Level Biology CIE 

17. Selection & Evolution

CONTENTS
17.1 Variation
17.1.1 Variation: Phenotype
17.1.2 Variation: Discontinuous & Continuous
17.1.3 Variation: t-test Method
17.1.4 Variation: t-test Worked Example
17.2 Natural & Artificial Selection
17.2.1 Natural Selection
17.2.2 Natural Selection: Types of Selection
17.2.3 Natural Selection: Changes in Allele Frequencies
17.2.4 Natural Selection: Antibiotic Resistance
17.2.5 Natural Selection: Hardy-Weinberg Principle
17.2.6 Artificial Selection
17.2.7 Examples of Artificial Selection
17.3 Evolution
17.3.1 Theory of Evolution
17.3.2 Allopatric & Sympatric Speciation

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17.1 Variation YOUR NOTES


17.1.1 Variation: Phenotype
Variation: Phenotype
The observable characteristics of an organism are its phenotype
Phenotypic variation is the difference in phenotypes between organisms of the
same species
In some cases, phenotypic variation is explained by genetic factors
For example, the four different blood groups observed in human populations
are due to different individuals within the population having two of three
possible alleles for the single ABO gene
In other cases, phenotypic variation is explained by environmental factors
For example, clones of plants with exactly the same genetic information (DNA)
will grow to different heights when grown in different environmental
conditions
Phenotypic variation can also be explained by a combination of genetic and
environmental factors
For example, the recessive allele that causes sickle cell anaemia has a high
frequency in populations where malaria is prevalent due to heterozygous
individuals being resistant to malaria
The complete phenotype of an organism is determined by the expression of its
genotype and the interaction of the environment on this:
Phenotype = Genotype + Environment

Genetic variation
Organisms of the same species will have very similar genotypes, but two
individuals (even twins) will have differences between their DNA base
sequences
Considering the size of genomes, these differences are small between
individuals of the same species
The small differences in DNA base sequences between individual organisms
within a species population is called genetic variation
Genetic variation is transferred from one generation to the next and it
generates phenotypic variation within a species population
Genetic variation is caused by the following processes as they result in a new
combination of alleles in a gamete or individual:
Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes during metaphase
I
Crossing over of non-sister chromatids during prophase I
Random fusion of gametes during fertilization

Mutation results in the generation of new alleles

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The new allele may be advantageous, disadvantageous or have no YOUR NOTES

apparent effect on phenotype (due to the fact that the genetic code is 
degenerate
New alleles are not always seen in the individual that they first occur in
They can remain hidden (not expressed) within a population for several
generations before they contribute to phenotypic variation
Genes can have varying effects on an organism's phenotype
The phenotype may be affected by a single gene or by several
The effect that the gene has on the phenotype may be large, small and/or
additive
Sources of genetic variation table

Environmental factors
The environment that an organism lives in can also have an impact on its
phenotype
Different environments around the globe experience very different conditions in
terms of the:
Length of sunlight hours (which may be seasonal)
Supply of nutrients (food)
Availability of water
Temperature range
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Oxygen levels YOUR NOTES

Changes in the factors above can affect how organisms grow and develop 
For example, plants with a tall genotype growing in an environment that is
depleted in minerals, sunlight and water will not be able to grow to their full
potential size determined by genetics
Variation in phenotype caused solely by environmental pressures or factors cannot
be inherited by an organism's offspring
Only alterations to the genetic component of gametes will ever be inherited

 Exam Tip
Some questions in the exam may ask you to explain why the variation in
phenotype due to genetics is inherited but the variation in phenotype due to
environmental factors is not. This is because genetic variation directly
affects the DNA of the gametes but variation in phenotype caused by the
environment does not.

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17.1.2 Variation: Discontinuous & Continuous YOUR NOTES


Variation: Discontinuous & Continuous
The term variation refers to the differences that exist between at least two things
(be it a level, amount, quantity or feature of something)
In relation to natural selection, variation refers to the differences that exist
between individuals of a species
This may also be referred to as intraspecific variation
Variation observed in the phenotypes of organisms can be due to qualitative or
quantitative differences
Discontinuous variation
Qualitative differences in the phenotypes of individuals within a population give
rise to discontinuous variation
Qualitative differences fall into discrete and distinguishable categories, usually
with no intermediates (a feature can’t fall in between categories)
For example, there are four possible ABO blood groups in humans; a person
can only have one of them
It is easy to identify discontinuous variation when it is present in a table or graph
due to the distinct categories that exist when data is plotted for particular
characteristics

Graph showing population variation in blood types: an example of discontinuous

variation with qualitative differences

Continuous variation
Continuous variation occurs when there are quantitative differences in the
phenotypes of individuals within a population for particular characteristics

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Quantitative differences do not fall into discrete categories like in discontinuous YOUR NOTES
variation 
Instead for these features, a range of values exist between two extremes within
which the phenotype will fall
For example, the mass or height of a human is an example of continuous
variation
The lack of categories and the presence of a range of values can be used to
identify continuous variation when it is presented in a table or graph

Graph showing population variation in height: an example of continuous variation

with quantitative differences

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The Genetic Basis of Variation YOUR NOTES

Discontinuous variation refers to the differences between individuals of a species 
where the differences are qualitative (categoric)
Continuous variation is the differences between individuals of a species where the
differences are quantitative (measurable)
Each type of variation can be explained by genetic and / or environmental factors
Genetic basis of discontinuous variation
This type of variation occurs solely due to genetic factors
The environment has no direct effect
Phenotype = genotype
At the genetic level:
Different genes have different effects on the phenotype
Different alleles at a single gene locus have a large effect on the phenotype
Remember diploid organisms will inherit two alleles of each gene, these
alleles can be the same or different
A good example of this is the F8 gene that codes for the blood-clotting protein
Factor VIII
The different alleles at the F8 gene locus dictate whether or not normal Factor
VIII is produced and whether the individual has the condition haemophilia
Genetic basis of continuous variation
This type of variation is caused by an interaction between genetics and the
environment
Phenotype = genotype + environment
At the genetic level:
Different alleles at a single locus have a small effect on the phenotype
Different genes can have the same effect on the phenotype and these add
together to have an additive effect
If a large number of genes have a combined effect on the phenotype they are
known as polygenes
The additive effect of genes
The height of a plant is controlled by two unlinked genes H / h and T / t
The two genes have an additive effect
The recessive alleles h and t contribute x cm to the plants height
The dominant alleles H and T contribute 2x cm to the plants height
The following genotypes will have the following phenotypes:
h h t t : x + x + x + x = 4x cm
H H T T : 2x + 2x + 2x + 2x = 8x cm
H h T t : 2x + x + 2x + x = 6x cm
H H T t : 2x + 2x + 2x + x = 7x cm
H h T T : 2x + x + 2x + 2x = 7x cm
h h T t : x + x + 2x + x = 5x cm
H h t t : 2x + x + x + x = 5x cm

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Be careful when answering questions that involve polygenes or genes with 
an additive effect. It is not a given that each gene will have the same effect
on the phenotype as in the example above so make sure to double check the
information you have been given in the question.

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17.1.3 Variation: t-test Method YOUR NOTES


Variation: t-test Method
A statistical test called the t-test can be used to compare the means of two sets
of data and determine whether they are significantly different or not
The formula for the t-test will be provided in the exam, but formulae for how
to calculate the number of degrees of freedom is not provided in the exam
and must be learnt
The sets of data must follow a rough normal distribution, be continuous and the
standard deviations should be approximately equal
The standard deviation (s) must be calculated for each data set before the t-test
can be carried out
A null hypothesis should also be given
This is a statement of what we would expect if there is no significant
difference between two means, and that any differences seen are due to
chance

If there is a statistically significant difference between the means of two sets of

data, then the observation is not down to chance and the null hypothesis can be
rejected

Calculating the standard deviation

Using the t-test to compare two means

The steps below outline the general steps in a t test; for a worked example see the
next page
Null hypothesis: there is no statistically significant difference between the means
of sample 1 and sample 2
Step 1 : Calculate the mean for each data set:

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Step 2 :Calculate the standard deviation for each set of data, s1 = standard YOUR NOTES
deviation of sample 1 and s2 = standard deviation of sample 2 

Step 3 :Square the standard deviation and divide by n (the number of

observations) in each sample, for both samples:

Step 4: Add the values from step 3 together and take the square root:

Step 5: Divide the difference between the two means (see step 1) with the value
calculated in step 4 to get the t value:

Step 6:Calculate the degrees of freedom (v) for the whole data set (remember the
formulae for this will not be given in the exam):
v = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1)

Step 7:Look at a table that relates t values to the probability that the differences
between data sets is due to chance to find where the t value for the degrees of
freedom (v) calculated lies
T values table

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YOUR NOTES


Step 8 : The greater the t value calculated (for any degree of freedom), the lower
the probability of chance causing any significant difference between the two
sample means
Identify where the t value calculated lies with respect to the confidence levels
provided
If the t value is greater than the critical value (obtained from the table at the
critical probability of 0.05) then any difference between the two data sets is
less likely to be due to chance, so the null hypothesis can be rejected
If the t value is less than the critical value given at a confidence of 5% / the
probability that any difference is down to chance is above 0.05; then an
assumption can be made that the differences between the means of the two
sets of data are not significant and the null hypothesis is accepted

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Using the table above, if a value of t was calculated to be 2.38 at 5 degrees of YOUR NOTES
freedom, then it lies between 2.02 and 2.57, so the probability that chance 
produced any differences between the two means is between 10% and 5%; the null
hypothesis would be accepted in this situation

 Exam Tip
If you need to calculate the t value you will be given the formula in the
exam. Generally questions on the t-test require you to:
Know why a t-test is being used to analyse the data
State the null hypothesis
Know how the degrees of freedom was calculated
State the conclusion (are the differences between the two means
significant or not)

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17.1.4 Variation: t-test Worked Example YOUR NOTES


Variation: t-test Worked Example

 Worked Example
The ear length of two populations of rabbits was [Link] lengths of
population A (mm):
62, 60, 59, 61, 60, 58, 59, 60, 57, 56, 59, 58, 60, 59, 57
Ear lengths of population B (mm):
58, 59, 57, 59, 59, 57, 55, 60, 57, 58, 59, 58, 57, 58, 59
Use the t-test to determine whether there is a significant difference in ear
length between the two populations.

Solution
Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the ear lengths of
the rabbits in populations A and B
Sample sizes:
Population A: n1 = 15
Population B: n2 = 15
Step 1: Calculate the mean for each data set:

Mean for population A x̅ 1 = 885 / 15 = 59 mm

Mean for population B x̅ 2 = 870 / 15 = 58 mm
Step 2: Calculate the standard deviation (s) for each set of data

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YOUR NOTES


To find the standard deviations divide the sum of each square by n - 1 for each data
set, and take the square root of each value

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YOUR NOTES


Step 3: Square the standard deviation and divide by n (the number of

observations) in each sample, for both samples:

Step 4: Add the values from step 3 together and find the square root

Step 5: Divide the difference between the two means by the value from step 4

Step 6: Calculate the degrees of freedom (v) for all the data:

v = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1) = 14 + 14 = 28
Step 7: Look at a table that relates t values to the probability that the differences
between data sets is due to chance to find where the t value of 1.91 for 28 degrees
of freedom (v) calculated lies

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YOUR NOTES
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Step 8: Draw a conclusion about the statistical relevance of the data

A t value of 1.91 represents a probability between 0.05 and 0.1 which is greater than
the critical value of 0.05.
This means the null hypothesis should be accepted, as there are no significant
differences between the two sets of results (any differences between the means of the
ear length of rabbits in the two populations are due to chance)

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17.2 Natural & Artificial Selection YOUR NOTES


17.2.1 Natural Selection
Natural Selection
Every individual within a species population has the potential to reproduce and
have offspring which contribute to population growth
If the offspring for every individual survived to adulthood and reproduced then the
population would experience exponential growth
This type of growth only happens when there are no environmental factors or
population checks acting on the population (for example, when there are
plentiful resources and no disease)
One well known but rare example of exponential growth in a population is the
introduction of 24 European rabbits into Australia in the 1800s. The rabbits
had an abundance of resources, little or no competition and no natural
predators. This meant the population increased rapidly and they became a
major pest
In reality, there are several environmental factors that prevent every individual in
a population making it to adulthood and reproducing

Exponential growth in a population of rabbits that have no environmental checks

Environmental factors
Environmental factors limit population sizes by reducing the rate of population
growth whenever a population reaches a certain size
Environmental factors can be biotic or abiotic
Biotic factors involve other living organisms
This includes things like predation, competition for resources and disease
Abiotic factors involve the nonliving parts of an environment

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Examples of abiotic factors include light availability, water supply and soil pH YOUR NOTES
When biotic and abiotic factors come into play not all individuals within a 
population will survive
For example, if a food source is limited some animals within a population will
not get enough to eat and will starve to death
For most populations in the wild, the number of offspring produced is much higher
than the number of individuals that make it adulthood
Population limitation by environmental factors
For African lions living in the wild there are several environmental factors that limit
their population growth rate:
1. Competition for food
There is a limited supply of prey: other lions and carnivores will also be
hunting the same prey. If a lion is not able to hunt and feed then they will die
from starvation
2. Competition for a reproductive mate
Female lions will often outnumber male lions in a population. This means the
males compete with each other to mate with the females. When one male is in
a contest with another male one (or both) could be injured or killed. Whoever
loses the contest won’t be able to mate with the females in a pride and so
won’t pass on his genes to any offspring
3. Supply of water
African habitats can be very arid during the dry season. The water sources that
the lions drink from can be miles apart. If a lake or source of water dries up
then they can die due to dehydration
4. Temperature
The extreme heat experienced in the lion’s African habitat can cause them to
overheat and die. It can also prevent them from hunting for long periods
during the day, meaning they are less likely to get the food they need to
survive
The combined effect of all these environmental factors leads to a decrease in
population growth as fewer individuals survive to adulthood and reproduce

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YOUR NOTES


The different effects of environmental factors on the population growth of African

lions in the wild

Natural selection & survival

Variation exists within a species population
This means that some individuals within the population possess different
phenotypes (due to genetic variation in the alleles they possess; remember
members of the same species will have the same genes)
Environmental factors affect the chance of survival of an organism; they, therefore,
act as a selection pressure
Selection pressures increase the chance of individuals with a specific phenotype
surviving and reproducing over others
The individuals with the favoured phenotypes are described as having a higher
fitness
The fitness of an organism is defined as its ability to survive and pass on its
alleles to offspring
Organisms with higher fitness posses adaptations that make them better
suited to their environment

When selection pressures act over several generations of a species they have an
effect on the frequency of alleles in a population through natural selection
Natural selection is the process by which individuals with a fitter phenotype
are more likely to survive and pass on their alleles to their offspring so that
the advantageous alleles increase in frequency over time and generations
Natural selection in rabbits
Variation in their fur colourexists within rabbit populations
At a single gene locus, normal brown fur is produced by a dominant allele
whereas white fur is produced by a recessive allele in a homozygous individual
Rabbits have natural predators like foxes which act as a selection pressure
Rabbits with a white coat do not camouflage as well as rabbits with brown fur,
meaning predators are more likely to see white rabbits when hunting
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As a result, rabbits with white fur are less likely to survive than rabbits with brown YOUR NOTES
fur 
The rabbits with brown fur therefore have a selection advantage, so they are
more likely to survive to reproductive age and be able to pass on their alleles to
their offspring
Over many generations, the frequency of alleles for brown fur will increase and
the frequency of alleles for white fur will decrease

Selective pressures acting on a rabbit population for one generation. Predation by

foxes causes the frequency of brown fur alleles in rabbits to increase and the
frequency of white fur alleles in rabbits to decrease

 Exam Tip
Remember that organisms better suited to their environments are more
likely to survive, but survival is not guaranteed. Organisms that are less
suited to an environment are still able to survive and potentially reproduce
within it, but their chance of survival and reproduction is lower than their
better-suited [Link], it is important to be aware that an environment,
and the selection pressures it exerts on an organism, can change over time.
When a change occurs then a different phenotype may become
[Link], remember that all organisms (not just animals) experience
selection pressures as a result of the environment they are in!

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17.2.2 Natural Selection: Types of Selection YOUR NOTES


Natural Selection: Types of Selection
Environmental factors that affect the chance of survival of an organism are
selection pressures
For example, there could be high competition for food between lions if there is
not plentiful prey available; this environmental factor ‘selects’ for faster, more
powerful lions that are better hunters
These selection pressures can have different effects on the allele frequencies of a
population through natural selection
There are three types of selection:
Stabilising
Disruptive
Directional

Stabilising selection
Stabilising selection is natural selection that keeps allele frequencies relatively
constant over generations
This means things stay as they are unless there is a change in the environment
A classic example of stabilising selection can be seen in human birth weights
Very-low and very-high birth weights are selected against leading to the
maintenance of the intermediate birth weights

Stabilising selection on human birth weight

Directional selection

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Directional selection is natural selection that produces a gradual change in allele YOUR NOTES
frequencies over several generations 
This usually happens when there is a change in environment / selection pressures
or a new allele has appeared in the population that is advantageous
For example: A recent finding has shown that climate change is having an effect on
fish size in certain habitats
The increase in temperature is selecting for a smaller body size and against a
larger body size
Warmer seas cause fish metabolism to speed up and so increases their need
for oxygen; oxygen levels are lower in warmer seas
Larger fish have greater metabolic needs than smaller fish, and so they feel
the effect of increased temperatures more strongly
Organisms are sensitive to changes in temperature primarily because of the
effect that temperature can have on enzyme activity
Fish with a smaller body size are therefore fitter and better adapted to living
in seas experiencing increased temperatures
Fish body size is determined by both genetic and environmental factors
Fish of a smaller size are more likely to reproduce and pass on their alleles to
offspring
Over generations, this leads to an increase in the frequency of alleles that
produce a small body size and a decrease in the frequency of alleles that
produce a larger body size

Directional selection acting on fish body size

Disruptive selection
Disruptive selection is natural selection that maintains high frequencies of two
different sets of alleles

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In other words, individuals with intermediate phenotypes or alleles are YOUR NOTES
selected against 
Disruptive selection causes polymorphism: the continued existence of two or
more distinct phenotypes in species
This can occur in an environment that shows variation
For example, birds that live on the Galapagos Islands use their beaks to forage for
different sized seeds
The size of the bird's beaks are either small or large with the intermediate
medium-sized beak selected against
The reason for this is that the different types of seed available are more
efficiently foraged by a shorter or longer beak

Disruptive selection acting on beak size in a bird population

 Exam Tip
Become familiar with the shapes of the graphs above. They can help you
answer questions about the type of selection that is occurring in a
population.

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17.2.3 Natural Selection: Changes in Allele Frequencies YOUR NOTES


Natural Selection: Changes in Allele Frequencies
Evolution involves changes in allele frequencies over time
This can be caused by natural selection
Selection pressures (caused by the environment) increase the likelihood that
certain individuals with specific alleles survive to reproductive age, enabling
them to pass on their alleles to their offspring
In addition to natural selection it is also possible for allele frequencies to change
as a result of chance; this can occur due to a process known as genetic drift
Other processes that can cause changes in allele frequencies due to chance events
include
The founder effect
The bottleneck effect

Natural selection
When a new allele arises in a population or a change in the environment occurs
then directional selection can happen
Directional selection produces a gradual change in allele frequencies over several
generations
There is always phenotypic variation within a population
There is a selection pressure in the environment, e.g. the presence of a
predator
Some individuals in a population may have a phenotype that aids their survival
in the presence of a selection pressure
The phenotype is produced by particular alleles
Individuals with the favoured phenotype are fitter and so more likely to
reproduce and pass on the advantageous alleles to their offspring
Those who do not possess the advantageous allele or phenotype are less likely
to survive and pass on their alleles to their offspring
So over time and several generations the frequency of the advantageous
allele increases and the frequency of other alleles decreases

Genetic drift
When a population is very small chance can affect which alleles get passed on to
the next generation
Meiosis results in haploid gametes, meaning that a fertilisation event only
passes on half of the alleles of an individual; the half that gets passed on is
the result of random fertilisation, and the other half of the alleles may be lost
to the next generation
Over time some alleles can be lost or passed on purely by chance; this is genetic
drift
Genetic drift is more likely to affect allele frequencies in a small population
E.g. if a coin is tossed 10 times it is reasonably likely that heads will not come
up at all, whereas if a coin is tossed 100 times and heads didn't come up at all
you would think you had a dodgy coin!

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In a similar way the chances of a certain allele simply being lost by chance as a YOUR NOTES
result of random fertilisation is much greater if only 10 pairs of birds are 
breeding than if there were 100 pairs of birds breeding
Example of genetic drift in plants
In a small population of five plants growing near a playground with a rubber floor,
three of the plants have blue flowers and two of the plants have pink flowers
By chance most of the seeds from the pink flowered plants end up on the rubber
floor of the playground while all the seeds from the blue flowered plants land on
fertile soil where they are able to germinate and grow
Note that the seeds from the pink flower do not fall on the impermeable
surface because of any disadvantageous allele in the plant's genome, but
purely by chance, e.g. because of a gust of wind or a passing animal
If this happens by chance over several generations the allele for the pink flowers
may be lost from this population

The founder effect

The founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals from a large parent
population start a new population
The founder effect can come about as the result of chance
E.g. a chance event such as a storm may separate a small group of
individuals from the main population
As the new population is made up of only a few individuals from the original
population only some of the total alleles from the parent population will be
present
In other words, not all of the gene pool is present in the smaller population
Because the population that results from the founder effect is very small it is more
susceptible to the effects of genetic drift

The founder effect in lizards

Anole lizards inhabit most Caribbean Islands and they can travel from one island
to another via floating debris or vegetation
A small number of lizards may be separated from the main population on a larger
island and carried away to a smaller island by a chance event such as a large
ocean wave or a storm
The lizards arriving at a new island may only carry a small selection of alleles
between them, with many more alleles present in the lizard population on the
original island
E.g. the lizards on the original island could display a range of scale colours
from white to yellow and the two individual lizards that arrived on the island
may have white scales
This means that the whole population that grows on that island might only
have individuals with white scales
In comparison the original island population has a mixture of white and
yellow scaled individuals.
If the yellow allele were recessive and present as a single copy in the original two
lizards that arrived on the island, the chance of it being lost as a result of genetic
drift is increased due to the small size of the gene pool
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YOUR NOTES


The founder effect on lizards and their scale colour.

Bottleneck effect
The bottleneck effect is similar to the Founder effect
It occurs when a previously large population suffers a dramatic fall in numbers
A major environmental event can greatly reduce the number of individuals in a
population which in turn reduces the genetic diversity in the population as alleles
are lost
The surviving individuals end up breeding and reproducing with close relatives
Example of the bottleneck effect
A clear example of a genetic bottleneck can be seen in cheetahs today
Roughly 10,000 years ago there was a large and genetically diverse cheetah
population
Most of the population was suddenly killed off when the climate changed
drastically at the end of the Ice Age
As a result the surviving cheetahs were isolated in small populations and lots of
inbreeding occurred
This meant that the cheetah population today has a lack of genetic variation
This is problematic for conservation as genetic variation within a species
increases the likelihood that the species is able to respond in the event of any
environmental changes
Remember the environment exerts a selection pressure on organisms

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YOUR NOTES


The bottleneck effect in cheetahs after the Ice Age.

Processes that Cause Allele Changes Table

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17.2.4 Natural Selection: Antibiotic Resistance YOUR NOTES


Natural Selection: Antibiotic Resistance
When humans experience a pathogenic bacterial infection they are often
prescribed antibiotics by a healthcare professional
Antibiotics are chemical substances that inhibit or kill bacterial cells with little or
no harm to human tissue
Antibiotics are derived from naturally occurring substances that are harmful to
prokaryotic cells (structurally or physiologically) but usually do not affect
eukaryotic cells
The aim of antibiotic use is to aid the body’s immune system in fighting a
bacterial infection
Penicillin is a well-known example; it was the first antibiotic to be discovered in
1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming
Antibiotics are either described as being bactericidal (they kill) or bacteriostatic
(they inhibit growth processes), they target prokaryotic features but can affect both
pathogenic and mutualistic bacteria living on or in the body
However, like in all species, there exists genetic diversity within populations, and
the same applies to disease-causing bacteria
Individual bacterial cells may possess alleles that confer resistance to the effects
of the antibiotic
These alleles are generated through random mutation and are not caused by
antibiotic use, but antibiotic use exerts selection pressures that can result in
the increase in their frequency
Bacteria have a single loop of DNA with only one copy of each gene so when a new
allele arises it is immediately displayed in the phenotype
When an antibiotic is present:
Individuals with the allele for antibiotic resistance have a massive selective
advantage so they are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass their
genome (including resistance alleles) on
Those without alleles are less likely to survive and reproduce
Over several generations, the entire population of bacteria may be antibiotic-
resistant
Antibiotic resistance is an important example of natural selection
Staphylococcus
There are known populations of the bacterium Staphylococcus that possess alleles
which make them resistant to the effects of penicillin
These are known as resistant strains
Due to the rapid reproduction rate of bacteria (generations of 20-30 minutes for
some species in optimal conditions) a single resistant bacterium can produce 10
000 million resistant descendants within a day
The future of antibiotic resistance

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Antibiotic-resistant strains are a major problem in human medicine YOUR NOTES

New resistant strains are constantly emerging due to the overuse of antibiotics 
By using antibiotics frequently, humans exert a selective pressure on the
bacteria, which supports the evolution of antibiotic resistance
Scientists are trying hard to find new antibiotics that bacteria have not yet been
exposed to, but this process is expensive and time-consuming
Some strains of bacteria can be resistant to multiple antibiotics and they create
infections and diseases which are very difficult to treat
When antibiotics were discovered, scientists thought they would be able to
eradicate bacterial infections, but less than a century later a future is being
imagined where many bacterial infections cannot be treated with current
medicines

 Exam Tip
Bacteria pass on alleles for antibiotic resistance through reproduction
(vertical gene transfer) but they can also do it in another [Link]
possess plasmids which are a small circular piece of DNA that is not the
main chromosome. Alleles for antibiotic resistance are often found on these
plasmids. Plasmids can be easily transferred from one bacterium to
another, even between different species. This is an example of horizontal
gene [Link] means that alleles for antibiotic resistance can be passed
one from species of bacteria to another species.

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17.2.5 Natural Selection: Hardy-Weinberg Principle YOUR NOTES


Natural Selection: Hardy-Weinberg Principle
The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that if certain conditions are met then the
allele frequencies of a gene within a population will not change from one
generation to the next
There are seven conditions or assumptions that must be met for the Hardy-
Weinberg principle to hold true
The Hardy-Weinberg equation allows for the calculation of allele and genotype
frequencies within populations
It also allows for predictions to be made about how these frequencies will change
in future generations
Conditions for the Hardy-Weinberg principle
For the Hardy-Weinberg principle to be correctly applied to a population a series of
conditions, or assumptions, need to be met
Organisms are diploid
Organisms reproduce by sexual reproduction only
There is no overlap between generations, i.e. parents do not mate with
offspring
Mating is random
The population is large
There is no migration, mutation, or selection
This would mean no individuals entering the population (immigration) or
leaving (emigration)
Selection refers to both natural and artificial selection
Allele frequencies are equal in both sexes
The Hardy-Weinberg principle can be useful when building models and making
predictions, but the assumptions listed are very rarely, if ever, all present in nature
Hardy-Weinberg equations
If the phenotype of a trait in a population is determined by a single gene with only
two alleles (we will use B / b as examples throughout this section) then the
population will consist of individuals with three possible genotypes:
Homozygous dominant (BB)
Heterozygous (Bb)
Homozygous recessive (bb)
When using the Hardy-Weinberg equation frequencies are represented
as proportions of the population; a proportion is a number out of 1
For example if every individual in the population has the homozygous
dominant genotype BB then its frequency will be 1, while if half of the
population show this genotype then the frequency will be 0.5
Frequency of alleles can be represented; this is the proportion of all of the alleles
in a population that are of a particular form
The letter p represents the frequency of the dominant allele (B)
The letter q represents the frequency of the recessive allele (b)

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As there are only two alleles at a single gene locus for a phenotypic trait in the YOUR NOTES
population: 
p+q=1

E.g. in a population of 100 individuals there would be 200 alleles because

every individual has two versions of each gene
If 120 of those alleles were the dominant allele then the frequency of the
dominant allele would be 120/200
It could be said that p = 120 ÷ 200 = 0.6
If p = 0.6 then q = 1 - 0.6 = 0.4
Frequency of genotypes can also be represented; this is the proportion of all of
the individuals with a particular genotype
The chance of an individual being homozygous dominant is p2
The offspring would inherit dominant alleles from both parents so p x p =
p2
The chance of an individual being heterozygous is 2pq
Offspring could inherit a dominant allele from the father and a recessive
allele from the mother (p x q) or offspring could inherit a dominant allele
from the mother and a recessive allele from the father (p x q) so 2pq
The chance of an individual being homozygous recessive is q2
The offspring would inherit recessive alleles from both parents so q x q =
q2
As these are all the possible genotypes of individuals in the population the
following equation can be constructed:
p2 + q2 + 2 pq = 1

 Worked Example
In a population of birds 10% of the individuals exhibit the recessive
phenotype of white feathers. Calculate the frequencies of all genotypes.

Solution:
We will use F / f to represent dominant and recessive alleles for feather colour
Those with the recessive phenotype must have the homozygous recessive
genotype, ff
Therefore q2 = 0.10 (as 10% of the individuals have the recessive phenotype and
q2 represents this)

To calculate the frequencies of the homozygous dominant ( p2 ) and heterozygous (

2 pq ):

Step 1: Find q

Step 2: Find p (the frequency of the dominant allele F). If q = 0.32, and p + q = 1

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p+q= 1 YOUR NOTES

p= 1 - 0.32 

p= 0.68
Step 3: Find p2 (the frequency of homozygous dominant genotype)

0.682 = 0.46
p2 = 0.46
Step 4: Find 2 pq = 2 x (p) x (q)

2 x (0.68) x (0.32) = 0.44

Step 5: Check calculations by substituting the values for the three frequencies
into the equation; they should add up to 1

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
0.46 + 0.44 + 0.10 = 1
In summary:

Allele frequencies:
p = F = 0.68
q = f = 0.32
Genotype frequencies:
p2 = FF = 0.46
q2 = ff = 0.10
2pq = Ff = 0.44

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
When you are using Hardy-Weinberg equations you must always start your 
calculations by determining the proportion of individuals that display the
recessive phenotype; this is the only phenotype from which you can
immediately work out its genotype as it will always be homozygous
recessive (the dominant phenotype is seen in both homozygous dominant
and heterozygous individuals).
In Hardy-Weinberg questions it is a good idea to begin by establishing what
information you have been given in the question (i.e. do you know q2, or do
you know p?), and then establishing what the question wants you to work
out (i.e. are you calculating 2pq?). You can then work out how to get from
one to the other.
Don’t mix up the Hardy-Weinberg equations with the Hardy-Weinberg
principle. The equations are used to estimate the allele and genotype
frequencies in a population. The principle suggests that there is an
equilibrium between allele frequencies and that there is no change in this
between generations.

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17.2.6 Artificial Selection YOUR NOTES


Artificial Selection
Artificial selection is the process by which humans choose organisms with
desirable traits and selectively breed them together to enhance the expression of
these desirable traits over time and many generations
This practice is also known as selective breeding
Humans have been selectively breeding organisms for thousands of years, long
before scientists understood the genetics behind it
Knowledge of the alleles that contribute to the expression of the desired traits are
not required as individuals are selected by their phenotypes, and not their
genotypes
As the genetics is not always understood, breeders can accidentally enhance other
traits that are genetically linked to the desirable trait
These other traits can sometimes negatively affect the organism's health
Examples of artificial selection include:
Increased milk yield from cattle
Faster racehorses
Disease-resistant crops
There are always biological limitations to how extreme a trait can become in an
organism
Principles of selective breeding
[Link] population shows phenotypic variation - there are individuals with different
phenotypes / traits
2. Breeder selects an individual with the desired phenotype
[Link] individual with the desired phenotype is selected. The two selected
individuals should not be closely related to each other
4. The two selected individuals are bred together
5. The offspring produced reach maturity and are then tested for the desirable
trait. Those that display the desired phenotype to the greatest degree are selected
for further breeding
6. The process continues for many generations: the best individuals from the
offspring are chosen for breeding until all offspring display the desirable trait
Artificial selection in racing horses
Selective breeding has been a major part of the horseracing industry for many
years. Breeders have found that horses tend to have one of the three following
phenotypes:
Good at sprinting short distances
Good endurance over long distances
All-rounder

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If a breeder wanted to breed a horse for a sprinting event they are likely to do the YOUR NOTES
following: 
Select the fastest sprinting female horse they have
Select the fastest sprinting male horse they have
Breed the two selected horses
Allow their offspring to reach maturity and test their sprinting speeds to find
the fastest horse (male or female)
The breeder could then use this horse for racing, or they could continue the
process of selective breeding by breeding this horse with another horse that is
fast or descended from fast-sprinters
Over several generations, it would be hoped that the offspring are all fast-
sprinters (but remember there are biological limitations to this)

 Exam Tip
Selective breeding can be used to enhance a single desired trait but it can
also be used to combine several desired traits together in a single
individual. A lot of this type of selective breeding is seen in plants. Farmers
are constantly trying to breed plants with a high yield, disease resistance
and the ability to grow in poor soil.

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17.2.7 Examples of Artificial Selection YOUR NOTES


Examples of Selective Breeding
Selective breeding (or artificial selection) is the process by which humans choose
individuals with desired traits to reproduce, with the aim of producing offspring
with the desired traits also
Most selective breeding is done with the aim of increasing the yield of a sellable
product
It is not done with the organism's survival in mind, and unlike natural selection, it
can lead to organisms that are poorly adapted to their environments
Unless the genetic mechanism behind a trait is fully understood, is highly likely
that other traits could also be accidentally enhanced
Some examples of selective breeding in agriculture and livestock include:
Disease-resistance in wheat and rice varieties
Hybridization in maize
Milk yield in cattle

Disease-resistance in wheat & rice

Wheat plants have been selectively bred for hundreds of years as a crop
Wheat crops can be badly affected by fungal diseases: Fusarium is a fungus that
causes “head blight” in wheat plants
Fungal diseases are highly problematic for farmers as they destroy the wheat
plant and reduce crop yield
By using selective breeding to introduce a fungus-resistant allele from another
species of wheat, the hybrid wheat plants are not susceptible to infection, and so
yield increases
Introducing the allele into the crop population can take many generations and
collaboration with researchers and plant breeders
Rice is another crop that has been subject to large amounts of selective breeding
Rice plants are prone to different bacterial and fungal diseases
Examples include “bacterial blight” and “rice blast” caused by the Magnaporthe
fungus
These diseases all reduce the yield of the crop as they damage infected plants
Scientists are currently working hard to create varieties of rice plants that are
resistant to several bacterial and fungal diseases
Inbreeding & hybridization in maize
Maize (also known as corn) is a staple crop in many countries around the world; it
is grown to feed both livestock and people
In the past, maize plants have been heavily inbred (bred with plants with similar
genotypes to their own)
This has resulted in small and weaker maize plants that have less vigour
This is inbreeding depression which:
Increases the chance of harmful recessive alleles combining in an individual
and being expressed in the phenotype

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Increases homozygosity in individuals (paired alleles at loci are identical) YOUR NOTES
Leads to decreased growth and survivability 
A farmer can prevent inbreeding depression by outbreeding
This involves breeding individuals that are not closely related
Outbreeding produces taller and healthier maize plants
It decreases the chance of harmful recessive alleles combining in an
individual and being expressed in the phenotype
Increases heterozygosity (paired alleles at loci are different)
Leads to increased growth and survivability (known as hybrid vigour)
Crops of these plants have a greater yield
Uniformity is important when growing a crop:
If outbreeding is carried out completely randomly, it can produce too much
variation between plants within one field
A farmer needs the plants to ripen at the same time and be of a similar height;
the more variation there is, the less likely this is
In order to achieve heterozygosity and uniformity, farmers buy sets of
homozygous seeds from specialised companies and cross them to produce an F1
generation
Different hybrids of maize are constantly being created and tested for desirables
traits such as: resistance to pests / disease, higher yields and good growth in poor
conditions
Improving milk yield in cattle
Milk is a global food source, rich in calcium and protein (essential for growth)
Over many years and generations farmers have selected female cows that have
the highest milk yield and crossed them with male bulls related to high yield
females
Over time this selective breeding has resulted in cows with greater milk yields,
which has been of great economical benefit to farmers
The selective breeding of cows for increased milk yield is a good example of how
artificial selection (controlled by humans) does not take into account an
organism's survival
Selective breeding usually focuses on only one, or a handful of, characteristics,
often to the extreme. Little thought is given to other traits important to an
organism's health
In cows it has been observed that selectively bred individuals are much more
prone to ailments such as mastitis (inflammation of the udder), milk fever and
lameness compared to those that were allowed to breed at random

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
In selective breeding, selection pressure is applied by humans who desire 
certain traits in animals or plants - this is why it’s described as artificial
[Link] natural selection, the environment applies selection pressure
on populations / species - but not to achieve a desirable outcome. Selection
pressures in natural selection are simply driven by the environment in which
organisms live and which features within a population or species are best
suited (adapted) to that environment.

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17.3 Evolution YOUR NOTES


17.3.1 Theory of Evolution
Theory of Evolution
A species can be defined as a group of organisms that are able to interbreed and
produce fertile offspring
Members of one species are reproductively isolated from members of another
species
In reality, it is quite hard to define ‘species’ and the determination of whether two
organisms belong to the same species is dependent on investigation
Individuals of the same species have similar behavioural, morphological
(structural) and physiological (metabolic) features
A common example used to illustrate this concept are mules; the infertile offspring
produced when a male donkey and a female horse mate
The gene pool
The phenotype of all organisms is dependent on its genotype and environmental
influence on this
Members of the same species will have the same genes, of which there may exist
alleles (alternate versions)
A gene pool is the collection of genes within an interbreeding population
A gene pool can be thought of as the sum of all the alleles at all of the loci within
the genes of a population of a single species or a population
Changes to the gene pool
The gene pool (or allele frequencies) in a species population can change over time
due to processes such as:
Natural selection
Genetic drift
The founder effect
When the gene pool within a species population changes sufficiently over time,
the characteristics of the species will also change
The change can become so great that a new species forms
This is evolution
Evolution is the formation of new species from pre-existing species over time,
as a result of changes to gene pools from generation to generation

For a population to have evolved into a separate species it must be genetically and
reproductively isolated from the pre-existing species population
Reproductive isolation can occur due to mutations that lead to the
incompatibility of gametes or sex organs, or differences in breeding
behaviour.
When two populations are reproductively isolated, they can also be said to be
genetically isolated from each other, meaning that they do not exchange
genes with each other in the production of offspring

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Changes in the allele frequencies of isolated populations are not shared so they YOUR NOTES
evolve independently of each other; this can lead to the formation of two groups

that are no longer successfully able to interbreed and that are said to be separate
species
The formation of new species in this way is known as speciation
The evolution of a new species can take a very long time and many generations
For organisms with a short generation time (such as bacteria), evolution of new
species can be observed far more quickly

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Evidence of Evolutionary Relationships in DNA YOUR NOTES

DNA found in the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts of cells can be 
sequenced and used to show evolutionary relationships between species
The differences between the nucleotide sequences (DNA) of different species can
provide a lot of information:
The more similar the sequence the more closely related the species are
Two groups of organisms with very similar DNA will have separated into
separate species more recently than two groups with less similarity in their
DNA sequences
DNA sequence analysis and comparison can also be used to create family trees
that show the evolutionary relationships between species

Example of a family tree showing the relationship between primate species

DNA Analysis and Comparison

DNA is extracted from the nuclei of cells taken from an organism
DNA can be extracted from blood or skin samples from living organisms or
from fossils
The extracted DNA is processed, analysed and the base sequence is obtained
The base sequence is compared to that of other organisms to determine
evolutionary relationships
The more similarities there are in the DNA base sequence, the more closely
related (in that the less distant the species separation) members of different

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species are YOUR NOTES

In 2005, the chimpanzee genome was sequenced, and when compared to the 
human genome it was discovered that humans and chimpanzees share almost 99%
of their DNA sequences, making them our closest living relatives
In 2012, the sequencing of the bonobo genome also revealed that humans and
bonobos also share 98% of their genome (with slight differences to the
differences seen in chimpanzees)

The DNA base sequences of two closely related species being compared - Species X
is the ancestor of Species Y

Mitochondrial DNA
When analysing DNA from the mitochondria is is important to remember that:
A zygote only contains the mitochondria of the egg and none from the sperm
so only maternal mitochondrial DNA is present in a zygote
There is no crossing over that occurs in mtDNA so the base sequence can only
change by mutation
The lack of crossing over in mtDNA has allowed scientists to research the origins
of species, genetic drift and migration events
It has even been possible to estimate how long ago the first human lived and
where
Mitochondrial Eve is thought to have lived in Africa ~200,000 years ago
The estimation of this date relies on the molecular clock theory which
assumes there is a constant rate of mutation over time
The greater the number of differences there are between nucleotide
sequences, the longer ago the common ancestor of both species existed
The molecular clock is calibrated by using fossils and carbon dating
A fossil of a known species is carbon-dated to estimate how long ago that
organism lived
This mtDNA of this species is then used as a baseline for comparison with the
mtDNA of other species
Although for your exams you should say that only maternal mitochondrial DNA can
be passed on or inherited by the zygote, recent research suggests that paternal

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mDNA may also be present in zygotes YOUR NOTES



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17.3.2 Allopatric & Sympatric Speciation YOUR NOTES


Allopatric & Sympatric Speciation
Evolution causes speciation: the formation of new species from pre-existing
species over time, as a result of changes to gene pools from generation to
generation
Genetic isolation between the new population and the pre-existing species
population is necessary for speciation
There are two different situations when speciation can take place:
Two groups of a species are separated by a geographic barrier
Two groups of species are reproductively isolated but still living in the same
area (experiencing similar environmental selection pressures)
Allopatric Speciation
Allopatric speciation occurs as a result of geographical isolation
It is the most common type of speciation
A species population splits into one or more groups which then become separated
from each other by geographical barriers
The barrier could be natural like a body of water, or a mountain range
It can also be man-made (like a motorway)
This separation creates two populations of the same species who are isolated from
each other, and as a result, no genetic exchange can occur between them
If there is sufficient selection pressure or genetic drift acting to change the gene
pools within both populations then eventually these populations will diverge and
form separate species
The changes in the alleles/genes of each population will affect the phenotypes
present in both populations
Over time, the two populations may begin to differ physiologically,
behaviourally and morphologically (structurally)
Example of Allopatric Speciation in Trees
Imagine there is a population of trees that are all one species
A new mountain range forms that divides the population into two
The natural barrier prevents the two groups from interbreeding, so there is no
gene flow between them
The two populations experience different selection pressures and genetic drift
Over thousands of years the divided populations form two distinct species that
can no longer interbreed

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YOUR NOTES


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YOUR NOTES


The natural geographical barrier of a mountain range can lead to allopatric speciation
in trees

Sympatric Speciation
Sympatric speciation takes place with no geographical barrier
A group of the same species could be living in the same place but in order for
speciation to take place there must exist two populations within that group and no
gene flow occurs between them
Something has to happen that splits or separates the population:
Ecological separation: Populations are separated because they live in different
environments within the same area
For example, soil pH can differ greatly in different areas. Soil pH has a
major effect on plant growth and flowering
Behavioural separation: Populations are separated because they have different
behaviours
For example differences in feeding, communication or social behaviour
Example of Sympatric Speciation in Fish
A species of fish lives in a lake
Some individuals within the population feed on the bottom while others remain
higher up in the open water
The different feeding behaviours separates the population into different
environments
Behavioural separation leads to ecological separation

The separated groups experience different selection pressures

Long jaws are advantageous for bottom-feeding whereas shorter jaws are
advantageous for mid-water feeding
Over time natural selection causes the populations to diverge and evolve different
courtship displays
They can no longer interbreed; they are separate species

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
When looking at cases of sympatric speciation try not to confuse the factors 
that originally caused a separation between the populations vs the factors
that then prevent them from breeding after genetic isolation. For the
example of the fish: the difference in feeding behaviour is what originally
causes separation but it is a difference in courtship displays (which is
caused by genetic isolation) that prevents them breeding them [Link]
do not forget that speciation is reliant on mutation! Without mutation, there
are no new alleles or genes for selection to act on. The change in genetic
material by mutation is important as it is what produces the differences in
physiology, behaviour and morphology between species.

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