EVOLUTION

• Origin of Life • Mechanism of Evolution

• Evolution of Life Forms - A Theory • Hardy - Weinberg Principle
• What are the Evidences for Evolution? • A Brief Account of Evolution
• What is Adaptive Radiation? • Origin and Evolution of Man
• Biological Evolution

Introduction:
What exactly is evolution?
To understand the term evolution that is the changes in flora and fauna that have occurred over millions of years on
earth, we must have an understanding of the context of origin of life, i.e., evolution of earth, of stars and indeed of
the universe itself. What follows is the longest of all the construed and conjectured stories.

Q. Define the term Evolution (Evolutionary Biology).

A. Evolutionary Biology is the study of history of life forms on earth.
Or
This is the story of origin of life and change of life forms or biodiversity on planet earth
Or
The changes in flora and fauna that have occurred over millions of years on earth

Q. What is big-bang theory? Make a list of events happened during this.

A. The Big Bang theory: The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of universe. The universe is very old
– almost 20 billion years old. Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the universe. Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas
and dust. Considering the size of universe, earth is indeed a speck.
Events-
• Big Bang theory talks of a singular huge explosion unimaginable in physical terms.
• The universe expanded and hence, the temperature came down.
• Hydrogen [H] and Helium [He] formed sometime later.
• The gases condensed under gravitation and formed the galaxies of the present day universe.
• In the solar system of the milky way galaxy, earth was supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years
back.
• There was no atmosphere on early earth. There was no oxygen too.
• Reducing earth: Water vapour, methane, carbondioxide and ammonia released from molten mass covered the
surface.
• The UV rays from the sun brokeup water into Hydrogen and Oxygen and the lighter H2 escaped.
(H2O + uv rays -----> [O] + H2 (escaped)
• Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and others.
(O2 + NH4 + CH4 --------> H2O + + CO2 + other)
• The ozone layer was formed.
(3[O] ----> O3)
• As it cooled, the water vapor fell as rain, to fill all the depressions and form oceans.
• Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e., almost four billion years back.
Q. Define and explain in brief the theory of panspermia/spore theory of origin of life on earth?
A. Panspermia: it states that the life did not origin on earth but has come from outer space in the form of spore.
• Some scientists believe that it came from outside.

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 • Early Greek thinkers (Svante August Arrhenius) thought units of life called spores were transferred to different
planets including earth.
• ‘Panspermia’ is still a favourite idea for some astronomers.
Q. What do you mean by spontaneous generation?
A. Spontaneous generation (abiogenesis): it was also believed by early Greeks that life came out of decaying and
rotting matter like straw, mud spontaneously. And hence is so.
Q. Spontaneous generation theory was dismissed once and for all. Explain. OR, Briefly explain the Luise Pasteur’s
theory of origin of live. Or What is swan neck flask experiments?
A. Swan neck flask experiments: -
• Louis Pasteur by careful experimentation demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life.
• He showed that in pre-sterilised flasks, life did not come from killed yeast while in another flask open to air,
new living organisms arose from ‘killed yeast’.
• Spontaneous generation theory was dismissed once and for all. However, this did not answer how the first life
form came on earth.

Q. Define and explain the Oparin’s theory of origin of life or chemical abiogenesis/ Chemical Evolution.
A. Chemical abiogenesis /Oparin’s theory of origin of life:
The first form of life could have come from -
• pre-existing
• non-living
• organic molecules
• Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first form of life (protobiont/protocell/precell/ebiont)
could have come from pre-existing non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.)
• The formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution, i.e., formation of diverse organic molecules from
inorganic constituents.
• The conditions on earth were – high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere containing CH4 , NH3, etc.
(reducing earth).
• There is no idea about how the first self replicating metabolic capsule of life arose.
• The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back.
• They would have been giant molecules (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharides, etc.).
• These capsules reproduced their molecules perhaps.
• The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000 million years ago.
• These were probably single-cells.
• All life forms were in water environment only.
• This version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces from non-living
molecules is accepted by majority.

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Q. Briefly explain S. L. Millar experiment. OR draw a neat labelled diagram of S.L. Miller’s Experiment.
A. Urey-S.L. Miller experiment also called electric discharge experiment.
• In 1953, S.L. Miller, an American scientist created similar conditions in a laboratory scale.
• Based on Oparin’s theory of origin of life
• He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4 , H2 , NH3 and water vapour at 800C.
• He observed formation of amino acids.
• In similar experiments others observed, formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats.

Q. What is the theory of special creation? Mention the 3 connotations of the same.
A. Conventional religious literature tells us about the theory of special creation. This theory has three connotations.
• One, that all living organisms (species or types) that we see today were created as such.
• Two, that the diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future also.
• Three, that earth is about 4000 years old.
All these ideas were strongly challenged during the nineteenth century.
Q. Put a light on observations of Charls Darwin made during his round the world.
A. Based on observations made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle round the world, Charles Darwin
concluded that
• Existing living forms share similarities to varying degrees not only among themselves but also with life forms that
existed millions of years ago.
• Many such life forms do not exist any more.
• There had been extinctions of different life forms in the years gone by just as new forms of life arose at different
periods of history of earth.
• There has been gradual evolution of life forms.
• Any population has built in variation in characteristics.
• Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in natural conditions (climate, food, physical factors, etc.)
would outbreed others that are less-endowed to survive under such natural conditions.
• Another word used is fitness of the individual or population.
• The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive fitness. Hence, those who are better fit
in an environment, leave more progeny than others.
• These, therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by nature.
• He called it natural selection and implied it as a mechanism of evolution.
Q. Write down the observations made by Alfred Wallace.
A. Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also come to similar conclusions around the same
time.
• In due course of time, apparently new types of organisms are recognisable.

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• All the existing life forms share similarities and share common ancestors.
• However, these ancestors were present at different periods in the history of earth (epochs, periods and eras).
• The geological history of earth closely correlates with the biological history of earth.
• A common permissible conclusion is that earth is very old, not thousands of years as was thought earlier but billions
of years old.
Q. Make a list of evidences of Evolution.
• Fossils
• Embryological support
• Comparative anatomy and morphology
• similarities in proteins and genes
• Branching descent and natural selection
• Mutation
Q. Define the term Fossil. Why is it considered as evidence of evolution?
A. Fossils are remains of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks.
• Rocks form sediments and a cross-section of earth's crust indicates the arrangement of sediments one over the
other during the long history of earth.
• Different-aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life-forms who probably died during the formation of the
particular sediment.
• Some of them appear similar to modern organisms. They represent extinct organisms (e.g., Dinosaurs).
• A study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they existed.
• The study showed that life-forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time-
spans.
• Hence, new forms of life have arisen at different times in the history of earth.
• All this is called paleontological evidence.
Q. Briefly explain Embryological support for evolution.
A. Embryological support for evolution was also proposed by Ernst Heckel based upon the observation of certain
features during embryonic stage common to all vertebrates that are absent in adult.
• For example, the embryos of all vertebrates including human develop a row of vestigial gill slit just behind the head
but it is a functional organ only in fish and not found in any other adult vertebrates.
• However, this proposal was disapproved on careful study performed by Karl Ernst von Baer. He noted that embryos
never pass through the adult stages of other animals.
Q. Differentiate between analogous & homologous organs OR differentiate between divergent and convergent
evolution.
A.
Homologous organs Analogous organs
Homology is based on divergent evolution. Analogy is based on convergent evolution

Homology indicates common ancestry. Similar habitat that has resulted in selection of similar adaptive
Whales, bats, Cheetah and human (all mammals) share features in different groups of organisms but toward the same
similarities in the pattern of bones of forelimbs function
Though these forelimbs perform different functions in these Wings of butterfly and of birds look alike. They are not
animals, they have similar anatomical structure – anatomically similar structures though they perform similar
all of them have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals functions.
and phalanges in their forelimbs. Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem
modification) for storage of food is another example for
In these animals, the same structure developed along different analogy.
directions due to adaptations to different needs. Hence, analogous structures are a result of convergent
This is divergent evolution and these structures are evolution - different structures evolving for the same function
homologous. and hence having similarity.
In plants also, the thorn (protection) and tendrils (support) of The flippers of Penguins (Bird) and Dolphins (mammal).
Bougainvillea and Cucurbita represent homology

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 Q. What are the biochemical support of evolution?
A. Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among diverse organisms give clues to common
ancestry. These biochemical similarities point to the same shared ancestry as structural similarities among diverse
organisms
Q. What is anthropogenic (human activity) argument of evolution?
A. It is argued that if within hundreds of years, man could create new breeds (for agriculture, horticulture, sport or
security), nature could have done the same over millions of years.
Q. What is natural selection? Explain in context of industrial melanism.
A. Natural selection: variations, which are heritable and which make resource utilisation better for few (adapted to
habitat better) will enable only those to reproduce and leave more progeny. Another interesting observation supporting
evolution by natural selection comes from England.
Industrial melanism:
• In a collection of moths made in 1850s, i.e., before industrialisation set in, it was observed that there were more
white-winged moths (Biston bitularia) on trees than dark-winged or melanised moths (Biston carbonaria).
• However, in the collection carried out from the same area, but after industrialisation, i.e., in 1920, there were more
dark-winged moths in the same area, i.e., the proportion was reversed.
• The explanation put forth for this observation was that ‘predators will spot a moth against a contrasting background’.
• During post-industrialisation period, the tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soots.
• Under this condition the white-winged moth did not survive due to predators, dark-winged or melanised moth
survived.
• Before industrialisation set in, thick growth of almost white-coloured lichen covered the trees - in that background
the white winged moth survived but the dark-coloured moth were picked out by predators.
• Lichens they will not grow in areas that are polluted.
• Hence, moths that were able to camouflage themselves, i.e., hide in the background, survived.
• This understanding is supported by the fact that in areas where industrialisation did not occur e.g., in rural areas,
the count of melanic moths was low.
• This showed that in a mixed population, those that can better-adapt, survive and increase in population size.
Remember that no variant is completely wiped out.
• Branching descent (descent with modification) and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian Theory
of Evolution
Q. What are different types of Natural selections/What are the different operations of Natural Selection?
OR Give a diagrammatic representation of operations of Natural Selection.
A. Natural selection can lead to
• Stabilisation: in which more individuals acquire mean character value
• Directional: changemore individuals acquire value other than the mean character value
• Disruption: more individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution curve

OR

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Q. What is adaptive radiation? Explain.
A. ADAPTIVE RADIATION: The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point
and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
• Darwin went to Galapagos Islands. There he observed an amazing diversity of creatures.
• Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin’s Finches amazed him.
• He realised that there were many varieties of finches in the same island. All the varieties, he conjectured, evolved
on the island itself.
• From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to become
insectivorous and vegetarian finches. Darwin’s finches represent one of the best examples of this phenomenon.
Another example is Australian marsupials.
• A number of marsupials, each different from the other evolved from an ancestral stock, but all within the
Australian island continent.
• When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area
(representing different habitats), one can call this convergent evolution.
• Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into varieties of such placental
mammals each of which appears to be ‘similar’ to a corresponding marsupial (e.g., Placental wolf and Tasmanian
wolf-marsupial).
Q. Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf-marsupial and many such similarities.
A. When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area (representing
different habitats), one can call this convergent evolution. E.g., Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive
radiation in evolving into varieties of such placental mammals each of which appears to be ‘similar’ to a corresponding
marsupial (e.g., Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf-marsupial).

Placental Marsupials
Mole Marsupial mole
Anteater Numbat
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf (Thylacian)

Q. Define and explain Branching descent and natural selection as mechanism of biological evolution with a suitable
example.
A. Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian Theory of Evolution.
Branching descent: In sexual reproduction no progeny are similar to their parents i.e. they carry variation, such progeny
with variation are called decent with modification.
Natural Selection: in a mixed population the variation makes the individual utilize the resources better than other, will
make thrive and produce large number of progenies. This is called natural selection.
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
• Evolution by natural selection, in a true sense would have started when cellular forms of life with differences in
metabolic capability originated on earth.
• The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span.
• Nature selects for fitness. One must remember that the so-called fitness is based on characteristics which are
inherited. Hence, there must be a genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve.
• Some organisms are better adapted to survive in an otherwise hostile environment.
• Adaptive ability is inherited. It has a genetic basis.
• Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.

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Example: -
• Microbes that divide fast have the ability to multiply and become millions of individuals within hours.
• A colony of bacteria (say A) growing on a given medium has built-in variation in terms of ability to utilise a feed
component.
• A change in the medium composition would bring out only that part of the population (say B) that can survive under
the new conditions.
• In due course of time (may be an hour/day) this variant population outgrows the others and appears as new species.
• For the same thing to happen in a fish or fowl would take millions of years as life spans of these animals are in years.
• Here we say that fitness of B is better than that of A under the new conditions hence, is naturally selected.
Q. What is “use and disuse” theory of organic evolution? OR what is Lamarckism? OR The evolution is driven by
Acquired characters. Explain
A. Even before Darwin, a French naturalist Lamarck had said that evolution of life forms had occurred but driven by use
and disuse of organs. He gave the examples of Giraffes who in an attempt to forage leaves on tall trees had to adapt by
elongation of their necks. As they passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generations,
Giraffes, slowly, over the years, came to acquire long necks. Nobody believes this conjecture any more.
Q. Is evolution a process or the result of a process?
A. The world we see, inanimate and animate, is only the success stories of evolution.
• When we describe the story of this world (history of life on earth), we describe evolution as a process.
• On the other hand, when we describe the story of life on earth, we treat evolution as a consequence of a process
called natural selection.
We are still not very clear whether to regard evolution and natural selection as processes or end result of unknown
processes.
Q. Point out the observations of Thomas Malthus on population.
A. It is possible that the work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin. Natural selection is based on
certain observations which are factual.
• For example,
• Natural resources are limited,
• populations are stable in size except for seasonal fluctuation,
• members of a population vary in characteristics
• most of variations are inherited etc.
• The fact that theoretically population size will grow exponentially if everybody reproduced maximally and the fact
that population sizes in reality are limited, means that there had been competition for resources.
• Only some survived and grew at the cost of others that could not flourish.
Q. Name the mechanism/s of evolution.
A. Mechanism of evolution could be-
• Natural selection
• Adaptive radiation
• Saltation
Q. Differentiate between the Darwinian theory of evolution and Hugo de Vries’ theory of evolution.
A.
Theory of evolution Darwin vs Hugo de Vries
Charles Darwin Hugo de Vries
• Branching descent and natural selection are the two • He believed that it is mutation which causes evolution
key concepts of Darwinian Theory of Evolution and not the minor variations (heritable)
• Small and directional • Mutations are random and directionless.
• Nature selects for fitness • deVries believed mutation caused speciation and
• there must be a genetic basis for getting selected and hence called it saltation
to evolve

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 • Adaptive ability is inherited. • deVries believed mutation caused speciation and
• It is slow and gradual hence called it saltation
• saltation (single step large mutation)

Q. What do you mean by gene pool?

A. Gene pool: total genes and their alleles in a population is called gene pool.
Q. Define/Briefly explain the Hardy-Weinberg principle. List out the factors affecting H.W. Principle.
A. HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE: This principle states that, the allele frequencies in a population are stable and is
constant from generation to generation.
Hardy-Weinberg principle stated it using algebraic equations.
• In a diploid organism, if ‘p’ represents the frequency of allele ‘A’ (dominant) and ‘q’ represent the frequency of
and allele ‘a’ (recessive) then-
• p+q=1: Sum total of all the allelic frequencies in the gene pool remains a constant (1). This is called genetic
equilibrium.
• p2+2pq+q2=1: This is a binomial expansion of (p+q)2.
Where-
o p2 represents, the frequency of AA (homozygous dominant) individuals in a population.
o q2 represents, the frequency of aa (homozygous recessive) individual in population.
o 2pq represents, the frequency of Aa (heterozygous) individual in population.
• When frequency measured, differs from expected values, the difference indicates the evolutionary change.
• The factors affection H.W. Equilibrium are-
1. Gene migration or gene flow, 4. Genetic recombination and
2. Genetic drift, 5. Natural selection
3. Mutation,
Q. Define the following therm-
1. Genetic drift,
2. Mutation,
3. Genetic recombination
Answer-
1. Genetic drift: If the gene frequency change occurs by chance, it is called genetic drift (sudden change).
2. Mutation: change in sequence of genetic material which leads to change in genotype thereby phenotype.
3. Genetic recombination: exchange of chromosome between homologous non-sister chromatids during
gametogenesis. This leads to form non-parental progenies.
Q. Gene migration or gene flow affects H.W. equilibrium. Explain.
A. Gene migration or gene flow: When migration of a section of population to another place and population occurs,
gene frequencies change in the original as well as in the new population. New genes/alleles are added to the new
population and these are lost from the old population.
Q. When the measured frequency is differs (p+q ≠ 1) from expected values i.e., p+q=1, the difference indicates the
evolutionary change. Explain.
A. A critical analysis makes us believe that variation due to mutation or variation due to recombination during
gametogenesis, or due to gene flow or genetic drift results in changed frequency of genes and alleles in future
generation. Coupled to enhance reproductive success, natural selection makes it look like different population.
Q. What do you mean by ‘founder’s effect’? What is ‘founder’?
A. Sometimes the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of population that they become a
different species. In this case, the original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect.

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Q. Write a brief account on evolution.
A. BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
• About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
• The mechanism of how non-cellular aggregates of giant macromolecules could evolve into cells with
membranous envelop is not known.
• Some of these cells had the ability to release O2.
• The reaction could have been similar to the light reaction in photosynthesis where water is split with the help
of solar energy captured and channelised by appropriate light harvesting pigments. Slowly single-celled
organisms became multi-cellular life forms.
• By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed and active.
• Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya. Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
• The first organisms that invaded land were plants. They were widespread on land when animals invaded land.
• Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water. This was about 350 mya.
• Fish evolved into amphibians.
• The amphibians evolved into reptiles.
• Some reptiles evolve into Aves (birds) whereas some evolved into mammals
Q. What is Coelacanth/ lobefins?
A. In 1938, a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which was thought to be extinct. These animals
called lobefins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land and water. There are no specimens (lobefins)
of these left with us. However, these were ancestors of modern-day frogs and salamanders.
Q. What are the adaption seen in reptiles when the evolved from amphibia?
A. The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those of
amphibians. Again, we only see their modern-day descendants, the turtles, tortoises and crocodiles.
Q. Briefly explain the evolution of and diversification of reptile.
• The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those of
amphibians.
• 250-150 million years ago or so, reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on earth.
• Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
• Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles probably 200 mya (e.g.
Ichthyosaurs).
• The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs.
• The biggest of them, i.e., Tyrannosaurus rex (carnivore dinosaur) was about 20 feet in height and had huge
fearsome dagger like teeth.
• Tricerotop, Stegosaur, Brachiosaur were herbivore.
• About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth.
• We do not know the true reason. Some say climatic changes killed them.
• Some say most of them evolved into birds.
• Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today e.g., Tuatara or Sphenodon (Living fossil).
Q. Put light on the evolution of Mammals.
A. Evolution of Mammals: Some reptiles evolve into Aves (birds) whereas some evolved into mammals
• The connecting link between reptiles and mammals is egg laying mammals (i.e., Ornithorynchus; Echidna)
• The first mammals were like shrews (a small mole-like mammal)
• Their fossils are small sized.
• Mammals were viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother’s body.
• Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least.
• When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth.
• Some mammals live wholly in water. Whales, dolphins, seals and sea cows are some examples.

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Q. There were in South America mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit, etc. how?
A. Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North
American fauna. Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack of
competition from any other mammal.
Q. What is the most successful story of the evolution of man?
A. The most successful story is the evolution of man with language skills and self-consciousness.
Q. Fill in the blanks- (bryophytes, ginkgoes, herbaceous lycopods, monocotyledons, gymnosperm, zosterophyllum)
A.

Q. Fill in the blanks- (extinct, pelycosaur, synapsids, sauropsids, therapsids)

A. A- sauropsids; B- synapsids; C- pelycosaurs; D- therapsids; E- extinct.

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Q. Write an account on evolution of Man.
A. Evolution of Man
• Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus:
o About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were existing.
o They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.
o Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus was more ape-like.
• Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania. These revealed hominid features
leading to the belief that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates walked in eastern Africa. They were probably not taller
than 4 feet but walked up right.
• Australopithecines:
o Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands.
o Evidence shows they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit.
o Some of the bones among the bones discovered were different.
• Homo habilis:
o This creature was called the first human-like being the hominid and was called Homo habilis.
o The brain capacities were between 650-800cc.
o They probably did not eat meat.
• Homo erectus:
o Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the next stage, i.e., Homo erectus about 1.5 mya.
o Homo erectus had a large brain around 900cc.
o Homo erectus probably ate meat.
• Neanderthal man:
o The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc
o Lived in near east and central Asia between 1,00,000-40,000 years back.
o They used hides to protect their body and buried their dead.
• Homo sapiens:
o Homo sapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed into distinct races.
o During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern Homo sapiens arose.
o Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. One such cave paintings by Pre-historic humans can be
seen at Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
o Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started.
o The rest of what happened is part of human history of growth and decline of civilisations.

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