SCIENCE 9

2nd QUARTER
MODULE OUTLINE:

A. Formation of Ions
B. Carbon Compounds
C. Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
D. Mole Concept

LESSONS TO BE LEARNED

A. FORMATION OF IONS
 Cations and Anions
Ions are atoms that carry either a positive or a negative charge. These charges are a result of the atom
losing or gaining electrons.

Beside are boxes that contain symbols. Check those boxes

that contain ions.

Sodium ion (Na+), chlorine ion (Cl-) and sulfide ion (S2-) are all
carrying their correct charges. Fluorine (F) cannot carry a 2+
charge since it is more likely to gain an electron, hence fluorine will have a 1- charge when ionized.
Potassium (K) on the other hand cannot carry a 3+ charge since it belongs to group 1 and has 1 valence
electron, hence, it can only lose an electron and will have a 1+ charge when ionized.

The valence electrons are the electrons found in the outermost shell of an atom. These are the electrons
that are lost or gained in the process of forming ions. The valence electron of an atom is reflected in its
group number. Hence, carbon which belongs to Group 4A has four valence electrons.

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons. The higher the

electronegativity value of an atom, the higher is its ability to attract electrons. In period 2 of the periodic
table, fluorine is located at the rightmost part of the row, hence,

fluorine has the highest electronegativity value and it is the atom

that is most likely to attract electrons, thus, it has the highest
tendency to gain electrons and become negatively-charged.
Generally, non-metals are the ones that tend to gain electrons and
become negatively-charged ions. They are called anions.

Ionization energy is the energy required to pull or remove

electrons from an atom. The lower the ionization energy value of
an atom, the easier it is to remove an electron from such an atom.
In period 2 of the periodic table, lithium is located in the leftmost
part of the row and is the element having the lowest ionization
energy, thus, it has the highest tendency to lose electrons and
become positively-charged. Generally, metals are the ones that
tend to lose electrons and become positively-charged ions. They
are called cations.

To illustrate the above atoms from their neutral state to

their ionized state, we make use of the Bohr model of an atom

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  Ions and Charges

Atoms are electrically neutral despite them having charged sub-atomic particles, i.e., the negatively-
charged electrons and the positively -charged protons because the number of negatively- charged electrons
and positively -charged protons are equal.

The periodic table provides us an enormous information about the elements. Several scientists have
presented various system in arranging elements in the periodic table. The elements in the periodic table are
arranged according to increasing atomic number. The rows are called periods and the columns are called
group which is numbered 1 and 2 respectively. Group number in the periodic table gives us the number of
valence electron in its outermost energy shell. Noble gases elements are stable elements, which numbered
3 above. What is the possible reason for calling those elements noble? It means they don’t have to loss or
gain electrons in order to satisfy the octet rule. The elements with a lighter shade of grey are the metallic
elements. What are the characteristic of these elements? They have the tendency to loss electrons in order
to be stable. These elements are most stable when giving out their electrons in their outermost shell. The
elements in number 5 are most likely to gain electrons since they lack 1 or 2 electrons in order to attain
stability.

The group number in the periodic table gives the number of electrons in its outermost shell or the valence
shell, thus it is called as the valence electron. The valence electron gives us the number of electrons that
an atom may loss or gain. An atom that losses or gains electron will become positively or negatively
charged and becomes an ion. For example, Li belongs to group 1 it means it can loss or gain 1 electron.
Summary
 Atoms are electrically neutral. It means they contain the same number of protons and electrons.
 Atoms like to be stable. They feel stable when their outermost shell has eight electrons.
 The Octet rule states that atoms tend to have eight electrons in its outermost shell.
 Valence electron are electrons in the outermost energy shell of an atom. That is directly involved in any
chemical activity.
 The group number in the periodic table gives us the number of valence electron.
 Ions are atoms that loss or gain electrons.
 Anions are negatively charged ions because they have more electrons than protons.
 Cations are positively charged ions because they have more protons than electrons.

SCIENCE 9

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 STUDENT’S NAME:
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Section: _______________________ Date of Submission:

______________________________________

FORMATION OF IONS

Worksheet

I. Based from the periodic table. Determine the group number of the elements enumerated
below.
1. Na __________________ 6. B __________________
2. F __________________ 7. N __________________
3. P. __________________ 8. Be __________________
4. Ba __________________ 9. Ra __________________
5. C __________________ 10. S __________________
II. Based from the periodic table, write ion formula of each atom.
1. Nitrogen ____________
2. Francium ____________
3. Strontium ____________
4. Sodium ____________
5. Phosphorus ____________
6. Gallium ____________
7. Arsenic ____________
8. Potassium ____________
9. Calcium ____________
10. Beryllium ____________

III. Supply what is ask in each column. The 1st number is done for you.

Name of Symbol Group Number Ion

Element number of formula
valence
electron
Bromine Br 7 7 Br-
Nitrogen
Aluminum
Barium
Copper
Strontium
Iodine
Magnesium
Fluorine
Sulfur

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 B. CARBON COMPOUNDS

 Carbon and its Bond

Carbon is the same element present in all living things and some nonliving things, such as paper, coal,
and diamond. Carbon forms organic compounds with other many atoms like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and halogens, which can form complex structures. The structural formula is preferred instead of using the
molecular formula because it shows the exact ways in which the atoms are connected to each other in a
form of bond.
The compounds which contain carbon forms with H, N, O and few other elements are usually called
organic compounds. All these are obtained from plants and animals and their changed remains like coal and
petroleum. Sugars, starches, oils and proteins are examples of carbon compound obtained from plants and
animals. While hydrocarbons, such as hexane and benzene, are examples of carbon compound obtained
from coal and petroleum.1

Organic compounds have low thermal stability and usually decompose, easily char and burn when
heated. Thus, organic compounds have lower melting points and boiling points due to its weaker bonds -
which is the covalent bond.

Salt (NaCl) is classified as inorganic compound that has higher melting point as
compared to sugar (C12H22O11). Sugar easily melts in the presence of flame or fire and
eventually changes into black color. This is an evidence that organic compound has
weaker bond, its chemical properties changes like the color, odor and taste.

Lewis Structure of Carbons and Hydrogens

The only distinguishable characteristic of organic compounds is that all contain

the element carbon. Carbon is the most common element present in all
biodegradable materials. Carbon has a unique ability to bond together, may form a long chains and rings.
The ground-state electron configuration (lowest-energy arrangement) of an atom is a description of the
orbitals that the atom’s electrons occupy. The Carbon ( 6C12) atom with electron configuration of 1s 2 2s2 2p2
has four (4) electrons on its valence shell (outer shell). While hydrogen ( 1H) with electron configuration of
1s1has one (1) valence electron.

G.N. Lewis in 1916 proposed a shared-electron bond and now called covalent bond. The carbon bonded
to other atoms, not by losing nor gaining, instead by sharing its electrons.

The four (4) valence electrons of carbon represents the

4 dots of carbon in its Lewis structure:

So, with one dot for hydrogen atom:

A stable molecule results when a valence octet of electrons (Octet

Rule) has been achieved for all atoms in a molecule, as shown below:

Carbon has 4 valence electrons that can form a maximum of four

covalent bonds. Bonds are usually represented by a short, straight line
connecting the atoms, with each bond representing a shared pair of
electrons.

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 Bonds are usually represented by a short, straight line connecting the atoms, with each bond
representing a shared pair of electrons. Each carbon atom in the following compounds forms four bonds:

Electron
sharing occurs
when two
atoms
approach and

their atomic orbitals overlap. Bonds that have circular cross-section and are formed by head-on overlap of
atomic orbitals are called sigma(α) bonds. Bonds form by sideways overlap of p-orbitals are called pi(π)
bonds.

 Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

SATURATED HYDROCARBONS: Alkanes

Alkanes, whose general formula is CnH2n+2, also called paraffins (meaning, ‘low affinity’), are
hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds. They are classified as saturated hydrocarbons (with all carbon
atoms linked by single bonds).Therefore, for an alkane with five carbon atoms, the formula would be C 5H12.
The simplest alkane is methane, CH4, a major component of natural gas and is used for some heating in
cold countries.
Table 1 on the next page will show you the hydrocarbons’ names and their corresponding molecular
structure, expanded and condensed structural formulas, which are very important in understanding their
individual makeup and differences. Study the table thoroughly and answer the succeeding guide question.

Table 1. Alkanes

UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS: Alkenes and Alkynes

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 Alkenes, also called olefins, are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing one or more double bonds
(C=C). As a result, it contains less hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon atoms and follows the general
formula: CnH2nin an alkene, the formula of a three-carbon atom with one double bond then would be C 3H6.
Ethene is the simplest alkene with the chemical formula, C 2H4 a plant hormone that plays important roles in
seed germination and ripening of fruits.

ethene 1-butene

Figure 1. Samples of Alkenes

nH2n-2. The simplest alkyne, a highly reactive molecule used in oxyacetylene torches is
acetylene or ethyne, C2H2.

ethyne propyne

The table beside shows the physical

properties of each hydrocarbon in terms
of its phase, boiling point and melting
point. Observe the changes of the
properties as the number of carbon atoms
(Recall Table 1) in the hydrocarbon
compound increases.

Table 2. Physical Properties of

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon structures can also be

determined through its name based on
the IUPAC (International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry).

HYDROCARBON NOMENCLATURE

The International Union of Pure and

Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has
established rules in order to systematize
the naming of hydrocarbon molecules.
The process of naming is shown below.

Table 3. Steps in Naming Hydrocarbons

Determine the following Steps in Naming
Carbon Classe Type Su N Pre Su Combi
Compounds s of of Bonds ffix o. of fix ffix ne

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 Carbo
Hydrocarb n prefix+su
ons Atom ffix
s
Saturate
Singl - Eth - ethan
d Alkane 2
e ane - ane e
Hydrocarbon
Dou - Pro - prope
Unsatura Alkene 3
ble ene p- ene ne
ted
Hydrocarbon Tripl - But - butyn
Alkyne 4
e yne - yne e

In naming, we determine the number of carbon No. of carbon atoms Prefix

atoms in the compound and look for the equivalent
prefix. Prefixes are added to the "ene" or "yne" final 1 meth-
syllable where more than 1 multiple bond is present. The 2 eth-
first few prefixes for these are: 3 prop-
4 but-
Summary
Carbon atom is a unique kind of elements that has four 5 pent-
valence electrons, which enables it to form four covalent bonds 6 hex-
with atoms of other elements and other carbon atoms.
The simplest and most commonly encountered class of 7 hept-
carbon compounds are the hydrocarbons. These are classified 8 oct-
into two groups based on their structure: the saturated carbon-
hydrogen compounds known as alkanes that indicate a single
9 non-
bond between the carbon - carbon atoms; and the unsaturated 10 dec-
hydrocarbons whichare further classified into alkenes and
alkynes.

The type of bonds present in the compound affects the physical properties of the hydrocarbons. The increasing number
of carbons in the compound indicates a high boiling point as it exists in a liquid state; on the other hand, as the number
of carbon atoms decreases in the compound with the presence of a double or triple bond, the boiling point decreases as
its phase changes to gaseous form.
Long chained hydrocarbons are polymers and many of them occur naturally. Other polymers are synthetic. This means
that, they are produced in labs or factories. Synthetic polymers are created in synthesis reactions in which monomers
bond together to form much larger compounds. Plastics are examples of synthetic polymers. The plastic items in Figure
below are all made of polythene (also called polyethylene). They consist of repeating monomers of ethene (C 2H4).2

SCIENCE 9

STUDENT’S NAME:
_______________________________________________________________________________________

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 Section: _______________________ Date of Submission:
______________________________________

CARBON COMPOUNDS

Worksheet
I. Identify the type of Covalent Bonds (Use separate sheet of paper if necessary)

Compound Chemical Lewis Type of Covalent

Formula Structure Bond
(polar /nonpolar)

Water
Methane
Ethane

Methanol

II. Show a possible structural formula of molecules by connecting each atom:

Atoms involved Structural Formula (line-bond)

Ex:
6 Hydrogen
2 Carbon

4 Hydrogen
1 Carbon

4 Hydrogen
2 Carbon
(involves double bond)

6 Hydrogen
3 Carbon
(there is one-double bond
between two C atoms)

2 Hydrogen
2 Carbon
(involves triple bond)

4 Hydrogen
3 Carbon
(there is one-triple bond
between two C atoms)

III. Sentence Completion/Word Pool. Pick your answers from the given word pool.

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 ___________________ as element is present in sample like charcoal, paper and even in a
precious stone like _________________. Cue words:

____________________ compounds are carbon compounds which properties depend on the Carbon
number of bonds formed. The __________________ bonds found in organic or carbon
covalent
molecules are formed by _________________ of electron pairs between atoms. The primary
bond that holds between carbon atoms is sigma bond, while the multiple bond (double or Diamond.
triple) formed by ___________________.
four (4)
Atoms with four (4) or more valence electrons like carbon form as many bonds as they
need electrons to fill their valence shells and thereby reach a stable ________________. multiple
It is important to always count the number of bonds of each particular atom. Carbon Octet
should have ________________ bonds. Hydrogen has only one (1) bond, oxygen with two
(2) bonds, nitrogen could have _________________ bonds, and only one (1) bond for
halogens.

Carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, with more than one bond, could possible formed _________________ bond
(double or triple bond).

IV. Complete the concept map below by providing the missing terms. Choose from the
word pool below.

C. PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS

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 FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
AND COVALENT MOLECULAR
COMPOUNDS
Compounds are formed between the
chemical combinations of two or more
elements. To distinguish between the
types of compounds, one should first
take note of the type of elements that
are chemically combined.

Figure 2 shows the compounds formed

based on the type of elements
combined.

Ionic compounds are formed between a metal and a nonmetal. The chemical combination between
the two types of elements results in the formation of ionic bonds between the atoms. Ionic bonds are
the electrostatic force of attraction that holds cations (positively charged atom) and anions (negatively
charged atoms) together.
Table 1: Common Ionic Compounds and their Uses
Ionic Compound Chemical Formula Importance and Uses
Potassium iodide KI Iodized salt used for thyroid health
Sodium fluoride NaF An ingredient in toothpaste that helps prevent
cavities and tooth decay.
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Baking soda; used in baking and as an antacid
to reduce stomach acid, treats indigestion and
upset stomach.
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Used as a cleaning agent, it is the component
of soap and detergents.
Barium Chloride BaCl2 Used in making fireworks releasing the green-
colored explosions

The Covalent Molecular Compounds

Covalent molecular compounds or simply covalent compounds are substances that are formed from the
chemical combination of two or more nonmetallic elements. Based on Figure 2, it could be between a
nonmetal and another nonmetal, or a metalloid and a nonmetal. Table sugar or sucrose (C12H22O11) is an
example of a covalent molecular compound. It is a combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
In a covalent compound, atoms of the different elements are held together in molecules by covalent
bonds. Unlike ionic bonds, in which electrons completely transfer from one atom to another, covalent bonds
share their valence electrons. The force of attraction between the shared electrons and the positive nuclei
of both atoms holds the atoms together in the molecule. A molecule is the smallest particle of a covalent
compound that still has the properties of the compound.

Table 2: Lists of Some Covalent Molecular Compounds and their Importance.

Covalent Chemical Importance and Uses
Molecular Formula
Compound
Methane CH4 An odorless, colorless gas used mainly as fuel to make heat and light.
Ammonia NH3 Ammonia is used as a refrigerant gas, for purification of water supplies,
and in the manufacture of plastics, explosives, textiles, pesticides, dyes,
and other chemicals.
Ozone O3 Ozone is a gas that occurs naturally in trace amounts in the
stratosphere. It protects life on Earth from the harmful UV rays of the son.
But this gas is toxic to living organisms at ground level.
Carbon CO2 It is an essential gas for plant and animal processes– like photosynthesis
dioxide and respiration. But the excessive amount in the atmosphere is unsafe as
it is a greenhouse gas.
In the industry, carbon dioxide in liquid and solid form is used as a
refrigerant, in fire extinguishers.
Water H2O One of the most important substances, perhaps in the universe. Water
exists in three states of matter and is essential to life processes, as our
body needs water for all cells, tissues, organs to help regulate body
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 temperature and maintain bodily functions.
It is also essential for daily and domestic use. Water also plays an
important role in the balance of the ecosystem.

Table 3: Properties of Ionic and Covalent Molecular Compounds

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS PROPERTIES OF COVALENT MOLECULAR
COMPOUNDS

 They Form Crystals  They have low melting points and boiling points
 They have high melting point and boiling point  Most are soft and flexible
 They are hard and brittle  They are flammable
 They conduct electricity in aqueous solution  They are not conductors of electricity
 They are nonconductors of electricity in solid form  They can be classified as polar or nonpolar
molecules

Summary
 There are two common types of compounds based on their chemical bonding characteristics; these are ionic
compounds and covalent molecular compounds.
 Ionic compounds are formed between a metal and a nonmetal.
 The atoms in an ionic compound are held together by ionic bonds, in which there is a complete transfer of
electron from one atom to another.
 The physical properties of ionic compounds are as follows:
o They form crystals.
o They have high melting and boiling points.
o They are hard and brittle.
o They are good conductors of electricity when in aqueous solutions.
 Covalent Molecular Compounds are formed from the chemical combination of two or more nonmetals. It could
also be between a metalloid and a nonmetal.
 The atoms in a covalent compound are held together by covalent bonds, in which the electrons are shared
between the atoms.
 The following are the properties of covalent molecular compounds:
o They have low melting and boiling points.
o Most of their solids are soft and flexible.
o They are flammable.
o With few exceptions to the rule in covalent bonding, they form network solids like those of diamonds.
o They are not conductors of electricity.
o They can be polar and nonpolar molecules.
 Electronegativity is the ability of the atom to attract electrons. During covalent bonding some compounds do
not have the same electronegativity values in their bonded atoms, creating an unequal sharing of electrons
between atoms. The resulting compound is a polar covalent compound or polar molecule.
 When there is an equal sharing of electron between two atoms, the compound is said to nonpolar covalent
compounds.
 Examples of covalent molecular compounds are water, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and most biological
compounds like carbohydrates and proteins.

D. MOLE CONCEPT
The mole concept is a convenient method of
expressing the amount of a substance. Any
measurement can be broken down into two
parts – the numerical magnitude and the units
that the magnitude is expressed in. For
example, when the mass of a ball is measured
to be 2 kilograms, the magnitude is ‘2’ and the
unit is ‘kilogram’. When dealing with particles at
an atomic (or molecular) level, even one gram
of a pure element is known to contain a huge
number of atoms. This is where the mole
concept is widely used. It primarily focuses on
the unit known as a ‘mole’, which is a count of a
very large number of particles.

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The number 6.02214076 x 1023 is popularly known as the Avogadro constant or Avogadro’s number and is
often denoted by the symbol ‘NA’. The elementary entities that can be represented in moles can be atoms,
molecules, monoatomic/polyatomic ions, and other particles (such as electrons).

For example, one mole of a pure carbon-12 ( 12C) sample will have a mass of exactly 12 grams and will
contain 6.02214076 x 1023 (NA) number of 12C atoms. The number of moles of a substance in a given pure
sample can be represented by the following formula:
n = N/NA

Where n is the number of moles of the substance (or elementary entity), N is the total number of
elementary entities in the sample, and NA is the Avogadro constant.

Note: The word “mole” was introduced around the year 1896 by the German chemist Wilhelm
Ostwald, who derived the term from the Latin word moles meaning a ‘heap’ or ‘pile.
The number of moles of a molecule may not always be equal to the number of moles of its constituent
elements. For example, a mole of water contains N A number of H2O molecules. However, each water
molecule contains 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Therefore, one mole of H 2O contains 2 moles of
hydrogen and one mole of oxygen.
Sample Problem:
How many molecules are there in 4.0 moles NaCl (Table Salt)?

To answer this question, you have to consider this:

1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 particles

Using the dimensional analysis

approach, you will be able to
convert the number of moles
to its equivalent amount in the
number of particles.

 Molar Mass
Atomic and Molecular Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the mass of one atom of the element expressed in atomic mass units
(amu). It accounts for the abundance of the various isotopes of the element and assigns an average
value to the mass of one atom of the element. For example, the atomic mass of carbon is 12.011 atomic
mass units since carbon samples generally contain 98.89% of the carbon-12 isotope, 1.11% of carbon-
13, and trace amounts of carbon-14. However, the atomic masses of these isotopes are different.
The atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom is 12 atomic mass units, but that of a carbon-13 atom is 13 amu.
The atomic mass of an element is roughly equal to the sum of all the protons and neutrons present in its
nucleus.
The molecular mass of an element is the sum of the atomic masses of all its constituent elements. This
quantity is also represented in terms of atomic mass units. Therefore, the molecular mass of water is
equal to the sum of the atomic masses of its constituents – hydrogen and oxygen. The atomic mass of
hydrogen is 1.00794 amu and that of oxygen is 15.9994. Since water molecules contain 2 hydrogen
atoms and only one oxygen atom, the molecular mass of H 2O is 18.0154 amu.

Molar Mass
The molar mass of a substance is defined as the total mass of one mole of the substance. It is often
represented in terms of ‘grams per mole’ (g/mol). However, the SI unit of this quantity is kg/mol. Molar
mass can be represented by the following formula:
Molar mass of a Substance = (Mass of the Substance in grams)/(Number of Moles)
For example, the molar mass of water is approximately 18.015 g/mol, which is the mass of NA number
of water molecules.

Steps to follow to calculate for the molar mass:

1. Identify the elements in the compound.

Summary:
 The mole is defined as the number of atoms 2. Determine the number of atoms of each element.
contained in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 (the

12 | P a g e 3. Write the atomic mass of each element.

 isotope ). There are 6.0221415 x 1023 particles in a mole. Remember, a mole is just a number (like
dozen) and you can have a mole of anything.
 The concept of a mole is based on Avogadro’s Hypothesis (equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contained the same number of molecules) and the number of particles in
a mole (6.0221415 x 1023) is commonly referred to as4.Avogadro’s
Multiply thenumber (typically
atomic mass rounded
with the numbertoof 6.02
atoms.
x 1023 for most calculations).
 Because atomic masses, and the number of particles in a mole, are both based on the isotopic
atomic mass of the isotope carbon-12, the mass of any substance expressed in atomic mass units is
numerically equal to the molar mass of the substance in grams
5. Getper
themole.
sum ofThus, exactly
the product in 12 grams of
g/mole.
carbon-12 contains exactly a mole of carbon atoms; likewise, 31.9988 grams of O2 contains 6.02214
x 1023 oxygen molecules (note, six significant figures)
 To convert the number of moles of a substance into the mass of a substance, you simply need to
multiply (moles x molar mass).
 To convert the mass of a substance into the number of moles, you simply need to divide the mass by
the molar mass.
 To convert the number of moles of a substance into the number of particles of that substance, you
simply need to multiply (moles x Avogadro’s number).

SCIENCE 9

STUDENT’S NAME: _______________________________________________________________________________________

Section: _______________________ Date of Submission: ______________________________________

MOLE CONCEPT

Worksheet

I. This time you will calculate the molar mass of the compound. Fill-up the given table below. You
can use the periodic table as a reference.

ATOMIC MOLAR MASS

COMPOUND ELEMENT NO. OF MASS (g/mole)
ATOMS
Na 1 23.00 58.45

Example: NaCl
Cl 1 35.45

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 1.hydrogen
peroxide,

H2 O2

2.Baking soda,

NaHCO3

3.Lime,
CaO

4.Lye,
NaOH

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