ELECTROSTATICS

Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest.

These charges include;
• Positive charges (+)
• Negative charges (-)

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. An
atom consists of three particles namely;
▪ Electrons
▪ Neutrons
▪ Protons

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔/𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔

𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑵𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒖𝒔 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏

Properties and location of the particles of an atom:

Particle Location Charge

Proton In the nucleus of an atom Positive charge (+)
Electron It orbits outside the nucleus of an atom Negative charge (-)
Neutron In the nucleus of an atom No charge (neutral)
Note:
In an atom, the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons
outside the nucleus. Therefore, an atom is said to be neutral (has no charge). Since the
nucleus has only protons and neutrons, then it is positively charged.

NB: Any material that loses electrons becomes positively charged and any material that gains
electrons becomes negatively charged.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors:
A conductor is a material with free electrons and can allow heat and electricity to pass through it
easily.
The electrons in a conductor are free to move because they are loosely held outside the nucleus
of an atom.
Examples of conductors include; all metals, carbon in form of graphite, acids, bases and salt
solutions.

Insulators:
An insulator is a material without free electrons and cannot allow heat and electricity to pass
through it easily.
The electrons in an insulator are not free to move because they are tightly or strongly held
outside the nucleus of an atom.
Examples of insulators include; rubber, dry wood, glass plastic, ebonite, fur, polythene, etc.

Differences between conductors and insulators:

Conductors Insulators
• Electrons are free to move. • Electrons are not free to move.
• Electrons are loosely held outside the • Electrons are tightly held outside the
nucleus of an atom. nucleus of an atom.
• They are good conductors of heat and • They are poor conductors of heat and
electricity. electricity.

LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS
It states that like charges repel while unlike charges attract each other.

ELECTRIFICATION (CHARGING MATERIALS)

This is the process of producing electric charges.
There various methods of charging materials and they include:
• Charging by friction/rubbing
• Charging by contact/conduction
• Charging by induction (electrostatic induction)

Charging by friction/rubbing:
This is the best method for charging insulators
▪ Two insulators are rubbed together, heat is generated because of friction.
▪ The heat knocks off electrons from the insulator where they are loosely held and are
transferred to the other where they are strongly held.
▪ The insulator that gains electrons becomes negatively charged and the insulator that loses
electrons becomes positively charged.
▪ Therefore, the two insulators acquire equal but opposite charges.

The table below shows insulators gaining ang losing electrons when rubbed:
Loses electrons Gains electrons
Glass Ebonite
Fur Silk
Cellulose Polythene
Example:
 When silk and glass are rubbed against each other, the glass atoms lose electrons hence
acquiring a positive charge and the silk atoms gain electrons hence acquiring a negative
charge.
The resulting electric force can attract small pieces of paper.

Question 1: Describe how fur and silk can be charged by friction.

• Fur and silk are rubbed against each other.
• Fur atoms lose electrons and acquire a positive charge.
• Silk atoms gain electrons and acquire a negative charge.
• Therefore, fur and silk acquire equal but opposite charges.

Question 2 (trial): Describe how ebonite and glass can be electrified.

• Glass and ebonite are rubbed against each other.
• Glass atoms lose electrons and acquire a positive charge.
• Ebonite atoms gain electrons and acquire a negative charge.
• Therefore, glass and ebonite acquire equal but opposite charges.

Charging by contact/conduction:
This method is only good for conductors. The charges are shared among the conductors.

Uncharged Charged Conductors in contact Charge is shared between the

conductors

▪ Bring the uncharged conductor in contact with a charged conductor.

▪ Separate the two conductors after short period of time.
▪ The uncharged conductor will acquire a similar equal charge to that of a charged conductor.

Charging by electrostatic induction:

This is the method of charging a conductor without putting it in contact with a charged body.
It involves bringing a charged body near the body to be charged.
The uncharged body acquire a charge opposite to that of a charging body.

Charging a conductor positively by induction:

▪ Bring a negatively charged body near one side of a conductor placed on an insulated stand.
▪ Positive charges are induced on the side near the charged body and negative charges are
repelled to the other side.
 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅

▪ With the charged body still in position, the other side of the conductor is earthed by
connecting it with an earth wire to the ground. Electrons flow to the ground through the earth
wire.

𝒆− 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

▪ With the charged body still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged body is
also removed.
▪ Positive charges distribute themselves all over the conductor and the conductor is left with a
net positive charge.

Charging a conductor negatively by induction:

▪ Bring a positively charged body near one side of a conductor placed on an insulated stand.
▪ Negative charges are induced on the side near the charged body and positive charges are
repelled to the other side.

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅
▪ With the charged body still in position, the other side of the conductor is earthed by
connecting it with an earth wire to the ground. Electrons flow from the ground and neutralize
the positive charges on the conductor.

− 𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

▪ With the charged body still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged body is
also removed.
▪ Negative charges distribute themselves all over the conductor and the conductor is left with a
net negative charge.

NOTE:
Earthing a conductor may also be done by touching it with the fingers since human bodies are
good conductors of electricity.

Charging two conductors simultaneously with an opposite charge by induction:

▪ Place two conductors A and B in contact and on an insulated stand.
▪ Bring a negatively charged body near conductor A.
▪ Positive charges are induced on conductor A and negative charges repelled to conductor B.
A B

▪ With the charged body still in position, the conductors are separated. On removing the
charged body, the charges distribute all over the conductors.
▪ Conductor A acquire a net positive charge and conductor B acquire a net negative charge
 A B

Charging two conductors simultaneously with the same charge by induction:

▪ Place two conductors A and B in contact and on an insulated stand.
▪ Bring a negatively charged body near conductor A.
▪ Positive charges are induced on conductor A and negative charges repelled to conductor B.
A B

▪ With the charged body still in position, conductor B is earthed by connecting it with an earth
wire to the ground. Electrons flow to the ground.

A B

− 𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

▪ With the charged body still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged body is
also removed.
▪ Positive charges distribute themselves all over the two conductors and the conductors are left
with a net positive charge.

Attraction between a neutral body and a charged body

Consider a positively charged body brought near a neutral conductor as shown below:
 Negative charges are attracted to the near end of the conductor
and positive charges are induced at the far end of the conductor.

Since the negative charges are nearer to the positively charged

conductor than the negative charges, the force of attraction
between the positive charges and negative charges is stronger
than the force of repulsion between the positive charges.

This creates a resultant force of attraction between the charged body and the neutral body.

GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE (GLE)

A gold leaf electroscope is an instrument used to detect the presence of charge and differentiate
between the charges.

Structure of a gold leaf electroscope:

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍/𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒑

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍/𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒓𝒐𝒅
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍/𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆

𝑮𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒇

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

It consists of a metal cap and metal plate joined together by a metal rod.
It consists of a metal case with glass windows to protect it from draught.
The metal case is always earthed to keep it at zero potential.
The electroscope is insulated so that there is no inflow and outflow of charges

Mode of action of a gold leaf electroscope:

▪ When a charged body is brought near the cap of the electroscope, the cap will acquire an
opposite charge to that on the charged body by induction.
▪ The charge on the body will repel all charges similar to it down to the metal rod, to the plate
and the leaf.
▪ Due to presence of like or similar charges on the plate and gold leaf, the leaf diverges as it is
repelled by the plate.
▪ Therefore, leaf divergence means that the body brought near with the cap carries a charge.

Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope positively by induction:

▪ Bring a negatively charged rod near the cap of an uncharged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ Positive charges are induced on the cap and negative charges are repelled down to the plate
and the gold leaf. The leaf diverges due to presence of like charges at the plate and the leaf.

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒐𝒅

▪ With the charged rod still in position, the gold leaf electroscope is earthed by connecting it
with an earth wire to the ground. Electrons flow from the plate and the leaf to the ground
through the earth wire. This causes the leaf to collapse (decrease in divergence of the leaf)

𝒆− 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 to the ground

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

▪ With the charged rod still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged rod is also
removed.
▪ Positive charges distribute themselves all over the metal cap, plate and gold leaf. The leaf
diverges again due to presence of like charges at the plate and the leaf.
Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope negatively by induction:
▪ Bring a positively charged rod near the cap of an uncharged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ Negative charges are induced on the cap and positive charges are repelled down to the plate
and the gold leaf. The leaf diverges due to presence of like charges at the plate and the leaf.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒐𝒅

▪ With the charged rod still in position, the gold leaf electroscope is earthed by connecting it
with an earth wire to the ground. Electrons flow from the ground through the earth wire to
neutralize the positive charges at the plate and the leaf. This causes the leaf to collapse
(decrease in divergence of the leaf)

Electrons flow from the ground

Earthing
▪ With the charged rod still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged rod is also
removed.
▪ Negative charges distribute themselves all over the metal cap, plate and gold leaf. The leaf
diverges again due to presence of like charges at the plate and the leaf.
USES OR APPLICATIONS OF A GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE:

(i) To detect the presence of charge on a body:

▪ Bring the body to be tested near the cap of an uncharged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ If the leaf diverges, then the body has a charge.
▪ If the leaf remains unchanged, then the body has no charge (neutral).

(ii) To test the sign or nature of charge on a body:

▪ Bring the body to be tested near the cap of a charged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ If the leaf divergence increases, then the body has a charge similar to that on the electroscope.
▪ If the leaf collapses (decrease in divergence), then the body either has a charge opposite to
that on the electroscope or the body is neutral. In this case, we cannot conclude.
▪ The G.L.E is discharged by touching its cap with a finger (earthing) and then given a charge
opposite to the one it had previously and the experiment is repeated. If still the leaf collapses,
then the body is neutral.

NOTE:
Increase in divergence is the only sure way of testing for sign of charge on the gold leaf
electroscope.

Charge on G. L. E Charge on a body Effect of divergence of the leaf.

++ −+ 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
−− −+ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
+ 𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒

(iii) To identify whether a body is an insulator or conductor:

▪ Bring a body to be tested in contact with the cap of a positively charged gold leaf
electroscope.
▪ If the leaf collapses suddenly/immediately, then the body is a good conductor e.g. copper
▪ If the leaf collapses gradually/slowly, then the bod is a semi-conductor e.g. silicon.
▪ If there is no change in divergence of the leaf, then the body is an insulator.
 (iv) To test the magnitude of charge on the body:
▪ Two bodies of different sizes are similarly charged simultaneously.
▪ Each body is brought near the cap of the uncharged gold leaf electroscope one at a time.
▪ It is observed that a smaller body causes a smaller divergence of the leaf and the bigger body
cause a greater divergence of the leaf.

Precautions taken when carrying out electrostatic experiments:

• The experiments should be carried out on a dry. This because moisture/water conducts
electricity thus giving out inaccurate values.
• The plate and the cap of a gold leaf electroscope should always be kept clean and dry.
• The apparatus used must be insulated.
• Accidental touches from hands and clothes should be avoided.

Sample questions:
1. A charged rod was brought close to the cap of a negatively charged electroscope. It is
observed that the leaf divergence increased as the rod was moved closer to the cap. Identify
the charges on the rod.

2. State and explain the observation on the leaf of a positively charged electroscope when a
negatively charged rod is brought close to its cap as shown below.

Observation: The leaf collapses.

Explanation: When a negatively charged rod was brought near the cap of the electroscope, it
induced positive charges at the cap and repelled negative charges down to the plate and the gold
leaf leading to neutralization of the positive charges thus the gold leaf collapses
ELECTROPHORUS
This is a metal disk with an insulated handle placed on an insulating sheet previously charged by
rubbing.
An electrophorus is used to produce unlimited charges by induction.

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄
𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕
Action of an electrophorus (producing a positive charge)
• An insulating sheet is given a negative charge by rubbing.
• A positive charge is induced on the lower part of the metal disc and a negative charge is
repelled to the upper part.
• The upper part of the metal disc is earthed by touching it with a finger to remove the
negative charges.
• Therefore, the metal disc is left with a net positive charge.

PROOF PLANE :
This is a device used to transfer charge from one conductor to another. It
is the upper part of the electrophorus.

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄

DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE ON A CONDUCTOR

The distribution of charge on the surface of a conductor depends on the shape of that conductor.
Charge is more concentrated at pointed edges of a conductor thus, there is a high surface charge
density at sharp points.
Definition:
Surface charge density is the quantity of charge per unit area of the surface of a conductor.

Charge distribution over surfaces of conductors of different shapes:

 (a) Spherical conductor (b) Rectangular conductor

Charges concentrate at sharp points

Charges are evenly distributed
+ +
+
+ + + +
+ ++++ +
+++ +
+ +++ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ +

Charges reside outside on the hollow

Charges concentrate at the sharp point conductor.

NOTE:
In a hollow conductor charges always reside outside the conductor. This was experimented by
Faraday.

Experiment to investigate the distribution of charge on a pear shaped conductor.

 o the conductor is charged
o proof planes of the same area but different shapes are placed at different points on the
conductor.
o The proof plane at A is removed an transfreed to the metal cup of a neutral G.L.E and the
divergence of the gold leaf is noted.
o The G.L.E is discharged.
o The experiment is repeated with proof planes from points B and C.
o It is observed that the divergence of the gold leaf is greatest with the proof plane from point
C.
o This shows that most charge is concentrated at the pointed ends of the conductor.

ACTION AT SHARP POINTS

• The sharp points of a conductor have a high charge density which creates a strong electric
field.
• The strong electric field ionizes the air around the sharp points forming positive and negative
ions.
• Ions which have the same charge as that on the sharp points are repelled away and ions which
have an opposite charge to that on the sharp points are attracted towards the sharp points
resulting into neutralization of charge hence corona discharge.

Definition:
Corona discharge (charge leakage) is the process by which a pointed conductor
gradually loses its charge.
NOTE:
The repelled ions from the sharp points form an electric wind which can blow a candle flame
as shown below.
𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

− +
+
+
++++++
− +
+ + −
++ + ++ +
+ 𝑪𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒂𝒘𝒂𝒚
+ − + 𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅

Sample question:
A highly charged positive sharp point is brought closer to a Bunsen burner flame.
(i) State your observation.
The flame is brown away from the sharp points.

(ii) Explain your observation.

Due to high charge density around the sharp point, the air around the sharp point is
ionized forming positive and negative ions. Negative ions are attracted to the sharp
point and positive ions are repelled away from the sharp point forming an electric wind
which blows the candle flame.
 EXERCISE:
1. What is meant by action at sharp points
2. Describe how corona discharge occurs at sharp points.

Application of action at sharp points (corona discharge):

▪ Used in a lightning conductor
▪ Used in electrostatic generators e.g Van de Graaff generator ▪ Used in
electrostatic photocopying machines.

LIGHTNING
Lightning is a gigantic (very large) discharge between charges in clouds and the earth or between
charges in the atmosphere and the earth.
 Lightening occurs when strong negative charges in the clouds attract positive charges from
the grounds and tall buildings. Due to neutralization of charges, a strong spark is
developed which is seen as lightening.
NOTE:
In order to minimize the effects of lightning, a lightening conductor is used to minimize
the build-up of both charges at the clouds and the buildings by neutralizing them.

LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR OR ARRESTOR:

This is a device used to safe guard tall buildings from being struck/destroyed by lightning.
A lightning conductor consists of;
▪ Spikes; placed on top of a building.
▪ Copper strip; fixed to the ground and on the walls of the building from the spikes. ▪ Copper
plate; buried under the ground.

How a lightning conductor works:

 𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒅

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑺𝒑𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆

▪ When a negatively charged cloud passes over the lightning conductor, it induces positive charges
on the spikes and repels negative charges to the ground through the copper strip.
▪ Due to the high charge density on the spikes, the air around the spikes is ionized forming positive
and negative ions.
▪ Positive ions are repelled to the cloud and neutralize some of the negative charges on the cloud.
▪ Negative ions are attracted to the spikes and neutralize some of the positive charges at the spikes.
▪ This charge leakage on the clouds and building reduces the chances of lightning to occur.

Thunder
This is the sound produced by the rapid expansion of air surrounding a lightning bolt.
When lightning heats the air to extremely high temperatures, the air expands rapidly creating a
shockwave which is heard as a loud sound.

How to keep safe during lightning.

o Seek shelter and move indoors immediately.
o Avoid standing near tall objects isolated trees, poles and open fields.
o Avoid water. Do not swim or stay near lakes, pools or other water bodies
o If caught in the open, crouch down with your feet close together to minimize ground
contact.
 o Install lightning conductors on buildings.
o Use surge protectors for electrical appliances to avoid damage from power surges caused by
lightning.
o Stay away from metals such as doors, windows as lightning can travel through metals and
pipes.
o When in a vehicle, stay inside, keep windows closed and avoid touching metal surfaces.
o Avoid large gatherings in open areas and postpone outdoor events during thunder storms.

Sample questions:
1. Explain why strips of a lightning conductor are made of thick copper wires.
 This is because copper is one of the best good conductors of electricity so it can easily
allow the negatives charges (electrons) to pass through it to the ground.
 When the copper wire is thick, it offers a low resistance to the flow of electrons through
it.

2. Explain why it’s not advisable to touch the copper strip of a lightning conductor when it is
raining.
When a negatively charged cloud passes over a lightning conductor, negative charges
(electrons) are repelled to the ground through the copper strip. These moving electrons is
electricity which can cause electric shocks to a person touching the copper strip.

3. Explain why the handle of an umbrella is made from a plastic material.

During a lightning, electric discharge (electricity) can shock a person holding an umbrella.
Since a plastic material is an insulator, it does not allow electric discharge from lightning
to reach the hands of the person holding the umbrella.

4. Explain why a person is not advised to take shelter under a tree when it is raining.
When its raining, lightning always strike/destroy tall objects. Most trees are tall and have
pointed tips therefore, therefore there is a high charge density at these sharp points. As
lightning strikes the tall tree, it can also strike the person under it.
ELECTRIC FIELD
This is the region around an electric charge where an electric force is experienced. Electric
fields are represented by electric field lines.
Definition:
An electric field line is a line drawn at any point in an electric field to show the direction
of an electric force at that point.

Properties of electric field lines:

▪ They move from positive charge to negative charge.
▪ They do not cross each other.
▪ They repel one another sideways.
▪ They are in a state of tension.
▪ The number of electric field lines at certain point indicates the strength of the electric field.
ELECTRIC PATTERNS:
(a) Isolated positive charge; (b) Isolated negative charge;

(c) Two unlike charges; (d) Two plates of unlike charges;

(e) Two unlike charges;

𝐗 𝐗

X is a neutral point
Definition:
A neutral point is a point in an electric field where the net electric force is zero.
(f) A positive charge near a negative (g) A negative charge near a positive
plate; plate;
 (h) Two plates of like charges;

𝐗 𝐗

Applications of electrostatic physics:

▪ Used in a lightning conductor
▪ Used in electrostatic generators e.g. Van de Graaff generator ▪ Used in electrostatic
photocopying machines.
▪ Used in laser printers.
▪ Used in electrostatic precipitators for cleaning air.

EXERCISE:
1. (a) Explain why a pen rubbed with a piece of cloth attracts small pieces of places.
(b) Why is it difficult to perform electrostatic experiments under damp conditions?
(c) Explain why a handle of a proof plane is made of an insulator.
(d) State three applications of electrostatic physics in the real world.

2. (a)sketch electric field patterns for the following.

(i) Two negative charges close to each other.
(ii) A positively charged conducting spheres.
(iii) Two oppositely charged parallel plates
(b) Explain how an insulator gets charged by rubbing.
(c) Describe how lightning conductors safe guard tall buildings from being destroyed by
lightning.