PH3256

PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

REGULATION- 2021

UNIT 1
PART – B
QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

SEMESTER 02
 SYLLABUS

UNIT I ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Classical free electron theory – Expression for electrical conductivity – Thermal conductivity,
expression – Wiedemann-Franz law – Success and failures – electrons in metals – Particle in a
three dimensional box – degenerate states – Fermi- Dirac statistics – Density of energy states –
Electron in periodic potential – Energy bands in solids – tight binding approximation – Electron
effective mass – concept of hole.

UNIT II SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram – direct and indirect band gap semiconductors
– Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors – extrinsic semiconductors – Carrier
concentration in N-type & P-type semiconductors – Variation of carrier concentration with
temperature – variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration – Carrier
transport in Semiconductor: random motion, drift, mobility and diffusion – Hall effect and
devices – Ohmic contacts – Schottky diode.

UNIT III MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Magnetic dipole moment – atomic magnetic moments- magnetic permeability and susceptibility
– Magnetic material classification: diamagnetism – paramagnetism – ferromagnetism –
antiferromagnetism – ferrimagnetism – Ferromagnetism: origin and exchange interaction-
saturation magnetization and Curie temperature – Domain Theory- M versus H behaviour – Hard
and soft magnetic materials – examples and uses-– Magnetic principle in computer data storage –
Magnetic hard disc (GMR sensor).

UNIT IV OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Classification of optical materials – carrier generation and recombination processes – Absorption

emission and scattering of light in metals, insulators and semiconductors (concepts only) – photo
current in a P-N diode – solar cell – LED – Organic LED – Laser diodes – Optical data storage
techniques.

UNIT V NANODEVICES AND QUANTUM COMPUTING

Introduction – quantum confinement – quantum structures: quantum wells, wires and dots ––
band gap of nanomaterials. Tunneling – Single electron phenomena: Coulomb blockade –
resonant-tunneling diode – single electron transistor – quantum cellular automata – Quantum
system for information processing – quantum states – classical bits – quantum bits or qubits –
CNOT gate – multiple qubits – Bloch sphere – quantum gates – advantage of quantum
computing over classical computing.
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PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE
REGULATION- 2021

UNIT 1
PART – BA
QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

SEMESTER 02
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UNIT I
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Important questions

1. What are the merits of classical free electron theory?

(i) It is used to verify Ohm’slaw.

(ii) It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.

(iv) It is used to derive Wiedemann –Franz law.

(iv)It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.

2. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory?

(i) Classical theory states that all free electrons will absorb the supplied
energy; on the contrary, quantum theory states that only a few electrons will
absorb the supplied energy.

(ii) Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators (non –metal)

could not be explained by this theory.

(iii) The phenomena such as photo –electric effect, Compton effect and black
body radiation could not be explained on the basis of this theory because these
phenomena are based on quantum theory.

3. Define mean free path.

The average distance traveled by a free electron between any two

successive collisions in the presence of an applied field is known as mean free
path. It is the product of drift velocity of the electron (vd) and collision time (τ)

λ= vd ×τc

4. Define relaxation time of an electron.

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The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position
from its disturbed position due to application of an external electrical field is
called relaxation time.

5. Define drift velocity of electron. How is it different from the thermal

velocity of an electron?

The average velocity acquired by a free electron in a particular direction

after a steady state is reached on the application of an electrical field is called drift
velocity. It is denoted as vd..

The thermal velocity is random in nature and its value is very high
(10 m/s), but the drift velocity is unidirectional and its value is very small (50
5

cm/s).

6. Define mobility of electrons.

The magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field is defined as the
mobility of electrons (μ)
i.e., μ= vd/E

Where vd→ drift velocity of electrons E→ lectricalE field.

7. Define electrical conductivity.

It is the amount of electrical charge (q) conducted per unit time (t) across
unit area (A) of the solid per unit applied electrical field (E).
σ= q/tAE

8. State Wiedemann –Franz law.

It states that the ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to electrical conductivity

(σ)ofa metal is directly proportional to absolute temperature (T) and this ratio is
constant for all metals at a given temperature.
K/ σ∞T i.e., K/ σ= LT

Where L is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number.

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9. What is Lorentz number?

ratio between thermal conductivity (K) of a metal to the product of electrical

conductivity (σ)ofa metal and absolute temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is
called Lorentz number and it is given by
L =K/σT

10. Define Fermi distribution function.

The probability F (E) of an electron occupying a given energy level at temperature

T is known as Fermi distribution function. It is given by

E →Energy of the level whose occupancy is being considered.

11. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its importance.

Fermi level is the energy level at finite temperature above 0K in which

the probability of the electron occupation is ½ and it is also the level of maximum
energy of the filled states at 0K

Fermi energy is the energy of the state at which the probability of the
electron occupation is ½ at any temperature above [Link] is also the maximum
energy of filled states at 0K.

Importance Fermi level and Fermi energy determine the probability of an

electron occupying a given energy level at a given temperature.

12. Define density of states. What is its use?

It is defined as the number of available electron states per unit volume in an

energy interval E and E+dE. It is denoted by Z (E). It is used to determine
Fermi energy at any temperature.

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13. What are difference between Drift velocity and thermal velocity of an
electron?

Drift Velocity
Drift velocity is the average velocity acquired by the free electron, in the
presence of electric field.
The electrons moving with drift velocity moves in the direction opposite to that
of the field direction.
The velocity is very less, say in the order of 0.5 m/s.

Thermal Velocity
Thermal velocity is the velocity of an electron without any external field.
The direction of the electrons moving with thermal velocity is random.
The velocity is very high, say in the order of 10 5 m/s.

14. Distinguish between electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.

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[Link] Electrical Conductivity

1. The co-efficient of electrical conductivity is defined as the quantity of

electricity flowing per unit area per unit time maintained at unit potential
gradient.
2. Electrical conductivity is purely due to number of free electrons.
3. Conduction of electricity takes place from higher potential end to the lower
potential end.
4. Unit: ohm -1 m-1

Thermal Conductivity

The Co-efficient of thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat

conducted per unit area per unit time maintained at unit temperature gradient.
Thermal conductivity is due to both free electrons and phonons.
Conduction of heat takes place from hot end to cold end
Unit: Wm -1 K-1

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UNIT II
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
important questions
1. What are elemental semiconductors? Give some important elemental
semiconductors.

Elemental semiconductors are made from single element of the forthgroup

elements of the periodic table.

It is also known as indirect band gap semiconductor.

Example: Important elemental semiconductors germanium and silicon.

2. What are the properties of semiconductors?

(i) They are formed by covalent bond.

(ii) They have empty conduction band.

(iii) They have almost filled valance band.

(iv) These materials have comparatively narrow energy gap.

3. Mention any four advantages of semiconducting materials.

(i) It can behave as insulators at 0K and as conductors at high temperature.
(ii) It possess some properties of both conductors and insulators.
(iii) On doping we can produce both N and P-type Semiconductors withcharge
carriers of electrons and holes respectively.
(iv) It possess many applications in electronic field such as manufacturingof
diodes, transistors, LED’s,IC etc.

4. What are compound semiconductors? Give some important

compound semiconductors.

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Semiconductors which are formed by combining third and fifth elements

or second and sixth group elements in the periodic table are called compound
semiconductors.

Important compound semiconductors are

5. What are the differences between elemental semiconductors and

compound semiconductors?

[Link] Elemental Semiconductors

1. They are made of single element Eg: Ge,Si

2. They are called as indirect band gap semiconductors.i.e., electron-hole
recombination takes place through traps, which are present in the band gap.
3. Here, heat is produced during recombination.
4. They are used for the manufacture of diodes and transistors., etc.
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Compound Semiconductors

They are made of compounds Eg: GaAs, GaP, MgO etc

They are called as direct band gap semiconductors.i.e., electron-hole
recombination takes place directly with each other.
Here, the photos are emitted during recombination.
They are used for making LED’s, laser diodes,IC’setc.

6. What is Fermi level in a semiconductor?

Fermi level in a semiconductor is the energy level situated in the band gap
of the semiconductor. It is exactly located at the middle of the band gap in the
case of intrinsic semiconductor.

7. Define Hall-effect and Hall voltage.

When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current (I) is placed

in a transverse magnetic field (B),a potential difference (electric field) is
produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to the directions of both the
current and magnetic field.

This phenomenon is known as Hall-effect and the generated voltage is

called Hall-voltage.

Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is called hall
coefficient.

8. Mention the applications of Hall Effect.

It is used to,

i. Find type of semiconductor.

ii. Measure carrier concentration.

iii. Find mobility of charge carrier.

iv. Measure the magnetic flux density using a semiconductor sample of

known Hall coefficient.

9. What is a semiconductor?

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Semiconductor is a special class of material which behaves like an insulator

at o K and acts conductor at temperature other than 0K. Its resistivity lies in
between a conductor and an insulator.

10. What is an intrinsic semiconductor?

Semiconductor in an extremely pure form (without impurities) is known as

intrinsic semiconductor.

11. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?

A semiconducting material in which impurity atoms added (doped) to the
material to modify its conductivity is known as extrinsic semiconductor or
impurity semiconductor.
12. What is meant by intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor?
What are the

differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.

[Link] Intrinsic Semiconductor

1. Semiconductor in a pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor.

2. Here the change carriers are produced only due to thermal agitation.
3. They have low electrical conductivity.
4. They have low operating temperature.
5. At 0K, Fermi level exactly lies between conduction band and valence band.
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Examples: Si,Ge,etc.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Semiconductor which are doped with impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor

Here the change carriers are produced due to impurities and may also be
produced due to thermal agitation.
They have high electrical conductivity.
They have high operating temperature.
At 0K, Fermi level exactly lies closer to conduction band in
n”“ypetsemiconductor and lies near valence band in “p”type semiconductor.
Examples: Si and Ge doped with Al, In,P,As etc

13. What is an n-type semiconductor?

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor, it becomes extrinsic or impure semiconductor and it is known
as n-type semiconductor.

14. What is a p-type semiconductor?

When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor, it becomes extrinsic or impure semiconductor and it is called p-
type semiconductor.

15. What is meant by doping and doping agent?

The technique of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known

as doping and the added impurity is called doping agent.

16. What is meant by donor energy level?

A pentavalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor donates one

electron which produces an energy level called donor energy level.

17. What is meant by acceptor energy level?

A trivalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor accepts

one electron which produces an energy level called acceptor energy level.

18. Compare n-type and p-type semiconductors.

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[Link] N-type semiconductors

1. N-type semiconductor is obtained by doping and intrinsic semiconductor with

pentavalent impurity.
2. Here electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.
3. It has donor energy levels very close to CB
4. When the temperature is increased, these semiconductors can easily donate
an electron from donor energy level to the C

P-type semiconductors

P-type semiconductor is obtained by doping and intrinsic semiconductor with

trivalent impurity.
Here holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers
It has acceptor energy levels very close to VB.
When the temperature is increased, these semiconductors can easily accept an
electron from VB to donor energy level .

19. Define impurity range, exhaustion range and intrinsic range in n-type
Semiconductors.
Impurity range: This range is due to the transfer of electrons from the donor
energy Level to CB. Here the electron concentration in the CB steadily increases
due to ionization of donor atoms.

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Exhaustion range: When all the electrons are transferred from donor energy
level to conduction band, the electron concentration remains constant over
certain temperature and is called exhaustion range.

Intrinsic range: In this range the n-type semiconductor practically behaves like
the Intrinsicsemiconductor. Therefore if the temperature is increased the
electrons concentration in the conduction band increases rapidly due to the
shifting of electrons from valence band to conduction band.

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UNIT III
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Important questions
1. On the basic of spin how the materials are classified as para, ferro,
antiferro and ferrimagnetic.

(i) Paramagnetic materials have few unpaired electron spins of equal magnitudes.

(ii) Ferro magnetic materials have many unpaired electron spins with equal
magnitudes.

(iii) Anti ferro magnetic materials have equal magnitude of spins but in
antiparallel manner.

(iv)Ferrimagnetic materials have spins in antiparallel manner but with unequal

magnitues.

2. What is Bohr magneton?

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron
in an atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment
called Bohr magneton.

3 What is ferromagnetism?

Certain materials like iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni) and certain
alloys exhibitSpontaneous magnetization ie., they have a small amount of
magnetization (atomic moments are aligned) even in the absence of an external
magnetic [Link] phenomenon is known as ferromagnetism.

4. What are ferromagnetic materials?

The materials which exhibit ferromagnetism are called as ferromagnetic

materials.

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7. Mention the energies involved in origin of domains in ferromagnetic

material.

(i) Magnetostatic energy

(ii) Crystalline energy

(iii) Domain wall energy

(iv)Magnetostriction energy

8. What is antiferromagnetism?

In anti-ferromagnetism, electron spin of neighbouring atoms are aligned

antiparallel. Anti-ferromagnetic susceptibility is small and positive and it
depends greatly on temperature.

9. What are ferrites and mention its types.

Ferrites are modified structure of iron with no carbon and in which the adjacent
magnetic moments are of unequal magnitudes aligned in antiparallel direction.
Its general formula is given by X2+ Fe23+ O42-.

Types: normally there are two types of structure. 1. Regular spinel 2. Inverse
spinel.

5. What are the properties of ferromagnetic materials?

(i) All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the magnetic
interaction between any two dipoles.

(ii) They have permanent dipole moment. They attract the magnetic field
strongly.

(iii) They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of magnetic field. This
property of ferromagnetic materials is called as spontaneous magnetization.

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6. What is domain theory of ferromagnetism?

According to domain theory, a virgin specimen of ferromagnetic materials

consists of a number of regions or domains which are spontaneously magnetized
due to parallel alignment of all magnetic dipoles. The direction of spontaneous
magnetisation varies from domain to domain.

10. State the applications of ferrites.

(i) They are used in transformer cores for high frequencies upto
microwaves.
(ii) They are used in ratio receivers to increase the sensitivity and
selectivity of the receiver.
(iii) Ferrites are used in digital computers and data processing circuits as
magnetic storage elements.
(iv) They are used as an isolator, gyrator and circulator which are used
in microwave devices.
11. What is hysteresis in magnetic materials?

The lagging of magnetic induction (B) behind the applied field strength (H)
is called hysteresis.

12. What is meant by hysteresis loss?

When the specimen is taken through a cycle of magnetization, there is a loss of

energy in the form of heat. This is known as hysteresis loss

13. What are soft- magnetic materials?

Materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetize are called soft
magnetic materials.

14. State the properties of soft magnetic materials.

(i) They have high permeability

(ii) They have low coercive force.

(iii) They have low hysteresis loss.

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15. Mention few soft magnetic materials and their applications. Soft
magnetic materials:

(i) Pure or ingot iron

(ii) Cast iron (carbon above 2.5%)
(iii) Carbon steel

Applications:

(i) Cast iron used in the structure of electrical machinery and frame work
of [Link]
(ii) Carbon steel has high mechanical strength used in making motor of
turbo alternators.

16. What ate hard magnetic materials?

Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize are
called hard magnetic materials.

17. State the properties of hard magnetic materials.

They possess high value of B-H product

They have high retentivity
They have high coercivity
They have low permeability.

18. What are ferromagnetic materials?

Materials which exhibit ferrimagnetism are called ferromagnetic materials.

They are alsoknown as ferrites.

19. Mention the properties of ferromagnetic materials.

(i) These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal number ofopposite
spins with different magnitudes such that the orientation of neighbouring
spins is in antiparallel manner.

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(ii) Susceptibility is positive and very large for these materials.

20. Differentiate soft and hard magnetic materials.

[Link] Soft magnetic materials

1. Magnetic materials which can be easily magnetized and demagnetized

2. They have high permeability

3. Magnetic energy stored is not high

4. Low hysteresis losses due to small hysteresis loop area

Hard magnetic materials

Magnetic materials which cannot be easily magnetized and demagnetized

They have low permeability

Magnetic energy stored is high

High hysteresis losses due to small hysteresis loop area

21. Why ferrites are advantageous for use as transformer cores?

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Ferrites are used as transformer cores for frequencies up to microwaves.

This is because the eddy current problem which prevents the penetration of
magnetic flux into the materials is much less severe in ferrites than in iron.

22. What is the origin of magnetic moment in magnetic materials?

The magnetic moment originates from the orbital motion and spinning
motion of electrons.

23. What is diamagnetism?

When a material is placed in a magnetic field, the material becomes

magnetized. The direction of the induced dipole moment is opposite to the
externally applied magnetic field.

Due to this effect, the material gets very weakly repelled in the magnetic
field. This phenomenon is known as diamagnetism.

24. What are diamagnetic materials?

The materials which exhibit diamagnetism are called diamagnetic

material.

25. What are the properties of diamagnetic materials?

(i) Diamagnetic materials repel the magnetic lines of force.

(ii) There is no permanent dipole moment. Therefore, the magnetic effects
are very small.
The magnetic susceptibility is negative and is independent of
temperature andapplied magnetic field strength.

26. What is paramagnetism?

In certain materials, net magnetic moment is zero though each atom or

molecule possesses a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an external
magnetic field.

But when an external magnetic field is applied the magnetic dipoles tend
to align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field and the material becomes
magnetized. This effect is known as paramagnetism.

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27. What are paramagnetic materials?

The magnetic materials which exhibit paramagnetism are called

paramagnetic material.

28. What are properties of paramagnetic materials?

(i) Paramagnetic materials attract the magnetic lines of force.

(ii) They possess permanent dipole moment.

(iii) The susceptibility is positive

SUPER CONDUCTING MATERIALS

1. Define of super conductivity and super conductors.

The phenomenon of losing the resistivity absolutely to zero, when cooled

to sufficiently low temperature ie., below critical temperature (Tc) is called
superconductivity.

The materials which exhibit superconductivity phenomena are

called superconductors orsuperconducting materials.

2. What is transition temperature?

The temperature at which a normal material changes into a

superconductor is called transition temperature (or) critical temperature (TC).

3. Mention any four property charges that occur in super conductor (or)
what are the properties of a superconductor.

(i) They have zero resistivity.

(ii) They exhibit perfect diamagnetism.

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(iii) The super conducting property can be destroyed due to the application
of magnetic and electric fields.
(iv) The transition temperature varies due to the presence of isotopes.

The entropy and specific heat decreases at transition temperature.

(vi) The elastic properties, crystal structure and thermal expansion remains
constant.

4. What is Meissner effect?

When a material is cooled below its transition temperature i.e., T ≤TC, the
material becomes a perfect diamagnetic. The magnetic flux originally present in
the material gets ejected out of a superconductor. This effect is known as
Meissner effect.

5. Explain the term critical magnetic field in superconductor.

At any temperature below the critical temperature, minimum magnetic

field is required to destroy the superconducting property. This magnetic field is
known as critical magnetic field (HC).
It is given by the relation, Hc = Ho [1- (T / Tc)2]

HC → Critical magnetic field at any temperature HO → Critical magnetic field

at absolute zero, temperature TC → Transitiontemperature of the material

6. What is isotope effect in superconductivity?

In a superconducting material, transition temperature varies with the

average isotopic mass M of its constituents.
Tc α[1 / Mα]
Where αis called isotope effect coefficient.
7. What are high TC superconductors? Give an example.

Any superconductor, if transition temperature is above 10 K is called high

TC superconductor.

Example. YBa2Cu3O7
TC = 92K La1.85Ba0.15CuO4
TC = 36K

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8. What are the properties of High TC superconductors?

They have high transition temperature.

They have modified pervoskite structure.

Formation of superconducting state in high TC superconductors is

directiondependent.

They are oxides of copper in combination with other elements.

9. What are the applications of superconductors?

Superconductors are used for the production of high magnetic field magnets.
By using superconducting materials, it is possible to manufacture electrical
generators and transformers in exceptionally small sizes having effiecncy of
99.90% Superconducting materials are used in the construction of very
sensitive electrical measuring instruments such as galvanometers.

Superconducting materials if used for power cables will enable transmission

of power over very long distances without any significant power loss or drop
in voltage.

10. What is magnetic levitation?

The magnetic levitation is based on diamagnetic property of a

superconductor which is the rejection of magnetic flux lines. A
superconductor can be suspended in air against the repulsive force from a
permanent magnet. This magnetic levitation effect can be used for high
speed transportation without frictional loss.

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11. Distinguish between type –I and II superconductors.

[Link] Type –I Superconductors

1. The material loses magnetization suddenly.

2. They exhibit complete Meissner effecti.e., they are completely diamagnetic.
3. There is only one critical magnetic field (HC).
4. No mixed state exists.

Type –II Superconductors

The material loses magnetization gradually.

They do not exhibit complete Meissner effect.
There are two critical magnetic fields i.e., lower critical field (HC1) and upper
critical field (HC2).Mixed state is present.

12. What is SQUID?

SQUID is the acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference

Device. It is a double junction quantum interferometer. Two Josephson junctions
mounted on a superconducting ring forms this interferometer. Squids are based
on the flux quantization in a superconducting ring. The total magnetic flux
passing through the ring is quantized.
It is an ultra-sensitive measuring instrument used for detection of very
weak magnetic field in the order of 10-14 tesla.

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13. What is meant by persistent current?

When a d.c current of large magnitude is once induced in a super

conducting ring, then due to the diamagnetic property of the super conductor,
the magnetic flux is trapped inside the ring and hence the current persists in the
ring for a longer time. This current is called as persistent current.

14. Define cooper pairs?

The pair of electrons formed due to the electron-lattice-electron interaction, with

equal and opposite momentum and spins having the wave vector k-q and k -q are
called Cooper pairs.

15. Define coherent length.

It is defined as the distance over which two electrons combine to form a

cooper pair.

16. What is cryotron?

Cryotron is a type of switching element made by two different super

conductors A and B as shown in fig(Refer cryotron fig in your book), with
critical fields HcB >HcA. Here the super conducting property vanishes for the
material ‘A’due to the magnetic field produced by material B and hence it can
be used as relay (or) switching elements.

17. Distinguish between A.C and D.C Josephson Effect.

[Link] D.C Josephson effect

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When two super conducting materials are separated by an insulator of very few
thickness and are connected by a wire, a d.c. current flows in the external circuit
and is called d.c. Josephson [Link] current persists for a longer time

A.C Josephson effect.

When two super conducting materials are separated by an insulator of very few
thickness and are connected to a d.c .power, thane an a.c. microwaves are
produced at the junction and this effect is called a.c. josephson effect
The current persists only for a short time.

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
1. Define dielectric constant?

It is the ratio between the absolute permittivity of the medium (ε)and the
permittivity of free space (ε0).

Dielectric constant εr = Absolute permittivity (ε) / Permittivity of free space

(ε0)

2. Define polarization of a dielectric material.

The process of the producing electrical dipoles inside the dielectric by the
application an external electrical field is called polarization in dielectrics.

Induced dipole moment (µ) = αE E →Applied electrical field

α → Polarizability

3. Name the four polarisation mechanisms.

i. Electronic polarisation.

ii. Ionic polarisation.

iii. Orientational polarisation.

iv. Space- charge polarisation.

4. What is electronic polarisation?

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Electronic polarisation means production of electric dipoles by the applied

electric field .It is due to shifting of charges in the material by the applied electric
field.

5. What is ionic polarisation?

Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations (negative ions) and

anions (positive ions) in opposite direction due to the application of an electrical
field. This occurs in an ionic solid.

6. What is orientation polarisation?

When an electrical field is applied on the dielectric medium with polar

molecules, the dipole align themselves in the field direction and thereby increases
electric dipole moment.

Such a type of contribution to polarisation due to the orientation of

permanent dipoles by the applied field is called orientation polarisation.

7. What is space- charge polarisation?

In some materials containing two or more phases, the application of an

electrical field causes the accumulation of charges at the interfaces between the
phases or at the electrodes.

As result of this, polarisation is produced. This type of polarisationis

known as space-charge polarisation.

8. Define dielectric loss and loss tangent.

When a dielectric material is subjected to an A.C voltage, the electrical

energy is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This
dissipation of energy is called dielectric loss.

In a perfect insulator, polarisation is complete during each cycle and there is no

consumption of energy and the charging current leads the applied voltage by
900. But for commercial dielectric, this phase angle is less than 90 0 by an angle
and is called dielectric loss angle. Tan is taken as measure of dielectric loss and
is known as loss tangent.

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9. Define dielectric breakdown and dielectric strength.

Whenever the electrical field strength applied to a dielectric exceeds a

critical value, very large current flows through it. The dielectric loses its
insulating property and becomes conducting. This phenomenon is known as
dielectric breakdown.

The electrical field strength at which dielectric breakdown occurs isknown

as dielectric Strength.

10. Mention the various breakdown mechanisms.

i) Intrinsic breakdown and avalanche breakdown

ii) Thermal breakdown

iii) Chemical and Electrochemical breakdown

iv) Discharge break down

v) Defect breakdown

11. What is intrinsic breakdown?

For a dielectric, the charge displacement increases with increasing

electrical field strength. Beyond a critical value of electrical field strength, there
is an electrical breakdown due to physical deterioration in the dielectric material.

12. What is thermal breakdown?

When an electrical field is applied to a dielectric material, some amount

of hear is produced. This heat must be dissipated from the material.
In some cases, the amount of hear produced is very large as compared to
the heat dissipated. Due to excess of heat the temperature inside the dielectric
increases and may produce local melting in the dielectric material.

During this process, a large amount of current flows through the material
and causes their dielectric to breakdown. This type of breakdown is known as
thermal breakdown.

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13. What is chemical and electrochemical breakdown?

Electro chemical breakdown is similar to thermal breakdown. When the

temperature of a dielectric material increases, mobility of ions increases and
hence the electrochemical reaction may take place.

This leads to leakage current and energy loss in the material and finally
dielectric breakdown occurs.

14. What is discharge break down?

Discharge breakdown occurs when a dielectric contains occluded gas

bubbles. When this type of dielectric is subjected to electric field; the gases
present in the material will easily ionize and thus produces large ionization
current.

The gaseous ions bombard the solid dielectric. This causes electrical deterioration
and leads to dielectric breakdown.

15. What is defect breakdown?

The surface of the dielectric material may have defects such as cracks,
porosity and blowholes. Impurities like dust or moisture may collect at these
discontinuities (defects). This will lead to a breakdown in a dielectric material.

16. What are requirements of good insulating materials?

The good insulating materials should have

i) High electrical resistivity to reduce leakage current.

ii) High dielectrical strength to with stand higher voltage.

iii) Smaller dielectric loss

iv) Sufficient mechanical strength.

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17 Compare active and passive dielectrics.

[Link] Active dielectrics

1. Dielectrics which can easily adapt itself to store the electrical energy in it is
called active dielectrics.
2. Examples. Piezo electric ,Ferro electrics
3. It is used in the production of ultrasonics.

Passive dielectrics.
Dielectric which restricts the flow of electrical energy in it are called passive
dielectrics.
Examples. Glass, mica, plastic
It is used in the production of sheets, pipes, etc.,

18. What are ferro-electric materials? Give examples.

Materials which exhibit electronic polarization even in the absence of the

applied electrical field are known as ferro-electric materials.

Example.

Barium Titanate (BaTiO3),Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KH2PO4)

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17. What are the differences between polar and non-polarmolecules?

Polar molecule
1. These molecules have permanent dipole moments even in the absence
of an applied field.
2. The polarization of polar molecules is highly temperature dependent.
3. These molecules do not have symmetrical structure and they do not have
centre of symmetry.
4. For this kind of molecules, there is absorption or emission in the infrared
range.
5. Examples: CHCl3,HCl

Non-polar molecules
1. These molecules do not have permanent dipole moments
2. The polarization of polar molecules is temperature independent.
3. These molecules have symmetrical structure and they have centre of
symmetry.
4. For these molecules, there is no absorption or emission in the infrared
range.
5. Examples: CCl4, CO2

20. What is meant by pyro-electricity?

It means that, the creation of electronic polarization by thermal stress.

1. Define Magnetic Flux.

The total number of number magnetic lines of force passing through a surface
is known as magnetic flux.

Unit: Weber.

2. Define magnetic induction (B) or magnetic flux density.

It is the number of magnetic lines of force passing through unit area of cross
section.

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3. Define Magnetic field strength or Magnetizing field.

It is the force experienced by a unit North Pole placed at a given point in a

magnetic field. The magnetic induction B due to the magnetic field of intensity
H applied in vacuum is related by

4. Define intensity of magnetization (I)

Magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material in to a

magnetic material. It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.
I = m / V.

Unit : Web / m2.

5. Define Magnetic permeability (μ)

It is the ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the applied magnetic field
intensity(H)
μ=B/H

Unit : Henry m–1.

6. Define relative permeability(μ)

It is defined as the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of the

free space(μr).
μr=μ/μo

7. Define magnetic susceptibility.

It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization (I) and intensity of magnetic

field (H). χ= I / H. The sign and magnitude of χ are used to determine the nature
of the magnetic materials.

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8. Define Bohr magnetron(μB)

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an
atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr
magneton.

9. How the magnetic materials are classified?

The magnetic materials are classified into two categories.

The materials without permanent magnetic moment

Example: 1. Diamagnetic materials.
The materials with permanent magnetic moment.
Example: 1. Paramagnetic materials

2. Ferromagnetic materials

3. Anti-Ferromagnetic materials

4. Ferrimagnetic material

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10. Define Diamagnetic Materials.

In a diamagnetic material the electron orbits are randomly oriented and the
orbital magnetic moments get cancelled. Similarly, all the spin moments are
paired i.e., having even number of electrons. Therefore, the electrons are
spinning in two opposite directions and hence the net magnetic moment is
zero. These materials are called as diamagnetic materials.

Example: Gold, germanium, silicon, antimony, bismuth, silver, lead,

copper, hydrogen, Water and alcohol.

11. Define Paramagnetic Materials.

Para magnetism is due to the presence of few unpaired electrons which gives
rise to the spin magnetic moment. In the absence of external magnetic field,
the magnetic moments (dipoles) are randomly oriented and possess very less
magnetization in it. When an external magnetic field is applied to
paramagnetic material, the magnetic moments align themselves along the
field direction and the material is said to be magnetized.
Example: Platinum, CuSO 4 , MnSO4 Palladium, Chromium, Aluminum, etc
12. Define Ferromagnetic Materials.
Ferromagnetism is due to the presence of more unpaired electrons. Even in
the absence of external field, the magnetic moments align parallel to each
other. So that it has large magnetism. This is called spontaneous
magnetization.

Example: Nickel, iron, Cobalt, Steel, etc.

13. What is the Effect of magnetic field on Ferromagnetic materials?

If a small external magnetic field is applied the magnetic moments align in the
field direction and become very strong magnets.

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14. What are the properties of Ferromagnetic Materials?

All the magnetic lines of force pass through the material.

The permeability is very much greater than one. They have enormous
permanent dipole moment.
When the temperature is greater than the Curie temperature, the Ferromagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic material.
The ferromagnetic material has equal magnitude dipole lying parallel to
each other.

Examples: Nickel, iron, Cobalt, Steel, etc.

15. What are magnetic domains?

A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small regions called

domains. (0.1 to 1 mm2of area). Each direction is spontaneously magnetized. The
direction of magnetization varies from domain to domain and the net
magnetization is zero in the absence external magnetic field. The boundary line
which separates two domains is called domain wall or Block wall.

16. Define Exchange Energy.

The energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves is known as
exchange energy. It is also called as magnetic field energy or magneto static
energy. It arises from interaction of electron spins and it depends upon the inter
atomic distance.

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17. What is Anisotropy energy?

Crystals are anisotropic, the energy arises from the difference of energy
required for magnetization along any two different directions in a single
crystal. These are two directions of magnetization.

1. Easy direction. 2. Hard direction.

In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard

direction of magnetization, strong field should be applied.

The excess energy required to magnetize a specimen in particular direction

over that required to magnetize it along the easy direction is called the
crystalline anisotropy energy.

18. What is Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy?

It is the sum of the exchange and anisotropy energy in the domain wall.
Thicknessof the wall is approximately 1000o A

19. What is Magnetostriction energy?

When the domain is magnetized in different directions, they will either expand
or shrink. i.e.,Change in dimension when it is magnetized. The energy
produced in this effect is called Magnetostriction energy. It is the energy due
to the mechanical stresses generated by domain rotations.

20. Give the experimental evidence for Domain Structure?

An experimental evidence for domain structure was given by BITTER and is

called Bitter powder pattern. In this method, a drop of colloidal suspension of
finely divided ferromagnetic powder is allowed to spread over the surface of
the ferromagnetic material. It is found that through the microscope, the
colloidal particles are collected along the domain boundaries which shows the
existence of domain structure.

21. Define Hysteresis.

Hysteresis means “Lagging” i.e., The Lagging of intensity of magnetization

(I)behind the intensity of magnetic field (H) which is applied is called
Hysteresis.
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22. What is meant by Hysteresis Loss?

When the specimen is taken through a cycle of magnetization, there is loss of

energy in the form of heat. This is known as Hysteresis Loss.

23. Define Retentivity and Coercivity.

During the process of demagnetization, the material retains some amount of

magnetism, even though when intensity of magnetic field is zero. It is known
as Retentivity or residual magnetism.

The amount of intensity of magnetic field applied in the reverse direction to

remove the retentivity is known as coercivity or coercive force.

24. What are reversible and irreversible domains?

When a magnetic field is applied, the domain walls are displaced and gives
rise to small value of magnetization. Now if the field is removed, the domains
return to its original state and are known as reversible domains.

When the field is removed certain domain boundaries do not come back to the
original position due to the domain wall movement to a very large distance.
These domains are called irreversible domains.

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25. What are soft magnetic materials? Give its properties?

Soft Magnetic materials: Materials which are easy to magnetize and

demagnetize are called soft magnetic materials.

These materials do not retain the alignment of magnetic domains after the
removal of external magnetic field.

Properties

They have high Permeability

The storing of magnetic energy is less
Retentivity and Coercivity values are small
They have low hysteresis loss
26. What are hard magnetic materials? Give its properties?
Hard Magnetic materials: Materials which retain their magnetism and are
difficult to demagnetize are called hard magnetic materials.

These materials retain permanently the alignment of magnetic domains even

afterthe removal of external magnetic field.

Properties
They have low Permeability
The storing of magnetic energy is more
Retentivity and Coercivity values are high
They have high hysteresis loss

27. Define Energy product.

The product of residual magnetic induction (Br) and coercivity (HC) is called
energy product (Br × HC). The value of energy product is very high for
permanent magnets.

Importance:

It is used to design powerful permanent magnets

It is used to maximum amount of energy stored in the specimen

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[Link] between Soft and Hard magnetic materials

S. No Hard Magnetic Materials

1. Cannot be easily magnetized
2. It can be produced by heating and sudden cooling
3. Domain wall does not move easily and require large value of
H for magnetization.
4. Hysteresis loop area is large Susceptibility and Permeability
values are small.
5. Retentivity and Coercivity are large
6. High eddy current loss
7. Impurities and defects will be more
8. Examples: Alnico, Chromium steel, tungsten steel, carbon
steel.
9. Uses: Permanent magnets, DC magnets.

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Soft Magnetic Materials

1. Can be easily magnetized.
2. It can be produced by heating and slow cooling.
3. Domain wall move easily and requires small value of H for magnetization.
4. Hysteresis loop area is small Susceptibility and Permeability values are high.
5. Retentivity and Coercivity are small.
6. Low eddy current loss
7. No impurities and defects
8. Examples: Iron-silicon alloy, Ferrous nickel alloy, Ferrites Garnets.
9. Uses: Electro magnets, computer data storage. Transformer core.

29. Define Anti ferromagnetic materials.

Magnetic materials in which, the spins are aligned in anti-parallel manner due
to un favorable exchange interaction among them resulting in zero magnetic
moment are called as Anti ferromagnetic materials.

30. What are Ferrimagnetic materials or Ferrites?

Ferromagnetic materials are much similar to ferromagnetic materials in which

the magnetic dipoles are aligned anti-parallel with unequal magnitudes. If
small value of magnetic field is applied, it will produce the large value of
magnetization

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31. What are the Applications of Ferrites?

 Ferrites are used to produce ultrasonic wave by Magnetostriction

principle.
 Ferrites are used in audio and video transformers.
 Ferrites rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity.
 Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices such as
gyrator, circulator and Isolator.
 They are also used for power limiting and harmonic generation.
 Ferrites are used in parametric amplifiers so that the input can be amplified
with low noise.
 They are used in computers and data processing circuits.

32. What Magnetic Bubbles?

Magnetic bubble is direct access storage medium. Magnetic bubbles are soft
magnetic materials with magnetic domains of a few micrometers in diameter.
These bubbles are the electrical analogue of the magnetic disk memories used in
computers. The magnetic disk in the hard disk memory is moved mechanically
where as the bubbles in a bubble memory device are moved electronically at
very high speeds.

[Link] is Superconductivity?

The ability of certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero electrical resistivity
when they are cooled to low temperature is known as superconductivity. (ie.,
maximum conductivity with zero resistance at zero Kelvin)

34. Define Critical Temperature.

Critical temperature (or) Temperature ( T C ) is defined as the temperature at
which the resistivity falls to zero is called transition as temperature or Critical
temperature. The temperature at which the normal conductor becomes a
superconductor is know as critical temperature ( T C ) Below TC , the material
(Tin) is in the superconducting state and above TC , it is in the normal state.

[Link] BCS Theory?

(Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer theory). It states that an electron pair called
cooper pair is formed at low temperature by overcoming the repulsive force.
The cooper pair moves without scattering (without any resistance) in the lattice
structure. Now the material becomes a super conductor.

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This is also called as electron-phonon- electron interaction. these two

electrons have equal and opposite momentum and spins.

This BCS theory is suitable only for low temperature superconductors.

36. Define Cooper pair.

The electron pairs called cooper pairs are formed at low temperat ure by
overcoming the repulsive forces. The cooper pairs moves without scattering
(without any resistance) in the lattice structure. Now the material becomes
super conductor. This is also called as electron-phonon- electron interaction
these two electrons have equal and opposite momentum and spins.

[Link] is coherence length?

It is defined as the distance up to which two electrons combine to form a

Cooper pair.

[Link] are the important properties of superconductors?

1. Zero Electrical Resistance : The electrical resistivity drops to zero at
the transition temperature.( TC ) Dr. Collins observed that the current in a
superconducting ring is unchanged for 2½ years.
2. Effect of magnetic field : Below TC , the superconducting property disappears
when strong magnetic field is applied. i.e., it returns to normal state.
3. Diamagnetic property : The superconductor is a perfect diamagnetic.
4. Effect of heavy Current : The superconducting property disappears when a
heavy current flows, since current flow will set up a magnetic field.
5. Isotope effect : The presence of isotopes in superconductors changes the
transition temperature of the superconductors.
6. Thermal properties : Entropy and specific heat decreases at transition
temperature and the thermoelectric effect disappear in the superconducting state.
7. Effect of Impurities : The impurities change the magnetic properties of the
superconductors.

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39. Define Critical magnetic field.

A very strong magnetic field applied to superconducting material it disappears

superconducting property this is called as critical magnetic field.

When the temperature of the material increases, the value of critical magnetic
field decreases.

40. What is Meissner effect? (or) Define Diamagnetic property.

When the superconducting material is subjected to a uniform magnetic field,
under the condition T TCand H HC, the magnetic flux lines are excluded from the
material. Thus the material exhibits perefect diamagnetism. This phenomenon is
called as meissner effect.

39. What happens in a superconductor when a heavy Current flows?

The superconducting property disappears when a heavy current flows, since

this current flow will set up a heavy magnetic field. According the Silsbee’s
rule, for a superconducting wire

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39. What is Isotope effect?

The presence of isotopes in superconductors change the transition temperature of

the superconductor. The transition temperature is found to be inversely
proportional to the square root of the atomic weight of the isotope.

The transition temperature of the heavier isotope is less than the that of the
lighter isotopes.

40. How the superconductors are classified? or what are the types of
superconductors.
Based on the value of HC we have,
1) Type I (or) Soft superconductors 2) Type II (or) Hard superconductors
Based on the value of TC we have,
1) High temperature superconductors 2) Low temperature
superconductors

41. What it Type I superconductors? Give its characteristics.

In type I superconductor, the magnetic field is completely excluded from the

material below the critical magnetic field HC and the material loses its
superconducting property abruptly at HC .

Characteristics

They exhibit complete Meissner Effect.

They have only one critical magnetic field value.

Below the material behaves as superconductor and above the material

behaves as normal conductor.
These are called as Soft superconductors.
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42. Distinguish between Type I and Type II Superconductors

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What it Type II superconductors? Give its characteristics.

In type II superconductor, the magnetic field is excluded from the material

and the material loses its superconducting property gradually rather than
abruptly.

Characteristics

They do not exhibit a complete Meissner Effect.

They have two critical magnetic field values. Lower critical magnetic
filed [HC1] and Higher critical magnetic field [HC2].

Below HC1 the material behaves as superconductor and above the material
behaves as normal conductor. The region in between [HC1] and [HC2] is
called mixed state or vortex region.
These are called as Hard superconductors.

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43. What are Low TC and High TC superconductors?

Low TC Superconductors

The superconductors having the critical temperature less than 20 K are

known as low TCSuperconductors or elemental superconductors.
The Superconductors by BCS theory.
It is explained by BCS theory.
It is not so useful due to its low temperature maintenance.
It is called as N-type superconductor.

High TC Superconductors

The superconductors having the critical temperature greater than 100 K

are known as high TCSuperconductors or ceramic or oxide
superconductors.
The Superconductors is due to hole states.
It is explained by RVB theory proposed by Anderson.
It is very useful for commercial and engineering purposes.
It is called as P-type superconductor.

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44. What are the characteristics of high temperature [high T C]

superconductors?

High Superconductors have high temperatures.

They have a modified perovskite crystal structure.
Superconducting state is direction dependent.
These are oxides of copper with other elements.
These are reactive, brittle, and cannot be easily modified or joined.
For high superconductors, liquid Nitrogen is used instead of liquid helium.

45. What are the Applications of Superconductors?

Electric generators can be made by using superconductors with smallersize,

less weight and low energy consumption.
Superconductors can be used for the transmission of power over verylong
distances.
Superconductors transformers are available.
Superconductors can be used in switching Devices.
The superconductors can be used in sensitive electrical instruments.
It can be used as a memory or storage element in computers.
These are used to design Cryotron, Maglev, Josephson Devices and
SQUID.

DC superconducting motors are used in ship propulsion and in large mills.

Superconducting magnetic field may be used to launch satellite into orbit

directly from the earth without use of rockets.
Ore separation can be done by using machines made of superconducting
magnets.
These are used in NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ) imaging
equipments which is used for scanning purposes.
Superconductors are used for the detection of brain tumor, defective cells,
etc.,
Superconducting solenoids are used in magneto hydrodynamic power
generation to maintain the plasma in the body.
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50. What is Cryotron?

It is a magnetically operated current switch.

The superconducting property disappear when the magnetic field is greater

than critical field (HC).

It consists of a superconducting material [A] and it is surrounded by an

another super conducting coil of wire [B]. When the critical magnetic field
of wire B exceed or less than that of superconducting material A, the current
in A can be controlled by the current in the material B.

51. Define Magnetic levitation?

When a magnet is placed over a superconductor, the magnet floats, this

phenomenon is known as magnetic levitation. This is based on
diamagnetic property of a superconductor. A diamagnetic material rejects
the magnetic flux lines.
52. What is Maglev?

It is a magnetic levitated train. Electromagnetic induction principle is used

here, this train cannot move over the rail. Instead it floats above the rails, so
that it move faster with speed of 500 Km/hr without any frictional loss. It has
two superconducting magnet on each side of the train and there is guiding
system consisting of ‘S” shaped coils on each side. Due to actions of these
magnets the train moves faster thro’ levitation.

53. What is SQUID?

SQUID stands for Superconductors Quantum Interference Device. It is a

double junction quantum interferometer formed from two Josephson
junctions mounted on a superconducting ring. SQUID is based on the flux
quantization in a superconducting ring. The total magnetic flux passing
through the ring is quantized. It is using to detect very minute magnetic field
of the order of 10 14 tesla.

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1. What is a dielectric material? State their property.

Dielectrics are the insulating materials having electric dipole moment

permanently or temporarily by applying the electric field. These are mainly
used to store electrical energy and used as electrical insulators. All dielectrics
are electrical insulators. But all electrical insulators need not to be dielectrics.
Dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific resistance and have
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

2. Define electric flux density (D) or Electric Displacement Vector.

The number of electric lines passing through the unit area of cross section.

Unit: Coulomb / m²

3. Define Permittivity

It is the ratio of electric displacement vector in a dielectric medium to the

applied electric field strength. ε= D / E

4. Define Dielectric constant or Relative Permittivity

It is the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of the free space.

5. Define Dipole moment

Dipole moment is defined as the product of charge and distance.

Unit : Coulomb meter.

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6. Define Polarization, Polarization vector and Polarisability

Polarization
The separation of negative and positive charges is called polarization. i.e., the
process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is called polarization.

Polarization vector
If is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of molecules
per unit volume then the polarization of the solid is given by the polarization
vector P and it can be written as

The polarization vector is the dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric
material.
Polarisability
The polarization depends on electric field.

the proportionality constant is called as polarisability.

7. Define Electronic Polarization.

Electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement of positively charged

nucleus and negatively charged electron in opposite directions by an external
electric field. It creates a dipole moment in the dielectric. This is called electronic
polarization.

8. What is ionic polarization.

The displacement of cations (+ve) and anions (-ve) in opposite directions is called
ionic polarization. It occurs in ionic solids in the presence of electric field

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9. Define orientation polarization.

When an electric field is applied on the dielectric medium with polar molecules,
the electric field tries to align these dipoles along its field direction, due to that
there is a resultant dipole moment in that material and this process is called
orientation polarization.

10. What is Space charge polarization?

The space charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions along the field
direction giving rise to redistribution of charge in the dielectrics. Normally this
type of polarization occurs in ferrites and semiconductors and it is very small
when compared to other types of polarization.

11. What are polar and non-polar molecules?

Molecules which are having permanent dipole moment even in the absence of an
applied field are called polar molecules. Example: H2 O, HC, CO.
Molecules which do not have permanent dipole moment, but they have induced
dipole moment in the presence of applied electric field are called non - polar
molecules.
Example: O2 , H2 , N2

12. Define Local or internal or Lorentz field.

In a dielectric material, the field acting at the location of an atom is called
local field or internal field [ Ei ]

The internal field E must be equal to the sum of applied field and the field due
to location of the atom by the dipoles of all other atoms

ie, Ei = E + The field due to all other dipoles.

13. Define Dielectric Loss and Dielectric breakdown.

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When a dielectric material is subjected to an alternating electric field, some

amount of energy is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form heat.
This loss of energy is called Dielectric loss.

When a dielectric material loses its property and permids the flow of a large
current, it is said to be dielectric breakdown.

14. What is optical absorption and infrared absorption in a dielectric?

The dielectric losses in the optical region, associated with the electrons are
referred to as optical absorption. This absorption leads to color of materials. The
dielectric losses in the infra-red region, associated with the ionic vibrations are
referred to as Infrared absorption.

15. Define Dielectric breakdown and what are its types?

When a dielectric material loses its property and permits the flow of a large
current, it is known a dielectric breakdown.

Types

Intrinsic breakdown.
Thermal breakdown.
Electrochemical breakdown.
Defect breakdown.
Discharge breakdown.

16. What are Ferro electric materials?

Materials which exhibit electric polarization even in the absence of electric

field are known as Ferro electric materials.

Crystalline dielectric materials which posses a permanent electric polarization

are called ferroelectric materials have electric dipole moment even in the
absence of any field. Normally they are anisotropic crystals which exhibit
spontaneous polarization.

Examples : Parium Titanate [Ba TiO3 ], Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate [K

H2 P O4 ], Lithium Niobate [LiNb O3 ] and Rochelle salt.

17. What are the differences between polar and non - polar molecules?

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Polar molecules
These molecules have permanent dipole moment even in the absence of on
applied field.
The polarization of polar molecules is highly temperature dependent.
There is absorption or emission in the infrared range for these molecules
Example: H2 O, HC1, CO
Non - Polar molecules
These molecules do not have permanent dipole moment
The polarization in these type of molecules is independent of temperature.
There is no absorption of emission in infrared range for these molecules
Example: O2, H2, N2
18. Compare active and passion dielectrics.

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Active dielectrics
Dielectrics which can easily adapt to store the electrical energy in it is called
active dielectrics.
They are used in the production of ultrasonics.
Example : Piezo electrics, Ferro electrics

Passive dielectrics
Dielectrics which resulting the flow of electrical energy in it are called passive
dielectrics.
They are used in production of sheets.
Example : Glass, mica and Plastic

19. What are the applications of ferroelectric materials?

Ferroelectric materials are used to make pressure transducers, ultrasonic

transducers, microphones and gas filters.
They are used as memory cores in computers. They are used to measure and
control temperature.
Ferroelectric ceramics are used as capacitors to store electrical energyThey are
used to make very good infrared detectors.
Rochelle salt is used in devices like microphones, strain gauges,phonograph
pickups and SONAR devices.
In optical communication, the ferroelectric crystals are used for optical
modulation.

Ferro electric materials are used to produce ultrasonics

Electrets are also used to bond the fractured bones in human body.

They are used as frequency stabilizers and crystal controlled oscillator.

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UNIT IV
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Important questions
1. Give four applications of fiber optic sensors.

 Fiber optic sensors are used as optical displacement sensors, which

is used to find the displacement of a target along with its position.
 It is used as fluid level detector.
 It is used to sense the pressure, temperature at any environment.
 It is also used to measure the number of rotations of the fiber coilusing
the instrument called a gyroscope.

2. Explain the basic principle of fiber optic communication

Total internal reflection is the principle of fiber opticcommunication.

Principle:

When light travels from a denser to rarer medium, at a particular

angle of incidence called the critical angle, the ray emerges along the
surface of separation. When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical
angle, the incident ray is reflected in the same medium and this
phenomenon is called the total internal reflection.

3. Give the application of fiber optical system.

 It can be used for long distance communication in trunk lines.

 A large no of telephone signals nearly 15000 can be passed through
the optical fibers in a particular time without any interference.
 It is used in computer networks especially in LAN.
 It is also used as optical sensor.

4. Mention any four advantages of LED in electronic display.

 Very small in size.

 Different colours of display.
 Works under a wide range of temperature.
 It is a very wide range of operation.
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5. Mention any four advantages of fiber optic sensors.

 It has no external interference

 It is used in remote sensing.
 Safety of data transfer.
 It is small in size.

6. Mention any two fiber optic sources.

 Light emitting diode (LED) in LED we have two types
1. planar [Link] shaped LED.

 Laser diodes (LD). In laser diodes we have homojunctionlaser

heterojunction laser injection laser diode etc.

7. What is meant by injection luminescence? Give examples.

When the majority careers are injected from P to N and N to P

region, they become excess minority carriers. Then this excess minority
carrier diffuses away from the junction and recombines with the majority
carriers in P and N region and emits light. This phenomenon is known as
injection luminescence.

8. What is meant by LED? Give its principle.

An LED is the abbreviation of light emitting diode. It is a

semiconductor P N junction diode which converts electrical energy to light
energy under forward biasing.

9. What is the principle used in PIN photodiode?

This diode works in reverse bias. Under reverse bias when light is
made to fall on the neutral or intrinsic region electron hole pairs are
generated. These electrons and holes are accelerated by the external electric
field, which results in photo current. Thus light is converted into
electricalsignal.

10. Give any four examples of intrinsic sensor.

 Pressure sensor
 Liquid level sensor
 Phase and polarization sensor.
 Optical fiber flow sensor.
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10. Give any four examples of extrinsic sensor.

 Displacement sensor
 Laser Doppler velocimter sensor
 Fluor optic temperature sensor
 Current measurement sensor

11. State the applications optical fibers in medical field.

 Fiber optics endoscopes are used in medical diagnosis

 It is used to visualize the inner organs of the body
 Fibers as endoscopes are used in various medical fields such as
cardioscopy, laparoscopy, cryoscopy etc.

12. What is meant by attenuation?

It is defined as the ratio of the optical power (Pout) from a fiber of length
‘L’ tothe power input (Pin).

13. Mention the advantages of optical fiber communication over radio wave
communication.

 Optical communication can be made even in the absence of

electricity
 The optical signals are not affected by any electrical signals or
lightening
 Optical fiber communication is free from electromagnetic
interference(EMI)
 This type of communication is suitable to any environmental
conditions
 Easy maintenance, longer life, economical and high quality signal
transmission are the additional features of optical fiber
communication.

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14. What are the losses that occur during optical fiber communication?

1. During the transmission of light through the optical fiber,

three major losses will occur, viz., attenuation, distortion, and dispersion.
2. Attenuation is mainly caused due to absorption, scattering and
radiation of light inside the fibers.
3. Distortion and dispersion occurs due to spreading of light and
alsodue to manufacturing the defects.

15. What are the conditions of Total Internal reflection?

a) Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium

b) The angle of incidence(Ф) on core should be greater than critical
angle (Фc) Ф> Фc
c) The refractive index of the core (n1) should be greater than the
refractive index of the cladding (n2).
n1 > n2

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UNIT V
NANO DEVICES
important questions
1. What are metallic glasses?

Metallic glasses are the newly developed engineering materials which

shar es the properties of both metals and glasses. They are glasses having
metallic properties.

2. What are the types of metallic glasses and mention few metallic glasses.

There are two types of metallic glasses, they are

i. Metal –Metalloid metallic glasses

ii. Metal –Metal metallic glasses

Metal –Metalloid metallic glasses

(Fe, Co, Ni) Metal –(B, Si, C, P)
Metalloid Metal –Metal metallic glasses
Nickel –niobium (Ni –Nb)

3. State the structural properties of metallic glasses.

i. They do not have any crystal defects such as grain boundaries

dislocation etc
ii. Metallic glasses have tetrahedral close packing (TCP) in contrastto
hexagonal close packing(HCP) of the crystalline solid.

4. What are the mechanical properties of metallic glasses?

i. Extremely high strength due the absence of point defects,

dislocation and slip plane.
ii. They have high elasticity.
iii. They are highly ductile

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5. What are the electrical properties of metallic glasses?

i. Electrical resistively of metallic glasses is high (> 100µcm)Ωandit

does not vary much with temperature.
ii. Due to high resistivity, the eddy current loss is very small.

6. What are the magnetic properties of metallic glasses?

i. Metallic glasses have both soft magnetic and hard magnetic properties.

ii. They exhibit high saturation magnetization.

iii. The core losses of metallic glasses are very less.

7. What are the chemical properties of metallic glasses?

i. They are highly resistant to corrosion due to the formationof

protective oxide film in chromium containing glasses.

ii. They are highly reactive and stable.

8. What are the applications of metallic glasses?

i. Metallic glasses possess high tensile strength. They are superior than
common steels. This makes them useful as reinforcing elements in concrete,
plastic or rubber.

ii. Due to their high strength, high ductility, rollability and good corrosion
resistance, they are used to make razor blades. This fact is also utilized to
make different kinds of springs.

9. What are the advantages of using metallic glasses as transformer core

material?

Metallic glasses are ferromagnetic. They possess low magnetic losses, high
permeability and saturation magnetization with low coactivity. They also have
extreme mechanical hardness and excellent initial permeability.

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These properties make them useful as transformer core materials. Moreover

power transformers made of metallic glasses are smaller in size and efficient in
their performance.

10. What are shape memory alloys?

The group of metallic alloys which demonstrate the ability to return to their
original shape or size (i.e., the alloy appears to have memory) when subjected to
the appropriate thermal procedure (heating/cooling) is called Shape Memory
Alloys (SMAs).

11. What is shape memory effect?

Certain metallic alloys like alloy of gold (Au) and Cadmium (Cd) exhibit
a plastic nature, when cooled to a lower temperature. The return to their original
dimensional configuration (metallic) during heating at high temperature. This
effect is called Shape Memory Effect (SME).

12. What are the properties of shape memory alloys?

i. They can exist in two different solid phases with distinct crystal
structures in SMA.
ii. If temperature is increased, material goes to austenite phase which
has cubic crystal structure and on cooling; the material comes back
to its original shape in the martensite phase.
iii. SMAs exhibit changes in electrical resistance, volume and length
during the transformation with temperature.
iv. They are extremely elastic or exhibit pseudo elasticity, i.e., strain
can be very large for a given stress in the martensite phase.
v. SMAs exhibit self-healing effect.

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13. What are the applications of shape memory alloys?

i. Shape memory alloys can act as actuators and sensors.

ii. Fiber composite shape memory alloys are used to produce twist on the
helicopter blades.
iii. They are used in orthopaedic devices for pulling fractures together,
artificial hearts and shrink-wrap.

14. What is glass transition temperature?

The temperature at which the transition from liquid (metallic liquid) to solid
(glass) occurs is known as the glass transition temperature.

15. What are nano phase materials?

Nanophase materials or nanaomaterials are newly developed materials with

grain size at the nanometer range (10-9), i.e., in the order of 1 –100 nm. The
particle size in a nano materials is 1 nm.

16. Mention different forms of nanomaterials.

Nanodots, nanorods, Carbon nanotubes and Fullerenes.

[Link] are two routes through which nano particles can be

synthesized?

(i) Top down approach: involving breaking down bulk materials to

nanosizes. Example:Mechanical alloying

(ii) Bottom up approach: where the nano particles are made by building
atom by atom.

Example: Inert gas condensation

18. Mention few techniques for synthesis of nano phase materials.

i) Mechanical
ii) Inert gas condensation alloying
iii) Sol-gel technique
iv) Electro-depostion
v) Laser synthesis
vi) Spraying

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19. What are physical properties of nanomaterials?

Melting point reduces with decrease in cluster size.

Interparticle spacing decreases with decreases in grain size for metal clusters.
Ionization potential changes with cluster size of the nano grains.
Greater luminescence efficiency in nano semiconductor materials.

20. What are mechanical properties of nanomaterials?

Higher hardness and mechanical strength (2-7 times) when grain size reduces
from 1 μm to 10 nm.

Higher moduli of elasticity (30%-40%)

Very high ductility and super plastic behavior at low temperatures.

21. What are magnetic properties of nanomaterials?

Non-magnetic materials become magnetic when the cluster size reduces

to 80 atoms. Bulk magnetic moment increases with decreases in coordination
number Ferro magnetic materials exhibit superparamagnetism at nanograin sizes.
Paramagnetic materials exhibit ferromagnetism at nano grain size.

22. What is non-linear optics?

The field of optics dealing with the non-linear behavior of optical materials.

23. Name few non-linear optical phenomena.

The few of the nonlinear phenomena observed are

1. Second harmonic generation

2. Optical
3. mixing
4. Optical phase conjugation
5. Soliton

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(N.H.209,SathyRoad,Kovilpalayam,Coimbatore-64107)
Approved by AICTE,NewDelhi& Affiliatedto Anna University, Chennai Accredited by
NAAC & ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution )

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

PH3256–PHYSICSFORINFORMATIONSCIENCE
Most Important AnnaUniversity Part-B Questions
Unit-I Electrical Properties of Materials
1. What are the basic assumptions of classical free electron theory? Based on the assumptions derive
an expression for electrical and thermal conductivity of metals. What are the success and failures
of this theory?
2. Derive Schrödinger equation for a particle in 3- dimensional box. Determine the Eigen values and
Eigen functions for the same.
3. Derive an expression for the density of energy states. Based on that obtain suitable expression for
carrier concentration in metals and Fermi energy of electrons at 0 K.
4. Write down the Fermi Dirac distribution function. Explain how the function varies with temperature?
5. Define effective mass of an electron and deduce the expression for the effective mass with E- K curve.
Unit II Semiconductor Physics
6. Derive an expression for the carrier concentrations of electron and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor.
And also explain the variation of carrier concentration with temperature.
7. Derive an expression of electron concentration in the conduction band of an n type extrinsic
semiconductor.
8. Derive an expression of hole concentration in the valance band of an p type extrinsic semiconductor.
9. Explain with a neat sketch, the variation of Fermi level with temperature in an n- type semiconductor.
10. What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for Hall coefficient. Describe an experimental setup for the
measurement of the hall coefficient and mention its applications.
11. Describe the construction and working of Schottky Diode and Ohmic contact with neat diagrams.
Unit III Magnetic properties of materials
12. Describe(classify) dia, para, ferro, antiferro and ferri magnetic materials and their properties with example
13. (i)Explain about the origin of ferro magnetism and exchange interaction in ferro magnetic materials.
(ii) Discuss about saturation magnetization and Curie temperature.
(iii) Explain M versus H behaviour
(iv).Write the difference between hard and soft magnetic materials with examples.
14. Explain Magnetic principle in computer data storage and GMR sensor.
15. Explain Domain theory of ferromagnetism
Unit IV Optical properties of materials
16. How optical materials are classified depending on the interactions of the materials with visible light.
17. Explain the three types of carrier generations and recombination in semiconductors.
18. Explain absorption and emission of light in metals, insulators and semiconductors.
19. Explain the principle, construction and working of
(i). Semiconductor diode laser with necessary diagrams.
(ii). Photo current in P-N diode and solar cell
20. Explain the principle and working of LED and OLED with a neat diagram.

Unit V NANO DEVICES & QUANTUM COMPUTING

21. Explain Quantum confinement and quantum structures in nano materials.
22. Write a note on (i)Bandgap of nano materials.(ii)Quantum confinement.(iii).Coulomb blockade.
23. Describe single electron phenomena and single electron transistor.
24. Explain in detail about tunneling process and also give an account on resonant tunneling diode with
Neat diagram.
25. Briefly explain (i) Quantum system for information processing (ii). Quantum states,
(iii) Classical bits (iv).Quantum bits
26. What is my quantum gate? Detail the working of CNOT gate
27. Describe the construction of bloch sphere and give importance.
 Reg. No. : zol22ooo

Question Paper Code : 21450

B.E./[Link]. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2023.

Second Semester

Computer Science and Engineering

PH 3256 - PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

(Common to: Computer Science and Design/Computer Scienceand Engineering

(Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning)/Computer Science and Engineering
(Cyber Security)/Computer and Communication Engineering/Artificial Intelligence
and Data Science/Computer Science and Business Systems and Information
Technology)
(Regulations 2021)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Answer ALL questions.
PARTA (10 × 2=20 marks)

1. What are the failures of classical free electron theory?

2. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0K. Atomic weight and density of
copper are 63.54 and 8950 kg/m® respectively.
3. Whydo we prefer extrinsic semiconductors than intrinsic semiconductors?
4. Distinguish between direct and indirect band gap semiconductor.
5. In a magnetic material, the field strength is found to be 10® ampere/m. If the
magneticsusceptibility of the material is 0.5 x 10-5, calculate the intensity of
magnetization and flux density in the material.
6. What is Gaint magneto resistance?
7. Define Rayleigh scattering.
8. What is OLED?

9. Distinguish between bitsand qubits.

10. Define Coulomb blockade effect.

 PART B-(5 x 16 = 80 marks)

function for a
11. (a) (i) Derive an expression for energy eigen value and eigen
particle moving in the potential V(x)=0 for 0<IKa and V(x)=0
for 0>x2a. (10)

(ii) Extend the above eigen value and eigen function for a particle in
three dimensional rectangular box and discuss the degenerate
states of the particle. (6)
Or

(b) ) Explain in detail about tight binding approximation. (8)

(ü) What is effective mass of electron? Derive an expression for

effective mass of electron moving in a periodic potential. (8)

12. (a) (i) Derive an expression of electron concentration in the conduction

band of an n type extrinsic semiconductor. (10)

(ii) Explain with a neat sketch, the variation of Fermi level with
temperature in an n- type semiconductor. (6)
Or

(b) Explain in detail

(i) Schottky diode

(ii) Ohmiccontacts. (8+8)

13. (a) () Distinguish between soft and hard magnets. (6)

G1) Explain in detail about the magnetic principle in computer data

storage. (10)
Or

(b) Explain in detail about the domain theory of ferromagnetism. (16)

14. (a) Explain carrier generation and recombination in semiconductor. (16)

Or

(b) (i) Describe the construction and working of a photo diode. (8)

(ii) Describe the construction and working of asolar cell. (8)

21450
4r (a) Explain quantum continement and quantum st.e
materials. nano
(16)
Or

(b) () Explain in detail about Bloch sphere.

6:) Distinguish between Classical and quantum computing. (10),
(6)

21450

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Reg. No. :

Question Paper Code : 41114

B.E./[Link]. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2021.

Second Semester

Computer Science and Engineering

PH 8252 — PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

(Common to Information Technology)

(Regulations 2017)

Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A — (10  2 = 20 marks)

1. Define drift velocity.

2. What is called thermal conduction?

3. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

4. Define Hall effect and Hall voltage.

5. Define Magnetic susceptibility.

6. What is the Curie Temperature?

7. What are the properties LASER light?

8. Define optical data storage.

9. State the expression for Fermi energy of non-interacting ensemble of identical

spin ½ particles.

10. Define nanomaterials and give example for carbon based nanomaterials.

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PART B — (5  16 = 80 marks)

11. (a) Derive the wavefunction and probability of particle in a one dimensional
box and also show the possibility of energy levels in three dimensional
case. (16)
Or

(b) Explain Wiedezman - Franz law, also explain electrical conductivity of

metals based on free electron theory of gases. (16)

12. (a) (i) What is Hall effect? Explain with theory also give two of its
applications. (4)
(ii) Derive the Hall coefficient for n-type and p-type semi conductor. (12)
Or

(b) Obtain the expression for carrier concentration of the intrinsic

semiconductor, Distinguish p and n type semiconductors. (16)

13. (a) With neat diagram explain properties of para, dia, ferri, ferro and anti
ferro magnetism. (16)
Or

(b) Discuss domain theory of ferromagnetic materials and explain energy

associated with it.

14. (a) Define LASER, also explain with neat band structure of homo junction
laser diode.
Or
(b) What is P-N junction diode? Explain the characteristics of p-n-junction
under reverse and forward bias with suitable graph and also explain
LED.

15. (a) (i) Define Quantum confinement effect. (2)

(ii) Explain the properties and significance of quantum structures
(1) Quantum well
(2) Quantum wire
(3) Quantum dots. (12)
(iii) Write a note on size dependence of Fermi Energy. (2)

Or
(b) What are the allotropes of carbon nanostructures? Write two ways of
preparation of carbon nanotubes?
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