Network Theorems (Statement, procedure, areas of applications

and limitations of all theorems)

Common Circuit Terminology
Circuit: A DC circuit is a closed loop conducting lane in which an electrical current flow.
Path: A single lane is used to connect the sources or elements.
Branch: A branch represents the single circuit elements like resistor, capacitor, inductor, voltage, or current source.

Figure. 1
For example, for the circuit shown in figure 1, there are five branches. A 10 V voltage source, 2A current source, 4 Ω,
5 Ω, and 3 Ω resistors.

Node: A node is a point in the circuit where two or more circuit elements (or branches) are connected.

Figure. 2 (Representation of Four Nodes in the Circuit)

For example, as shown in Figure 2, the above circuit contains the Four nodes. The node A, B, C, and D.

Loop: Any closed path in the circuit is called as a loop. A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing
through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through any node more than once.

Figure. 3 (Representation of Loop in the Circuit)

For example, as shown in Figure.3, the circuit contains three loops.

The first is loop A-B-D-A, the second loop is B-C-D-B. And the third loop is A-B-C-D-A.

Mesh: A mesh is a closed path in the circuit, which does not contain any other close path inside it.
For example, as shown in Figure.3, loop 1(A-B-D-A) and loop 2 (B-C-D-B) does not contain any other closed path
within them. And they are the example of the Mesh. While loop 3 (A-B-C-D-A) contains loop 1 and loop 2 within it.
So, it can’t be called as a Mesh.

Note: All Mesh are loops but not all the loops are Mesh.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that” the algebraic sum of all the currents at any node point or a junction of a circuit is
zero”.

ΣI=0

Considering the above figure as per the Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

i1 + i2 − i3 − i4 − i5 + i6 = 0...............(1)

The direction of incoming currents to a node is taken as positive while the outgoing currents are taken as negative. The
reverse of this can also be taken, i.e., incoming current as negative or outgoing as positive. It depends upon your
choice.

The equation (1) can also be written as:

i1 + i2 + i6 = i3 + i4 + i5

Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents

According to the Kirchhoff’s Current Law, the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node must be equal to the
algebraic sum of the currents leaving the node in an electrical network.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages (or voltage drops) in any closed path of a
network that is transverse in a single direction is zero. In other words, in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all the
EMFs and the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops (product of current (I) and resistance (R)) is zero.

ΣE+ΣV=0

The above figure shows closed-circuit also termed as a mesh. As per the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
Here, the assumed current I causes a positive voltage drop when flowing from the positive to negative potential while
negative potential drop when the current flowing from negative to the positive potential.

Considering the other figure shown below and assuming the direction of the current i

Therefore,

It is seen that the voltage V1 is negative in both the equation (2) and equation (3) while V2 is negative in the equation
(2) but positive in the equation (3). This is because of the change in the direction of the current assumed in both the
figures.

In figure A, the current in both the source V1 and V2 flows from negative to positive polarity while in figure B the
current in the source V1 is negative to positive but for V2 is positive to negative polarity.

Nodal Analysis
i. Nodal Analysis is used on circuits to obtain multiple KCL equations which are used to solve for voltage
and current in a circuit.

ii. Also known as Node Voltage Method.

iii. The number of KCL equations required is one less than the number of nodes that a circuit has.

iv. The extra node may be referred to as a reference node (or) ground node.

The Following steps to followed when we apply nodal analysis –

Step 1: Identify independent nodes.

Step 2: The voltages at these nodes are the node voltages.

Step 3: Use Ohm’s Law to write KCL at each independent node in terms of the node voltages.

Step 4: Solve these equations to determine the node voltages.

Step 5: Any desired circuit parameter can be determined from the node voltages.

Super Node (Not included in Syllabus)

A super node is formed by enclosing a dependent or independent voltage source connected between two non-reference
nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

Properties of a Super Node –

i. A super node has no voltage of its own.

ii. A super node requires the application of both KCL and KVL.

Note: Nodal Analysis = KCL + Ohm’s Law

Example: Determine the voltages V1 and V2 of the following network

Solution: The circuit contains three essential nodes

Apply KCL at node 1 we get

(V1 − 10 ) (V − 0)
+ 1
(V − V2 )
+ 1 = 0
1 5 2

10V1 – 100 + 2V1 + 5V1 – 5V2 = 0

17V1 – 5V2 = 100 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (A)

Apply KCL at node 2, we get

 (V2 − V1 ) (V2 − 0)
+ −2 = 0
2 10

5 (V2 – V1 ) + V2 – 20 = 0

6V2 – 5V1 = 20 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − ( B)

Solve the equations A and B then we get

V1 = 0.09 V
V2 = 10.91 V

Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis is used on circuits to obtain multiple KVL equations which are used to solve for voltage and current in
a circuit. Also known as Mesh Current Method.
The following steps to followed when we apply Mesh Analysis –
Step 1: Identify mesh loops.
Step 2: The currents around these loops are the mesh currents.
Step 3: Use Ohm’s Law to write KVL around each loop in terms of the mesh currents.
Step 4: Solve these equations to determine the mesh currents.
Step 5: Any desired circuit parameter can be determined from the mesh currents.

Super Mesh (Not included in Syllabus)

A Super Mesh results when two meshes have a dependent or independent current source in common.
Properties of a Super Mesh –
i. A Super Mesh has no current of its own.
ii. A Super Mesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.
Note: Mess Analysis = KVL + Ohm’s Law
Example: Determine the mesh currents in the circuit shown below.

The given circuit is redrawn by assigning the current and its direction in each loop and the nodes are labelled.
Along the direction of the current, the polarities of voltage drop are marked for each element. The circuit is redrawn
with polarities as drawn below.

Now, from the above circuit diagram, we can observe that, there are three loops (Loop1: abga, Loop2: bcfgb, Loop3:
cdefc). Each loop carries a current I1, I2 and I3 respectively.

Apply KVL to loop1 [abga], we get,

I1 + 4( I1 − I 2 ) = 10

5I1 − 4 I 2 = 10 − − − − − − − −(1)

Apply KVL to loop2 [bcfgb],

4( I 2 − I1 ) + 3I 2 + 2( I 2 − I3 ) = 0

−4 I1 + 9 I 2 − 2 I3 = 0 − − − − − − − −(2)

Apply KVL to loop3 [cdefc],

2( I3 − I 2 ) + 2 I3 = −20

−2 I 2 + 4 I3 = −20 − − − − − − − (3)

The above three equations are written in matrix form, as shown below,

 5 −4 0   I1   10 
 −4 9 −2   I  =  0 
  2  
 0 −2 4   I 3   −20
Applying Cramer’s rule, we get

5 −4 0
 = −4 9 −2 = 96
0 −2 4

10 −4 0
1 = 0 9 −2 = 160
−20 −2 4

5 10 0
 2 = −4 0 −2 = −40
0 −20 4

5 −4 10
 3 = −4 9 0 = −500
0 −2 −20

Now, the value of current in each loop is determined

1 160
I1 = = = 1.66 A
 96

 2 −40
I2 = = = −0.416 A
 96

 3 −500
I3 = = = −5.21A
 96

The loop currents I2 and I3 have negative values, which means the actual current direction is opposite to the assumed
direction.

Current through the branch ‘bg’ is I1 – I 2 = 1.664 + 0.416 = 2.08 A

Current through the branch ‘cf’ is I 2 – I 3 = − 0.416 + 5.21 = 4.794 A

Note:
i. In a Network let the number of nodes is n and number of branches is b then.
ii. Number of nodal equations N = n – 1
iii. Number of Mesh Equations M = b – n +1
iv. Total number of equations need to obtain solution is = Minimum ( N , M )
Star to Delta and Delta to Star Conversion
The conversion or transformation or replacement of the star connected load network to a Delta connected network and
similarly, a delta connected network to a star network is done by Star to Delta or Delta to Star Conversion.

Star to Delta Conversion

In star to delta conversion, the star-connected load is to be converted into delta connection. Suppose we have a star
connected load as shown in the figure above, and it has to be converted into a delta connection as shown in figure B.

The following Delta values are as follows:

R1 R2
R12 = R1 + R2 +
R3
R2 R3
R23 = R2 + R3 +
R1
R3 R1
R31 = R3 + R1 +
R2

Hence, if the values of R1 , R2 and R3 are known, therefore by knowing these values and by putting them in the
above equations, you can convert a star connection into a delta connection.

Delta to Star Conversion

Similarly, a delta connection network is given as shown above, in figure B and it has to be transformed into a star
connection, as shown above, in the figure A. The following formulas given below are used for the conversion:

R12  R31
R1 =
R12 + R23 + R31
R23  R12
R2 =
R12 + R23 + R31
R23  R31
R3 =
R12 + R23 + R31

If the values of R12 , R23 and R31 are given, then by putting these values of the Impedances in the above equations, the
conversion of delta connection into star connection can be performed.
Superposition theorem
Superposition theorem is based on the concept of linearity between the response and excitation of an electrical circuit.
It states that the response in a particular branch of a linear circuit when multiple independent sources are acting at the
same time is equivalent to the sum of the responses due to each independent source acting at a time.

In this method, we will consider only one independent source at a time. So, we have to eliminate the remaining
independent sources from the circuit. We can eliminate the voltage sources by shorting their two terminals and
similarly, the current sources by opening their two terminals.

Therefore, we need to find the response in a particular branch ‘n’ times if there are ‘n’ independent sources. The
response in a particular branch could be either current flowing through that branch or voltage across that branch.

Superposition theorem states that “In any linear, active, bilateral network having more than one source, the
response across any element is the sum of the responses obtained from each source considered separately and all
other sources are replaced by their internal resistance.” The superposition theorem is used to solve the network
where two or more sources are present and connected.

Procedure of Superposition Theorem

Follow these steps in order to find the response in a particular branch using superposition theorem.

Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one independent source and eliminating the
remaining independent sources present in the network.

Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the network.

Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a particular branch when all independent sources
are present in the network.

Example

Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit using superposition theorem.

Step 1 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 20 V voltage source. In this case,
we can eliminate the 4 A current source by making open circuit of it. The modified circuit diagram is shown in the
following figure.
There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can use nodal analysis method. The node
voltage V1 is labelled in the following figure. Here, V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect to ground.

The nodal equation at node 1 is

V1 − 20 V1 V1
+ + =0
5 10 10 + 20

6V1 − 120 + 3V1 + V1

 =0
30

 10V1 = 120

 V1 = 12V

The current flowing through 20 Ω resistor can be found by doing the following simplification.

V1
I1 =
10 + 20

Substitute the value of V1 in the above equation.

12 12
I1 = = = 0.4 A
10 + 20 30

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor is 0.4 A, when only 20 V voltage source is considered.

Step 2 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 4 A current source. In this case, we
can eliminate the 20 V voltage source by making short-circuit of it. The modified circuit diagram is shown in the
following figure.

In the above circuit, there are three resistors to the left of terminals A & B. We can replace these resistors with a
single equivalent resistor. Here, 5 Ω & 10 Ω resistors are connected in parallel and the entire combination is in series
with 10 Ω resistor.
The equivalent resistance to the left of terminals A & B will be

 5  10  10 40
RAB =   + 10 = + 10 = 
 5 + 10  3 3

The simplified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

We can find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor, by using current division principle.

 R1 
I2 = IS  
 R1 + R2 

40
Substitute I S = 4 A, R1 =  and R2 = 20 in the above equation.
3

 40 
   40 
I2 = 4  3  = 4   = 1.6 A

40
+ 20   100 
 3 

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor is 1.6 A, when only 4 A current source is considered.

Step 3 − We will get the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the given circuit by doing the addition of two
currents that we got in step 1 and step 2. Mathematically, it can be written as

I = I1 + I 2

Substitute, the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation.

I = 0.4 +1.6 = 2 A

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of given circuit is 2 A.

Note − We can’t apply superposition theorem directly in order to find the amount of power delivered to any resistor
that is present in a linear circuit, just by doing the addition of powers delivered to that resistor due to each independent
source. Rather, we can calculate either total current flowing through or voltage across that resistor by using
superposition theorem and from that, we can calculate the amount of power delivered to that resistor
V2
using I 2 R or .
R
Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that “Any two terminal linear network or circuit can be represented with an equivalent
network or circuit, which consists of a voltage source in series with a resistor.” It is known as Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit. A linear circuit may contain independent sources, dependent sources, and resistors.
If the circuit contains multiple independent sources, dependent sources, and resistors, then the response in an element
can be easily found by replacing the entire network to the left of that element with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
The response in an element can be the voltage across that element, current flowing through that element, or power
dissipated across that element.
This concept is illustrated in following figures.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical voltage source. Hence, it has a voltage source in series with a resistor.
• The voltage source present in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is called as Thevenin’s equivalent
voltage or simply Thevenin’s voltage, VTh.
• The resistor present in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is called as Thevenin’s equivalent resistor or
simply Thevenin’s resistor, RTh.
Methods of Finding Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
There are three methods for finding a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Based on the type of sources that are present in the
network, we can choose one of these three methods. Now, let us discuss two methods one by one. We will discuss the
third method in the next chapter.
Method 1
Follow these steps in order to find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, when only the sources of independent type are
present.
• Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit is to be found.
• Step 2 − Find Thevenin’s voltage VTh across the open terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 3 − Find Thevenin’s resistance RTh across the open terminals of the above circuit by eliminating the
independent sources present in it.
• Step 4 − Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Thevenin’s voltage VTh in series with a
Thevenin’s resistance RTh .

Now, we can find the response in an element that lies to the right side of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Example
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by first finding a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A
and B.

Step 1 − In order to find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the left side of terminals A & B, we should remove the 20
Ω resistor from the network by opening the terminals A & B. The modified circuit diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Step 2 − Calculation of Thevenin’s voltage VTH .

There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can use nodal analysis method. The node
voltage V1 and Thevenin’s voltage VTH are labelled in the above figure. Here, V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect
to Ground and VTH is the voltage across 4 A current source.

The nodal equation at node 1 is

V1 − 20 V1
+ −4=0
5 10
2V − 40 + V1 − 40
 1 =0
10
 3V1 − 80 = 0
80
 V1 = V
3
The voltage across series branch 10 Ω resistor is
V10 = ( −4 )(10 ) = −40V
There are two meshes in the above circuit. The KVL equation around second mesh is
V1 − V10  − VTh = 0
Substitute the values of V1 and V10  in the above equation.
80
− ( −40 ) − VTh = 0
3
80 + 120 200
VTh = = V
3 3
200
Therefore, the Thevenin’s voltage is VTh = V
3
Step 3 − Calculation of Thevenin’s resistance RTh .
Short circuit the voltage source and open circuit the current source of the above circuit in order to calculate the
Thevenin’s resistance RTh across the terminals A & B. The modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

The Thevenin’s resistance across terminals A & B will be

 5  10  10 40
RTh =   + 10 = + 10 = 
 5 + 10  3 3
40
Therefore, the Thevenin’s resistance is RTh = 
3
Step 4 − The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is placed to the left of terminals A & B in the given circuit. This circuit
diagram is shown in the following figure.

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be found by substituting the values VTh , RTh and R in the following
equation.
VTh
I=
RTh + R
200
3 200
I= = = 2A
40 100
+ 20
3
Therefore, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor is 2 A.
Method 2
Follow these steps in order to find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, when the sources of both independent type and
dependent type are present.
• Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which, the Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit is to be found.
• Step 2 − Find Thevenin’s voltage VTh across the open terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 3 − Find the short circuit current I Sc by shorting the two opened terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 4 − Find Thevenin’s resistance RTh by using the following formula.
VTh
RTh =
I Sc
• Step 5 − Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Thevenin’s voltage VTh in series with a
Thevenin’s resistance RTh .
Now, we can find the response in an element that lies to the right side of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Norton’s theorem
Norton’s theorem is similar to Thevenin’s theorem. It states that “Any two terminal linear network or circuit can be
represented with an equivalent network or circuit, which consists of a current source in parallel with a resistor.” It
is known as Norton’s equivalent circuit. A linear circuit may contain independent sources, dependent sources and
resistors.
If a circuit has multiple independent sources, dependent sources, and resistors, then the response in an element can be
easily found by replacing the entire network to the left of that element with a Norton’s equivalent circuit.
The response in an element can be the voltage across that element, current flowing through that element or power
dissipated across that element.
This concept is illustrated in following figures.

Norton’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical current source. Hence, it is having a current source in parallel with a
resistor.
• The current source present in the Norton’s equivalent circuit is called as Norton’s equivalent current or
simply Norton’s current IN.
• The resistor present in the Norton’s equivalent circuit is called as Norton’s equivalent resistor or
simply Norton’s resistor RN.

Methods of Finding Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

There are three methods for finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit. Based on the type of sources that are present in the
network, we can choose one of these three methods. Now, let us discuss these three methods one by one.
Method 1
Follow these steps in order to find the Norton’s equivalent circuit, when only the sources of independent type are present.
• Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which, the Norton’s
equivalent circuit is to be found.
• Step 2 − Find the Norton’s current IN by shorting the two opened terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 3 − Find the Norton’s resistance RN across the open terminals of the circuit considered in Step1
by eliminating the independent sources present in it. Norton’s resistance RN will be same as that of
Thevenin’s resistance RTh .
• Step 4 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Norton’s current I N in parallel with
Norton’s resistance RN .
Now, we can find the response in an element that lies to the right side of Norton’s equivalent circuit.
Method 2
Follow these steps in order to find the Norton’s equivalent circuit, when the sources of both independent type and
dependent type are present.
• Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which the Norton’s
equivalent circuit is to be found.
• Step 2 − Find the open circuit voltage VOC across the open terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 3 − Find the Norton’s current I N by shorting the two opened terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 4 − Find Norton’s resistance RN by using the following formula.
VOC
RN =
IN
• Step 5 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Norton’s current I N in parallel with
Norton’s resistance RN .

Now, we can find the response in an element that lies to the right side of Norton’s equivalent circuit.
Method 3
This is an alternate method for finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit.
• Step 1 − Find a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit between the desired two terminals. We know that it
consists of a Thevenin’s voltage source, VTh and Thevenin’s resistor, RTh.
• Step 2 − Apply source transformation technique to the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. We will get
the Norton’s equivalent circuit. Here,
Norton’s current,
VTh
IN =
RTh
Norton’s resistance,
RN = RTh
This concept is illustrated in the following figure.

Now, we can find the response in an element by placing Norton’s equivalent circuit to the left of that element.
Note − Similarly, we can find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit first and then
apply source transformation technique to it. This concept is illustrated in the following figure.

This is the Method 3 for finding a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Example
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by first finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A
and B.

Let us solve this problem using Method 3.

Step 1 − In previous chapter, we calculated the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the left side of terminals A & B. We
can use this circuit now. It is shown in the following figure.

200 40
Here, Thevenin’s voltage, VTh = V and Thevenin’s resistance, RTh = 
3 3
Step 2 − Apply source transformation technique to the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Substitute the values
of VTh and RTh in the following formula of Norton’s current.

VTh
IN =
RTh
200
IN = 3 = 5A
40
3
Therefore, Norton’s current I N is 5 A.

We know that Norton’s resistance, RN is same as that of Thevenin’s resistance RTh.

40
RN = 
3
The Norton’s equivalent circuit corresponding to the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in the following
figure.
Now, place the Norton’s equivalent circuit to the left of the terminals A & B of the given circuit.

By using current division principle, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor will be

 40 
 
I 20Ω = 5 3 
40
 + 20 
 3 
 40 
I 20  = 5  = 2A
 100 
Therefore, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor is 2 A.

Maximum power transfer theorem

The amount of power received by a load is an important parameter in electrical and electronic applications. In DC
circuits, we can represent the load with a resistor having resistance of R L ohms. Similarly, in AC circuits, we can
represent it with a complex load having an impedance of ZL ohms.
Maximum power transfer theorem states that the DC voltage source will deliver maximum power to the variable load
resistor only when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.
Similarly, Maximum power transfer theorem states that “The AC voltage source will deliver maximum power to the
variable complex load only when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of source impedance.”
In this chapter, let us discuss about the maximum power transfer theorem for DC circuits.

Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Replace any two terminal linear network or circuit to the left side of variable load resistor having resistance of R L ohms
with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. We know that Thevenin’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical voltage source.
This concept is illustrated in following figures.
The amount of power dissipated across the load resistor is

PL = I 2 RL
VTh
Substitute I = in the above equation.
RTh + RL
2
 VTh 
PL =   RL
 ( RTh + RL ) 
 RL 
 PL = VTh 2  2
............(1)
(
 Th
R + RL ) 

Condition for Maximum Power Transfer

For maximum or minimum, first derivative will be zero. So, differentiate Equation 1 with respect to RL and make it
equal to zero.

2  ( RTh + RL )  1 − RL  2 ( RTh + RL ) 
dPL  2

= VTh  =0
( RTh + RL )
4
dRL  
 ( RTh + RL ) − 2 RL ( RTh + RL ) = 0
2

 ( RTh + RL )( RTh + RL − 2 RL ) = 0
 ( RTh − RL ) = 0
 RTh = RL
Or,
 RL = RTh

Therefore, the condition for maximum power dissipation across the load is RL = RTh . That means, if the value of load
resistance is equal to the value of source resistance i.e., Thevenin’s resistance, then the power dissipated across the load
will be of maximum value.
The value of Maximum Power Transfer
Substitute RL = RTh & PL = PL,Max in Equation 1.
  RTh 
PL , Max = VTh 2  2
 ( RTh + RTh ) 
 R 
 PL , Max = VTh 2  Th 2 
 4 RTh 
VTh 2
 PL , Max =
4 RTh
VTh 2
 PL , Max =
4 RL
 RL = RTh 
Therefore, the maximum amount of power transferred to the load is

VTh 2 VTh 2
PL , Max = =
4 RL 4 RTh

Efficiency of Maximum Power Transfer

We can calculate the efficiency of maximum power transfer, ηMaxηMax using following formula.
PL, Max
Max = ...................(2)
PS
Where,
• PL, Max is the maximum amount of power transferred to the load.
• PS is the amount of power generated by the source.
The amount of power generated by the source is

PS = I 2 RTh + I 2 RL
 PS = 2 I 2 RTh
RL = RTh

VTh
Substitute I = in the above equation.
2 RTh
2
 V 
PS = 2  Th  RTh
 2 RTh 
 V 2 
 PS = 2  Th 2  RTh
 4 RTh 
V 2
 PS = Th
2 RTh
Substitute the values of PL , Max and PS in Equation 2.
  VTh 2 
 
=  Th2 
4R
 Max
 VTh 
 
 2 RTh 
1
  Max =
2
We can represent the efficiency of maximum power transfer in terms of percentage as follows −
% Max =  Max 100%
1
 % Max =   100%
2
 % Max = 50%
Therefore, the efficiency of maximum power transfer is 50 %.
Example
Find the maximum power that can be delivered to the load resistor RL of the circuit shown in the following figure.

Step 1 − In Thevenin’s Theorem chapter, we calculated the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the left side of terminals A
& B. We can use this circuit now. It is shown in the following figure.

200 40
Here, Thevenin’s voltage VTh = V and Thevenin’s resistance RTh = Ω
3 3
Step 2 − Replace the part of the circuit, which is left side of terminals A & B of the given circuit with the above
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. The resultant circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − We can find the maximum power that will be delivered to the load resistor, RL by using the following formula.
 VTh 2
PL , Max =
4 RTh

200 40
Substitute VTh = V and RTh = Ω in the above formula.
3 3
2
 200 
 
=
3 
PL , Max
 40 
4 
 3 
250
PL , Max = W
3
250
Therefore, the maximum power that will be delivered to the load resistor RL of the given circuit is W
3