Study Session 3 Current Electricity

Introduction
The study of electric charge can be divided into two categories: static electricity and current
electricity. We dealt with static electricity in Study Session 1. In this Study Session, we will
discuss current electricity and electric circuit. Electric current is a flow of electric charge
through a conductive medium. In electric circuits, this charge is often carried by moving
electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte such as in electric cells, or
by both ions and electrons such as in plasma. In this Study Session, we will also consider the
combination of two or more cells in series and/or parallel. We will also introduce you to
Kirchhoff’s rule.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
3.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold.
3.2 Explain electric current.
3.3 State Ohm’s law.
3.4 Differentiate between Ohmic and Non-Ohmic conductors.
3.5 Calculate the resistance of two or more resistors in series and/or parallel.
3.6 Explain electromotive force.
3.7 Calculate the total emf of a circuit with two or more cells.
3.8 Use Kirchhoff’s rule to determine the currents flowing through a circuit.
3.9 Explain the working principle of a potentiometer.

3.1 Electric Current

The electric current is defined as the total amount of charge (ΔQ) passing through a given
cross-sectional area A of a wire per unit time, that is,
Q
I 3.1
t
The unit of current is coulomb per second, which is called ampere (A). Thus, 1 A = 1 C/s.
Milliampere (1 mA = 10-3 A) and microampere (1 μA = 10-6 A) are smaller units of currents.
As Δt → 0, Equation 4.1 may be written in differential form as
Q dQ
I  lim  3.2
t 0 t dt
Suppose there are n moving charged particles per unit volume in the conductor shown in Figure
3.1. We assume that all the particles move with the same drift velocity with magnitude vd. In a
time interval Δt, each charged particle moves a distance d = vdΔt. The volume of the cylinder
is AvdΔt, and the number of particles within it is nAvdΔt. The total charge ΔQ that passes
through area A in a time Δt is (assuming each particle has charge q)
Δ𝑄 = 𝑞𝑛𝐴𝑣 ∆𝑡
where n = number of charges q per unit volume and vd = drift velocity of the charges.
 Figure 3.1: Current through a conductor of area A
From Equation 4.1 we have,
Q
I  qnAvd 3.3
t
Electric current is measured using an ammeter.
The current density (J) is defined as electric current per unit cross-sectional area. For a
uniform current flow, we have,
I
J  qnvd 3.4
A
The S.I. unit of J is ampere per metre square (Am-2). From Equation 3.4, the current density,
like the current, is in the direction of charge motion for positive charge carriers and opposite
the direction of motion for negative charge carriers.

In-Text Questions
3.1 A copper wire has a square cross section, 2.0 mm on a side. It is 4 m long and carries
a current of 10 A. If the density of free electron is 8 x 10 28 m-2, calculate the current density in
the wire and the drift speed.
Solution
I 10
Current density, J   6
Am  2  2.5  10 6 Am  2
A 4  10
J 2.5  10 6
Drift velocity, v   m / s  1.953  10  4 m / s
nq 8  10 28  1.6  10 19

3.2 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that under constant physical conditions, the current in a conducting wire is
proportional to the potential difference V applied to its ends. That is,
I  V
which implies
V
I 3.5
R
where R is the resistance of the wire or other device.
Conductance, G, is the opposite of resistance, and tells us how easy it is for a current to flow
through an artefact (such as an electrical component, not a material, such as iron). Conductance
is measured in siemens, S (1 S = 1 ohm-1).
It is found experimentally that the resistance R of a wire is proportional to the length of the
wire and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area A, that is
L
R
A
L
or R 3.6
A
where ρ is the constant of proportionality which is known as the resistivity of the material. The
resistivity ρ depends only on the material and the temperature. The unit of resistivity ρ is ohm-
metre (Ωm).
Ohmic conductors are conductors that obey Ohm’s law. For example, copper and tungsten
obey Ohm’s law. In this type of conductors, the current I is reversed in direction when the p.d.
V is reversed but the magnitude of I remains unchanged. So the characteristic or I-V graph is a
straight line passing through the origin as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Characteristics of Ohmic conductors

Non-ohmic conductors are those which do not obey Ohm’s law. For example, junction diode,
battery, neon gas, diode valve, dilute H2SO4 (platinum electrodes) do not obey Ohm’s law. A
non-ohmic characteristic or I-V graph may have a curve instead of a straight line; or it may not
pass through the origin. A non-ohmic conductor may conduct poorly or not at all when the p.d.
is reversed (−V). Figure 3.3 illustrates the non-ohmic characteristics of some conductors.

Figure 3.3: Characteristics of Non-Ohmic conductors

In-Text Questions
3.2 A current of 2 mA flows in a radio resistor R when a p.d of 4 V is connected. What are the
values of the resistance and conductance?
Solution
V 4
R    2000  2k
I 2  10  3
I 2  10 3
G  S  5  10  4 S ( siemens)
V 4
3.3 The algebraic sum of the changes in potential differences around any closed path of the
circuit must be equal to zero. This statement is
A. Ohm’s Law
B. Kirchhoff’s Law
C. Biot-Savart Law
D. Gauss’s Law
Solution
The correct option is B

3.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Two or more resistors are said to be in series if they are connected end to end along a single
path. In Figure 3.4, three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series and the potential
difference (voltage) across the three resistors is V. We assume all other resistances in the circuit
can be ignored, so V represents the terminal voltage supplied by the battery. Let V1, V2 and V3
be the potential differences across each of the resistors, R1, R2 and R3, respectively. Any charge
that passes through R1 will also pass through R2 and R3, hence the same current passes through
all the resistors in series. Since the resistors are connected end to end, the total voltage V is
equal to the sum of the voltages across each resistor:
V  V1  V2  V3  IR1  IR2  IR3
V  I R1  R2  R3 
The equivalent resistance Req is the resistance of a single resistor that could replace the three
resistors in series without affecting the value of I and V. That is, it is the resistor for which
V  IReq

Equating these expressions, we find:

R eq  R1  R 2  R3 3.7

This implies that the total or equivalent resistance for resistors in series is the sum of the
separate resistances. Note that for resistors connected in series, Req is greater than the largest
resistance.
 Figure 3.4: Resistors in Series

Two or more resistors are said to be in parallel if the sum of currents passing through each of
the resistor is equal to the total current. For instance, in Figure 3.5, the three resistors, R1, R2
and R3, are said to be in parallel because
I  I1  I 2  I 3 3.8
where I1, I2 and I3, are the currents passing through R1, R2 and R3, respectively.
The potential difference across each resistor is the same and is equal to the full voltage V. If
Req is the equivalent resistance, we have
V V V V
  
Req R1 R2 R3
Dividing through by V:
1 1 1 1
   3.9
Req R1 R2 R3
Note that for resistors connected in parallel, Req is smaller than the smallest resistance.

Figure 3.5: Resistors in Parallel

3.4 Electromotive force and Circuit
The electromotive force or emf (E) is the potential difference across the terminals of a battery
(or any other generator) on open circuit, that is, when no current is flowing. The emf of a battery
depends on the nature of the chemicals used and not on its size. However, the internal
resistance, r, of the battery depends on the size of the battery. Figure 3.6 shows a typical circuit
diagram. The battery of emf E and internal resistance r is joined to an external resistor R. The
two points a and b represent the two terminals of the battery and the terminal voltage Vab = Va
– Vb. When no current is drawn from the battery, that is, when key K is opened, the terminal
voltage equals the emf.

Figure 3.6: Typical circuit diagram

A current I flows when key K is closed. The p.d. across R is IR and the p.d. across r is Ir. So
E  IR  Ir 3.10
E
or I 3.11
Rr
ER
Terminal p.d., V  IR  3.12
Rr

3.5 Electrical Power and Efficiency

The electrical work required to transfer a charge q through a potential difference V is given by
W = qV 3.13
If q is measured in coulombs (C) and V is measured in volts (V), then the unit of W is joules
(J). The electrical power (P) delivered by an energy source is defined as the time rate at which
electrical energy is being done, that is,
Electrical Work qV
P   VI 3.14
Time t
since I = q/t, where I is current in ampere.
The unit of power is watt (1W = 1J/s).
Efficiency, η, of a battery/circuit is the ratio of the power output to the power generated:
Power output
 3.15
Power generated
3.6 Cells in Series and Parallel
When two or more cells are in series, with the positive terminal of one connected to the negative
terminal of another, then the total emf is given as (Figure 3.7a),
E  E 1  E 2  E 3  ... 3.16
and the total internal resistance is
r  r1  r2  r3  ... 3.17
where E1, E2, E3, are the individual emfs and r1, r2, r3 are the corresponding internal resistances.

Figure 3.7a: Cells in series

If one of the cell, say emf E3, is connected in opposition with the others, then
E  E1  E 2  E 3  ... 3.18
but the total internal resistance remains unaltered (Figure 3.7b).

Figure 3.7b: Cells in opposition

When similar cells are in parallel (Figure 3.8), then total emf = E, the emf of any one of them.
The internal resistance r is given by
1 1 1 1
    ... 3.19
r r1 r2 r3
where r1, r2, and r3 are the internal resistances of the cells.

Figure 3.8: Cells in parallel

3.7 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s rules are used to analyze complex circuits that cannot be analyze using the
expression V = IR and the rules for series and parallel combinations of resistors. There are two
Kirchhoff’s rules.
Kirchhoff’s first rule or junction rule states that the algebraic sum of the currents at a junction
is equal to zero. In a mathematical form, we have

I  0 3.20a

Kirchhoff’s first rule can also be stated as: the sum of all currents entering (Iin) any junction
must equal the sum of all currents leaving the junction (Iout). From Figure 3.9,
I in  I out 3.20b
or
I1  I 2  I 3 3.20c

Figure 3.9: Kirchhoff’s junction rule

Kirchhoff’s first rule is a statement of conservation of electric charge.
Kirchhoff’s second or loop rule states that the algebraic sum of the changes in potential
differences around any closed path of a circuit must be equal to zero. In a mathematical form,
we have

 E  IR  0 3.21

Kirchhoff’s second rule is a statement of conservation of energy.

You should note the following sign conventions when using the second rule:
i. When the resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the potential difference
across the resistor is –IR.
ii. When the resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the potential
difference across the resistor is +IR.
iii. If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is traversed in the
direction of the emf (i.e. from negative terminal to positive terminal), the change in
potential, ΔV is +E.
iv. If the trace, on the other hand, is through the source from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal, the potential difference encountered is -E.
In-Text Questions
3.4 Find the power dissipated by the 1  resistor in the circuit shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10: ITQ 3.4

Solution
In order to find the power dissipated by the 1  resistor, we must determine the currents I2 that
flows through it. We assign directions to the currents as shown in the diagram. Then at junction
(a) we have
I  I1  I 2 (i)
Let us consider loop abcda and apply the loop rule so that we obtain
2 I  10  6 I  I 2  6  0
(ii)
8I  I 2  4
Now take the loop adfea containing the other unknown and we have
 6  I 2  4I1  4  0
(iii)
4I1  I 2  2
From Equation (i), we obtain
I 2  I  I1 (iv)
Substituting this for I2 in equations (ii) and (iii), we obtain
9 I  I1  4
 I  5I 1  2
Solving these last two equations, we find that
I  0 .5 A
I 1  0 .5 A
It is clear from Equation (i) that
I2  0
Since there is no current flowing through the 1 resistor, there is no power dissipated.

3.8 Potentiometer
A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring the voltage in a circuit without drawing any
current from the source. It is a special type of voltage divider. A voltage divider is a linear
circuit that produces an output voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input voltage (Vin).
A potentiometer circuit is shown in Figure 3.11a and a circuit symbol for a potentiometer
(variable resistor) is shown in Figure 3.11b. It consists of a resistance wire ab with total
resistance Rab, connected to the terminals of a source of known emf E1. A galvanometer G is
connected to the slider c and a second cell whose emf E2 is to be measured. We join the negative
terminals of the two cells to point b. The slider c is moved along the resistance wire and if the
wire is uniform, the resistance Rcb, between points c and b, is proportional to the length of wire
between c and b. Since Rcb  lcb then Vcb  lcb , where Vcb is the potential difference between the
points c and b. At the point on the resistance wire where the galvanometer shows no deflection
is the point where no current is passing through E2. At this point (null point), I2 = 0 and using
Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we have
E2  IRcb 3.22
Since no current is passing through the galvanometer at the null point, the current I produced
by the emf E1 has the same value no matter what the value of the emf E2. To calibrate the
potentiometer, we replace E2 by a source of known emf, say E, and balance it in the same way
at a point, say d, then
E  IRbd 3.23
where Rbd is the resistance of the wire bd.
We have mentioned earlier that the potential difference between two points on a uniform wire
is proportional to the distance between the points. This implies
E lbd
 3.24
E 2 l cb
In summary, the ratio of the emfs is proportional to the ratio of the balancing lengths.

Figure 3.11b: Circuit symbol for a

poten ometer

Figure 3.11a: Poten ometer

We normally use potentiometer to measure the potential of a cell (i.e. emf of a cell) rather than
using a voltmeter. This is because when voltmeters are used, current flows through the circuit.
As a result of the internal resistance of the cell, the terminal potential will be less than the actual
cell potential. However, in a potentiometer, when the potential difference is balanced (i.e. no
deflection on the galvanometer), no current flows in the circuit, so terminal potential will be
equal to actual cell potential. This shows that voltmeter measures the terminal potential of a
cell, but potentiometer measures actual cell potential.
Figure 3.12 shows an adaptation of a potentiometer to measure the internal resistance of a cell.
The cell, emf E, whose internal resistance r is to be determined, is connected to a known
resistance R and a key K. Initially, the cell is on open circuit since the key is open and no current
flows in the circuit. This implies that the p.d. at its terminals is emf E. Let us assume this emf
E is balanced by a length lo on ab. If K is now closed, current flows through R and the terminal
p.d., V, is balanced by a smaller length l' on ab.
 Figure 3.12: Measurement of internal resistance
Using E  I R  r  and V  IR we have
E R  r lo
  3.25a
V R l
lo  l 
or r R 3.25b
l

In-Text Questions
3.5 The circuit in Figure 3.12 is used to compare the resistance R of an unknown resistor
with a standard 100 Ω resistor. When X is connected to Y and then to Z, the distances l from
one end of the slide wire of the potentiometer to the balance point are 400 mm and 588 mm,
respectively. If the length of the slide wire is 1.00 m, what is the value of R?

Figure 3.12: ITQ 3.5

Solution
Let I = current passing through the 100 Ω resistor and R. When X is connected to Y, l = 400
mm, then
p.d. across 100 Ω = p.d. across 400 mm
I x 100 = k x 400 (i)
where k = constant.
When X is connected to Z, l = 588 mm, then
p.d. across (100 + R) = p.d. across 588 mm
I x (100 + R) = k x 588 (ii)
100  R 588
Equation (ii)  (i):  , which implies R = 47 
100 400
Summary of Study Session 3
In Study Session 3, you have learnt that:
1. The electric current is defined as the charge (ΔQ) passing through a given cross-sectional
Q
area A of a wire per unit time. That is, I  .
t
2. Ohm’s law states that, under constant physical conditions, the current in a conducting
wire is proportional to the potential difference V applied to its ends. That is, I  V ,
V
which implies I  .
R
3. It is found experimentally that the resistance R of a wire is proportional to the length of
L
the wire and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area A. That is, R   where
A
ρ is the constant of proportionality, known as the resistivity of the material. The resistivity
ρ depends only on the material and the temperature. The unit of resistivity ρ is ohm-metre
(Ωm).
4. Conductivity, σ, is the reciprocal of the resistivity. The conductivity σ has units of (Ωm)-
1
.
5. Ohmic conductors are conductors that obey Ohm’s law. Non-ohmic conductors are those
which do not obey Ohm’s law.
6. Resistors in Series and in Parallel
 In Series: Current is the same through all resistors in series. The total potential difference
is equal to the sum of individual potential differences across each resistor.
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3; R eq  R 1  R 2  R 3
 In Parallel: Total current, I, is equal to sum of individual currents flowing through the
resistors. That is: The potential difference across each resistor is the same and is equal to
1 1 1 1
the full voltage V. V = I1R1, V = I2R2 and V = I3R3 ;   
Req R1 R2 R3
7. The electromotive force or emf is the potential difference across the terminals of a battery
(or any other generator) on open circuit. The emf of a battery depends on the nature of
the chemicals used and not on its size. The internal resistance, r, of the battery depends
on the size of the battery.
E ER
I . Terminal p.d., V  IR  .
Rr Rr
8. The electrical work required to transfer a charge q through a potential difference V is
given by W = qV. If q is measured in coulombs (C) and V is measured in volts (V), the
unit of W is joules (J).
9. The electrical power delivered by an energy source is defined as the rate at which
Electrical Work qV
electrical energy is being done, that is P    VI. The unit of
Time t
power is watt (1W = 1J/s).
10. Efficiency, η, of a circuit is the ratio of the power output to the power generated.
 11. When two or more cells are in series, with the positive terminal of one connected to the
negative terminal of another, then the total emf is given as, E  E1  E 2  E 3  ...
12. Kirchhoff’s rules are used to analyze complex circuits that cannot be analyze using the
expression V = IR and the rules for series and parallel combinations of resistors. There
are two Kirchhoff’s rules.
13. A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring the voltage in a circuit without drawing
any current from the source.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3

Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your Study Diary
and discuss them with your Tutor at the next Study Support Meeting. You can check your
answers with the solutions to the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.
SAQ 3.1 (tests Learning Outcomes 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3)
A p.d. of 2 V is connected to a uniform resistance wire of length 2.0 m and cross-sectional area
8 x 10-9 m2. A current of 0.1 A then flows in the wire. Find the conductivity of the material.
SAQ 3.2 (tests Learning Outcomes 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.6)
A battery of emf 4V and internal resistance 2 Ω is joined to a resistor of 8 Ω. Calculate the
terminal p.d.
SAQ 3.3 (tests Learning Outcomes 3.1 and 3.3)
A 20.0 m length wire 1.50 mm in diameter has resistance of 2.5 Ω. What is the resistance of a
35.0 m length of wire 3.00 mm in diameter made of the same material?
SAQ 3.4 (tests Learning Outcomes 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.6)
A battery of emf 1.50 V has a terminal p.d. of 1.25 V when a resistor of 25 Ω is joined to it.
Calculate the current flowing, the internal resistance r and the terminal p.d. when a resistor of
10 Ω replaces the 25 Ω resistor.
SAQ 3.5 (tests Learning Outcomes 3.1, 3.2 3.3, 3.5 and 3.6)
What is the effective value of the resistance connected across the terminals of the battery X of
2.2 V and negligible internal resistance, shown in Figure 3.13? Calculate the values of the
current in the resistors.

Figure 3.13: SAQ3.5

SAQ 3.6 (tests Learning Outcomes 3.1 and 3.8)
Find the current I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14: SAQ 3.6

SAQ 3.7 (tests Learning Outcomes 3.1 and 3.8)

Consider the circuit diagram in Figure 3.15. Calculate the terminal p.d. across AB.

Figure 3.15: SAQ 3.7

SAQ 3.8 (tests Learning Outcomes 3.1 and 3.8)

Determine the current in the following circuit (Figure 3.16).

Figure 3.16: SAQ 5.3

A. 1 A B. 2.5 A C. 0.4 A D. 3 A

References/Further Reading
 Adewale O. Adekola (2014). Physics for University Beginners Volume 2. Lagos:
LAJOM CONSULTING.
 Nelkon, M., & Parker, P. (1995). Advanced Level Physics. New Delhi, India: CBS
Publishers & Distributors.