BUSINESS COMMUNICATION ABVM-M2091

LT1: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION (ABVM 2091) 5 ECTS

COMPILED BY:
NEGASH GELETA (MBA)
DEMEKE AFEWORK (MBA)

Revised By:

Gedam Brhane (MBA)

Dawit Daniel (MBA)

April 2014
1. General Information
1.1. Module Introduction
This educational unit is intended to analyze knowledge management and communication in
value chains. The unit gives insight on the need and importance of communication,
information and knowledge management for the effectiveness of the value chains. Closed
communication loops are essential to feedback key information and enhance strategic
decision-making. Understanding about the business environment, quality related information
and addressing the issue of gender and sustainability are highly important in order to get
access to and maintain the integration of specialty product into high value supply chains. The
identification of key actors along the chain, as well as the facilitation of understanding and
the use of information circulating is part of effective management of knowledge and
information within the value chains. The component courses under this educational unit
includes: Business Communication and Knowledge management and communication up on
the successful completion.

1.2. Relation with the Curriculum

Agriculture is the dominant sector of Ethiopian economy and the largest source of foreign
exchange earner. Therefore, the development of Ethiopian agriculture will have direct impact
on the overall development of the country. Knowledge plays a significant role whenever
change, innovation and growth are being pursued in a competition and complex field.
Agriculture today is just such a field. Leveraging knowledge is thus a critical output in the
transformation of Ethiopian agriculture from subsistence to market (commercialized)
oriented economic sector. Demand-driven agriculture knowledge management systems
facilitate access to and adoption of appropriate technologies and processes from research and
development institutions based in Ethiopia and elsewhere. Green Revolution in Africa be
triggered, leading to the eradication of hunger and malnutrition and thus contribute to the
alleviation of rural poverty.

2. Module objectives
Up on the completion of this educational unit, learners could be able to:
 Understand the meaning and relevance of Business Communication
 Discuss processes and principles of communication
 Apply those principles to a given case
 Produce a report and present it
 Understand the context and relevance of knowledge economy to Agri-business and
Value Chain management
 Create, validate and acquire knowledge in developing business strategy
 Apply Information Communication Technologies in Knowledge management system
Knowledge Management and Communication: Business Communication

Table of Contents

1. General Information........................................................................................................................i
1.1. Module Introduction................................................................................................................i
1.2. Relation with the Curriculum....................................................................................................i
2. Module objectives...........................................................................................................................i
Table of Contents....................................................................................................................................i
3.1. Learning Task I: Business Communication.....................................................................................1
3.1.1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................1
3.1.2. Objectives.............................................................................................................................1
3.1.3. Sections................................................................................................................................1
[Link]. Overview of Business Communication..............................................................................1
[Link]. Model and Process of Communication............................................................................13
[Link]. Types of Communication.................................................................................................24
Practical Tasks (Communication Project Work) to be done in group and presented............................38
Here, students should get together in groups, discuss and prepare a report on the following tasks and
present individually by applying the basic communication principles..................................................38
[Link]. Principles of Effective Communication............................................................................39
[Link]. Legal, International and Inter-cultural aspect of Communication....................................48
3.1.4. Proof of Ability..................................................................................................................63
4. Major References.............................................................................................................................64

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3.1. Learning Task I: Business Communication

3.1.1. Introduction
Dear student this learning task will give you general information about basics of business
communications. The first section is concerned with overview of business communication. It
discusses the meaning of communication, characteristics of communication, function of
communication. The second section will give you the information about the models and
process of communication. The third section explains types of communication and the fourth
section discusses principles of effective communication and the last section discusses legal,
intercultural and intercultural aspects of business communications in general.

3.1.2. Objectives
After studying this learning task, you will be able to:
 Explore what is business communication is all about.
 Explain what is models and process of communication in details.
 Identify the known principles of communication.
 Differentiate legal, cultural and intercultural aspects of communications.

3.1.3. Sections
[Link]. Overview of Business Communication
Pre-test
Dear learner, what do you understand about communication and its functions? (Please take
five minutes to write your responses on the spaces given below):
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Section Content
After completing your study of this section, you should be able to define communication.
Differentiate the model and process of business communications; present the functions of
business communications and describe the characteristics of communications.

Meaning and definition of communication

Business communication has been, and can be defined in several ways. We cannot have one
and best way of defining what communication is. This is mainly because people can define it
from different perspectives depending on their professional backgrounds and work behaviors,
among other things. The word communication is used in a variety of ways. Before we use the
term any further, we should establish a common understanding of its definition. Even though
we communicate constantly, scholars have not always agreed on the definitions of
communication. Some known definitions of communication are as follows:
Communication is effective self-expression or it is the exchange of messages in writing,
speaking, or images or it is sharing information or providing entertainment through words or
speech or their methods or it is the transfer of information from one person to another. Or it is

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the exchange of meanings between individuals using a common symbol system and it can be
the process whereby one person transmits a message through a channel to another person,
with some effect.
The word 'communication' is derived from communis (Latin) meaning 'common'. It stands for
a natural activity of all human beings to convey opinions, feelings, information and ideas to
others through words (written or spoken), body language, or signs. In other words,
communication is an act of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others
(Chaturvedi & Chaturvedi, 2005, p.18).

George Vardhaman defines effective communication as "purposive interchange, resulting in

workable understanding and agreement between the sender and receiver of message". Robert
Anderson adds the element of medium in his definition communication is interchange of
thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writings, or signs". Allen Lious emphasis forms
of communication, "communication is the sum of all things one person does when he wants to
create understanding in the mind of another, and it involves a systematic and continuous
process of telling, listening and understanding".

Keith Davis defines communication as, "the transfer of information and understanding from
one person to another person. It is a way of reaching others with facts, ideas, thoughts and
values. It is a bridge of meanings among people so that they can share what they feel and
know. By using this bridge, a person can cross safely the river of understanding that
sometimes separate people”. Communication is the art of getting your message across
effectively through: spoken words (primary and simplest way), written words (reflects
importance), body language (can make or mar) and visual images (leaves the greatest impact).

Then, based on the above definitions of communication ‘Business communication’ is

communication that occurs in an organizational context in order to: exchange information,
ideas, plans, strategies, offer the best of customer services and make decisions, rules,
proposals, contracts, and agreements, etc. Thus, communication literally means ‘sharing of
ideas in common’. In business management ideas, objectives, instructions, suggestions, etc.
have to be exchanged among the managerial staff for the purpose of planning and executing
the business policies. In fact, communication is regarded as the “lifeblood” of every
organization. For our purpose, communication is defined as the process of understanding and
sharing meaning. Communication is considered as a process because it is an activity, an
exchange, or a set of behaviors. Communication is not an object we can hold in our hands; it
is an activity in which we participate.
In addition to understanding, communication involves sharing, interacting between people in
order to exchange meaning. Consider the popular use of the word sharing. We share a meal,
we share an event, and we share a sunset. Sharing is a gift that people exchange. We can also
share with ourselves when we allow ourselves time to relax and daydream- time to consider

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who we are and what our goals are. We share with others when we talk to them alone or in
larger groups. Regardless of the context, communication involves sharing.

What exactly is understood and shared in the communication process? When you use
language for expression, meaning is the shared understanding of the message. When you use
language, meaning facilitates an appropriate response that indicates that the message was
understood. For example, you ask for a drink, the other person gives you one. Your mind
constructs meaning as you interpret the message sent.

 Basic Characteristics of communication

Dear learner, what are the special features of communication? (You can take 10 minutes to
write your responses on the spaces given below:
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Although communication is too complex process to sum up in a short, easily memorized

definition, there are several characteristics shared by all communications. Most of the
characteristics you encounter explored in more depth as you go on.
Communication is a Process
Unlike objects, communication is not discrete, static, or solitary. As a process, communication
exists in time and changes constantly. Consequently, we cannot study it as we might a rock
that remains unchanged as we take our time to analyze it. Communication is difficult to study;
to study it well; an observer must be sensitive to the many things occurring all at the same
time, as well as over a period of time.

Spoken communication, like written, can best be understood as having various parts as well as
a final outcome. Imagine, for instance, that you are having a conversation with a friend. Both
of you are sitting comfortably in your house chatting, and then, suddenly, something in your
friend’s reaction makes you feel that you have said something you shouldn’t have. For a
second, you aren’t sure what to do. You consider possibilities. Maybe, you think you should
stop what you are saying and apologize; maybe you should ask your friend what the matter is,
or perhaps you should change the subject. You might think about just going on and pretending
nothing has happened. You may even consider leaving before you get into more trouble.
Before you decide which of these things to do; however, your friend notices the look on your
face and says that everything is all right. She just remembered that tomorrow was her
brother’s birthday, and that she had forgotten to send him a card. You are relieved that she is
not angry at you, so you smile and offer to go out with her to the local card shop to buy a
birthday card.

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This very complex interaction, which took you longer to read than it would have taken you
short to live through, shows the nature of communication process. Communication involves
an interaction between or among people. To look at the action of one person in this exchange
would not reveal its meaning. Neither would an examination of the words spoken during the
conversation uncover all that went on during the interchange.

Messages were being sent and reacted to almost instantaneously by both people involved.
Some of the messages were verbal; some were nonverbal, involving such things as facial
expressions. Thoughts were also part to this process; even while speaking, the people
involved were monitoring each other’s reactions and experiencing a variety of feelings. The
people responded immediately to each other, and these reactions shaped the next part of the
event.

The previous lesson highlights certain essential elements of the communication process. On
its most basic level, communication involves someone who initiates the exchange, usually
called a sender or source. The sender has something to communicate and sends a message to a
second person, the receiver. In this case, many messages were sent, and both people played
the role of sender and receiver. Messages sent used a variety of media, or physical bases, for
carrying messages. Speech was the medium in the case of the words, and light waves were the
medium for the nonverbal messages. In the previous unit you have studied the process of
communication in a detailed manner.

Communication is Symbolic
When we say that communication is symbolic, it refers to the nature of messages, rather than
to the process of communication. Several of the definitions of communication above
mentioned the exchange of meaning or the transmission of messages. If we define
communication simply as a process, then we never really get at the important issue of the
exchange of meaning. Human evolution made it possible for us to develop into complex,
interesting creatures, by developing our ability to use symbols. Although, undoubtedly, dogs,
cats, bees and horses can communicate, and whales and dolphins have sophisticated
communication systems, they are not naturally symbol users. Considerable work has been
done in trying to teach higher primates symbol use. Gorillas and chimpanzees have been
taught to use and combine symbols and, have made remarkable progress using symbols to
communicate with the human researchers studying them.

Despite primates remarkable ability to communicate using symbols their skill is developed as
a result of their interaction with humans. Symbol using is not an innate capability and did not
originate with them as it has developed with human beings. Because symbols stand for
something else, they may be objects, written signs, images, or sounds. The most familiar and
widely studied symbols are linguistic – written and spoken words – but there are other
important symbol systems as well. Foremost among these are the nonverbal languages – body

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movement, facial expression, gestures, and the like-and the languages of the arts. Symbols
have freed us from the limitations of the here and now; they allow us to talk about things and
ideas in the absence of any tangible object.

The arbitrary nature of symbols makes them particularly powerful. Symbols do not have any
actual connection to what they represent. In other words, there is no mystical connection
between the word horse and the animal. A person coming from another planet would have no
way of knowing that those five letters represented a four –legged equine. The connection
between the word horse and the animal exists only in the minds of English speakers. The
connection between the word and the thing is strictly mentalistic; that is, the connection is
learned.

Because of their arbitrary nature, symbols are subject to various interpretations, you and I
might not mean exactly the same thing when we use the same word. The potential for
misinterpretation includes nonverbal languages as well as verbal ones; for example, a gesture
made with the fingers in South America symbolizes good luck and in North America the same
gesture is highly insulting.

Though what symbols are, how they get their meanings, and how we use them to
communicate are important communication concepts, we will not discuss them in this unit.
For now, it is enough to know that because symbols arbitrary, the use of them in
communication implies that the sender and the receiver share a common symbol system.
Without this commonality, a sender and receiver would be unable to exchange information
and information; exchange is a one of the characteristics of communication.

Communication is Contextual
The shared or common symbols system is part of what we refer to when we say that
communication occurs in a context. All English speakers, for example share a certain basic
understanding of the world. Other languages provide different contexts. When we learn a
language we are learning to name and recognize all those things that our culture feels are
worth attending. Sharing the same basic language- English, Afan Oromo- is one way that
communication is contextual.

Sharing specialized languages associated with our jobs, hobbies, class, and educational levels
is another type of context that makes communication possible. All of us know specialized
languages that we can use only with others who share our interests and vocabulary. Although
the use of these languages excludes people who do not know them from conversation, the
existence of these specialized languages provides contexts in which specialized exchanges of
information can occur.
A shared language is not all that we mean when we say that communication is contextual. In
order for communication to occur, the parties involved have to have a shared vision of what is
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appropriate in certain situations. What we say to a person in a bank is determined in part by

our needs for being at the bank and in part by what we know about communication behavior
in banks.

Each culture and social group has special communication rules that vary from context to
context. We learn what is appropriate in these contexts as we grow up, but we seldom learn
the rules in any formal or organized fashion. Our earliest training in understanding the
relationship of context to communication comes at home. Every family establishes rules for
communication in a variety of contexts-what constitutes proper mealtime conversation, what
words are banned when grandparents visit, and what question children can ask their parents.
The needs for there to be a context in which communication occur both limit communication
and makes it possible. Unless we share a common idea of what is to be done in banks, for
example, we will not know what is appropriate to say and what is not. Additionally, because
we know that certain specialized languages are associated with certain situations, we have to
match our vocabulary to the circumstance in which we hope to communicate. Many
miscommunications and misunderstandings arise because the sender and the receiver do not
share the same context.
Communication is Purposive
Generally, communication is done for a purpose. We have some motivation for
communicating, even if we are not consciously aware of it. We turn on the radio to relax, or
because we are lonely, or to cover up the sounds of an argument in the neighborhood. We
strike up a conversation with new people at work because we think they are attractive,
because we want to impress them, or because we are curious about their backgrounds. In other
words, we have some motivation behind our communication efforts.

Understanding that communication is purposive and motivational helps to explain some of the
behavior of both the sender and the receiver. What motivates the sender to speak may not be
what motivates the receiver to listen. If one person wants to impart information, but the
receiver is hoping to be entertained conflict can result. Individual differences play a big role
in understanding communication as purposive. What motivates one person may not motivate
another, and what motivates one person one day may not motivate him or her another day.
Communication is Two-Way
The existence of both a sender and a receiver in a communication activity presupposes that
the communication process is, generally speaking, two ways. Even intrapersonal
communication, when we are talking to ourselves either aloud or in the privacy of our own
brains, communication is essentially two ways because we are acting both as sender and
receiver.
Communication researchers have specific terms to describe the two-way nature of
communication exchange. Interactive is the term used to describe human interactions in which
a source and a receiver exchange messages in a predictable fashion. In interactive
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communication, a specific message from the sender elicits a predictable response from the
receiver.

Communication is Irreversible
At one time or another, we have all wished we could take back words we regretted uttering.
Unfortunately, this is not possible. Our words and deeds are recorded in others’ memories,
and we can’t erase them. As the old saying goes, “people may forgive, but they don’t forget”.
In fact, often the more vigorously you try to erase an act, the more vividly it stands out. This
means you should weigh your words carefully. An offhand comment or a critical remark
uttered in the heat of conflict can haunt you long afterward.

Communication is not a Panacea

Although communication can smooth out the bumps and straighten the road to success, it will
not always get you what you want. If the quality of communication is poor, the results are
likely to be disappointing. This explains why some problems grow worse the longer they are
discussed. Misunderstandings and ill feelings can increase when people communicate badly.
Even effective communication will not solve all problems: there are some situations in which
the parties understand one another perfectly and still disagree. These limitations are important
to understand as you begin to study communication on the job. Boosting your communication
skill can increase your success, but it is not a cure – all.
 Communication skills
Communication is part of the three major skills needed by managers (human skills,
conceptual skills, technical skills).
Technical skills
Technical skills are those skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the
organization. Assembling a computer, developing a new formula for a frozen food additive,
and writing a press release each require technical skills. Hence, these skills are generally
associated with the operations employed by the organization in its production processes.

Interpersonal skills
Interpersonal skills comprise the manager’s ability to communicate with, understand, and
motivate individuals and groups. As we have already noted, managers spend a large portion of
their time interacting with others. Thus, it is clearly important that they be able to relate to,
and get along with other people.
Conceptual skills
Conceptual skills refer to the manager’s ability to think in the abstract. A manger with strong
conceptual skills is able to see the “big picture.” That is, she or he can see potential or
opportunity where others see roadblocks or problems. Managers with strong conceptual skills
can see opportunities that others miss.

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 Functions of Communication
Communication has many functions in the day to day activity of organizational businesses. It
is quite useful for you to be familiar with the various types of functions of communication.
You will learn these functions in this section. Most on-the-job communication serves at least
one of the four purposes. Of course, many instances of communication serve two or more of
these purposes at the same time.

To Tell: communication that presents information is common in most jobs. Sometimes this
means explaining how to do a job-for example, how to fill in a purchase requisition to order
supplies, how to use the computer terminal to see whether and order has been shipped, or how
to approach potential customers about a new product your company has developed.
Sometimes, you need to explain what is going on in your organization-for example, you may
have to report your progress on an assignment to a client or explain to new employees how
work is trafficked through your department.

To sell: while as telling deals almost exclusively with facts, selling on the other hand involves
feelings and attitudes. You don't have to have the word "sales" your job title to be a
salesperson. In fact, everyone needs to be persuasive communicator at one time or another.
Convincing the boss that you deserve a raise or more responsibility calls for selling. So does
getting approval for a new project, motivating employees to work their hardest, and
convincing a supplier that you need the shipment today. It doesn't take much imagination to
see that the success or failure of a career depends on the ability to persuade others.

To Learn: The ability to understand others might be less obvious and dramatic than telling or
selling skill, but it is no less important. Take a moment to recall the most effective on- the-job
communicators you have known, and you will see that they were almost certainly good
listeners.

To Decide: As you advance in your career, the number and importance of decisions you face
will grow. What is the best approach to the new job? How can we handle these people?
Where should we put the resources we have? Even the highest decision-makers in the biggest
companies do not make judgments like these on their own. They trade ideas with others,
testing and evaluating. In other words, good decisions require good communication.

 The Role of Communication in Business

Communication is the most vital element of any organization. Without communication, an
organization would only be an assembly of men, material and processes, which are
inoperative. Organizational effectiveness depends upon the quality of communication.
Managers have to communicate with subordinates and superiors. They spend more than 75%
of their effective time in communicating. It is communication, which gives life to
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organizational structure. It is a thread that holds all the units, sub units, processes, systems,
culture together. If communication stops, the organization will cease to exist.

Communication is vital for the very existence of the organization. Organizations have to
communicate with external organizations, agencies and incorporate various inputs for survival
and growth. Communication not only integrates various sub units but shifts information of
value acquired from the environment to various departments, groups and individuals. An
effective communication is an essence of successful managers. As the organization grows, the
role of communication becomes more critical. Therefore, there is a need for adjustment in the
communication systems according to shape, size, performance, location and the services that
the organization offers. Effective management is an output of effective communication.

Effective communication is essential for management to successfully perform its functions. It

is an essential ingredient in management – employee relationship. Communication is essential
to keep entire organization functioning at optimum levels and to achieve maximum output of
our greatest management resource – the people. Management needs to take employees in
confidence and make them aware of organizational policies, problems and vision. It is the
responsibility of the management to keep employees posted with latest information about the
above factors by resorting to greater interaction with them. Communication plays a major role
in creating favorable or unfavorable impressions. Name any positive or negative experience
you have had with a business- you will see that someone's skill or lack of it, in
communicating helped create that experience.

From an organizational perspective, communication is the oil that lubricates the

organizational machine and makes it run smoothly. For example, effective communication by
employees provides customers with information about a product or service, to persuade them
to do business with the company. Work in every level of the organization, from that of top
management to workers on an assembly line, requires communication with others inside and
outside the company. Action in every field – management, marketing accounting, finance and
all other areas - is facilitated by efficient and effective communication.
Communication in Management
Everyone in a business organization is part of management in one way or another, whether
managing people, managing projects, or managing his or her own activities. Mangers at all
levels plan, organize, direct, and control organizational activities. If you supervise other
people you will also have staffing and hiring responsibilities. Each of these functions relies
heavily on communication to achieve goals.
Communication in Agri- Business
Agri-business more involves recognizing a consumer’s need, developing a product and
services to satisfy that need, delivering them to the right place, and offering them at a price
the consumer will pay. Market research helps an organization answer questions about what

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products and services it should use its resources to create. The market research process
involves data collection and interpretations to answer these questions. Once researchers have
gathered and interpreted the data, they draw conclusions and recommend courses of action to
the decision-makers. Both the research process and the final recommendation reports written
from the research closely parallel the report-writing steps, you’ll be learning in the subsequent
units.

For example, companies may conduct demand analysis to collect accurate information about
their potential customers’ needs. Writing a questionnaire that provides accurate answers to
questions about customers’ needs requires communication skills in planning what questions to
ask. Writing questions that will be understood in the same manner by all respondents is
crucial for obtaining helpful information. The “4p’s” are (1) product development, (2)
promotion, (3) pricing, and (4) distribution (placing); these make up the marketing mix.
Communication plays a crucial role in each of these activities, as discussed in the following
paragraphs:

Product: Companies are constantly revamping current products and developing new ones to
stay competitive and meet customer needs. They use information from market research, sales
reports, and other sources, and implements new technologies and ideas. Beyond knowledge of
the product development process, a central skill in achieving goals is communication. You
will write proposals, participate in many meetings, and prepare progress reports. You may
undertake negotiations. A great deal of informal communication keeps these processes
moving. Your performance will depend on how well you use good communication skills.

Promotion: A company promotes products and services through advertising, personal selling,
and publicity. These activities require the company to assess consumer problems and then
communicate solutions. Advertising is used to convince potential consumers to buy products
or services of a company, so marketers must do a good job (communication) that benefits of
purchase. In personal selling, salespeople must anticipate customer reactions to a product’s
features and benefits. Knowing how to interact with customers-the core of which is good
communication-directly affect the success of sales transactions and whether customers will be
back for repeat business.

Price: The price of a product or service sends a nonverbal message to customers. Price
reflects the cost of predicting a product or providing a service. It also sends a message about
value and quality. For example, one liquor company marketed low-priced vodka that was
doing poorly. After researching the market, the company raised the price, now giving the
impression that this was “upscale” liquor-and sales dramatically improved.

Place: Distributing products and services to consumers also involve strong communication
skills. Determine the most cost-effective method of delivery involves (1) identifying the
choices, (2) investigating the various possibilities, (3) negotiating arrangements for

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distribution, and (4) monitoring the entire process. Identifying and investigating distribution
channels require research skills like those involved in report writing. Negotiating distribution
arrangements requires skill in speaking, and the ability to write an agreement that accurately
reflects the deal. Monitoring the process requires letter-and memo-writing skills, and an
ability to give instructions quickly and clearly.

Although advertising and personal selling show the most obvious links to strong
communication skills, it’s clear these skills are central to all marketing activities. At any stage
of the marketing process, poor communication can lead to consumers, not having access to or
not understanding the value of the offerings of the company-no sales, no profit.

Communicating in Accounting
Accounting involves recording transactions, measuring performance, analyzing deviations in
performance, and reporting results to management or to other interested parties. Each of these
activities requires good communication.

For example, although the structure of income statements and balance sheets is standard,
while the interpretations that result from them are not. Accountants follow strict guidelines in
preparing basic financial statements. Within those guidelines, though, companies may choose
from among several acceptable methods. Such choices need to be reported and justified.

When accountants prepare financial statements, they are asked to analyze the financial status
of the organization and report to management, to stockholders, or to governmental agencies.
Such interpretations require strong decision-making and communication skills.

When accounting firms audit a client organization, auditors first must gather information from
people in the company. They must accurately and professionally report the results. A special
concern of accounting firms is that their employees must project a professional image and
take special care to be courteous to clients. In examining the financial picture of a company,
accountants must report what is found-both good and bad. Strong communication skills can
help accountants present their results in an objective manner, and recommend useful courses
of action.

Communicating in computer information systems

The job of computer information systems (CIS) personnel is to help the organization make the
best use of computer resources. Making the best use of CIS requires managers, who have
strong communication skills. CIS personnel combine their knowledge of business areas
(management, marketing, accounting, finance, and others) with their knowledge of computers
to help the company solve information problems.

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Being able to anticipate the information needs of various departments and direct programmers
to develop systems to meet these needs is crucial to the success of CIS personnel. CIS
managers must employ such skills as research, observation, and interviewing, all involving
communication. They must write proposals detailing how CIS tools can help managers do
their jobs and make recommendations for action. They must conduct active correspondence
with those outside the organization to gather information, and they must help negotiate
agreements with suppliers.

Computer information systems personnel are also responsible for making their solutions
usable by others. They must write directions for using the computer systems clearly enough so
that “computer-illiterate” people can learn to use the systems quickly. Training programs need
to be organized and delivered in an understandable fashion. And CIS personnel must provide
written documentation so that computer software can be refined to meet the specific needs of
users in different parts of the organization.
Whether you work in management, marketing, accounting, finance, computer information
systems, or any other area of business, communication skills will help you contribute to the
success of your company and to your own. By effectively and efficiently communicating with
others, you will bring about results that are in your best interest, and in the best interest of
your company.

Learning activity
Group work: Please list functions of communication in agri-business organizations found
around your environment.

 Continuous assessment
Quiz and Test on functions and characteristics of communication
 Summary
Business communication has been, and can be defined in several ways. Communication it is
the exchange of meanings between individuals using a common symbol system and it can be
the process whereby one person transmits a message through a channel to another person,
with some effect. Although communication is too complex process to sum up in a short, easily
memorized definition, there are several characteristics shared by all communications. Most of
the characteristics you encounter explored in more depth as you go on. Communication is a
process, symbolic, contextual, purposive, two-way communication and
irreversible .communication skills communication is part of the three major skills needed by
managers (human skills, conceptual skills, technical skills). Communication has many
functions in the day to day activity of organizational businesses that is to tell, sell, and learn.
Communication is vital for the very existence of the organization. Organizations have to
communicate with external organizations, agencies and incorporate various inputs for survival
and growth. Communication in agri-business more involves recognizing a consumer’s need,
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developing a product and services to satisfy that need, delivering them to the right place, and
offering them at a price the consumer will pay.

[Link]. Model and Process of Communication

Pre-test
 Model of Communications
Dear learner, what do you understand model, process and barriers of communication? (Please
take five minutes to write your responses on the spaces given below):
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Section content
After completing your study of this section, you should be able to understand model and
process of communication. Differentiate the model and process of business communications
and describe the barriers to communications.
Making a model, or a simplified analogy to help understand a complex process, is useful in
thinking about communication. Models sometimes look trivial in the way they compress
massive complexity into neat patterns, but simplification can remind us of obvious, and
therefore often forgotten, points. A model also gets back to first principles, offers a fresh look
at the structure of a situation, and provides a map of the area we are discussing.
There are many different models of the communication process. We use one here that draws
on the familiar conventions of radio transmission. It represents a way in which information, in
the most general sense, is regularly transmitted in the real world. Language works in a similar
way to a radio transmission system. The information is encoded, transmitted, received, and
decoded. In an ideal system, the decoded information would match the original exactly. In the
real world, encoding and decoding are liable to distortion, the medium is not entirely
transparent, there is noise or interference, and feedback is needed. Notice that this model is
generalized, and applies both to communication in language and to radio communication. At
the centre of communication is the medium, which links the transmitter and the receiver.

Shannon and Weaver’s work proved valuable for communication engineers in dealing with
such issues as the capacity of various communication channels in bytes per second. It
contributed to computer science, and in making information measurable it gave birth to the
model. Their original model consisted of five elements:
 An information source, which produces a message;
 A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals;
 A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission;
 A receiver, which decodes (reconstructs) the message from the signal;
 A destination, where the message arrives.

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The strengths of Shannon and Weaver’s model are its

 Simplicity
 Generality, and
 Quantifiability
Such advantages made this model attractive to several academic disciplines. It also drew
serious academic attention to human communication and information theory, leading to
further theory and research. The model is presented below.

Fig 1.1. Model of Communication

 Process of Communication
The word process indicates that it is an activity that is connected with a series of steps that are
deliberately undertaken to reach a goal. The process of communication is as old as man
himself. It is hard to name human activity in which communication does not play an
important role. This is truer in formal reorganizations in which people assemble to achieve
their common objectives through their coordinated efforts. Individuals placed in various
departments may perform different activities but they are functionally interrelated. The
working and maintenance of these relationships is possible only through communication. In
addition, communication establishes connections of the organization with external
community. Communication means the process of passing information and understanding
from one person to another. It is defined as “the process of exchange of information, ideas and
opinions which bring about integration of interests aims and efforts among the members of a
group organized for achievement of predetermined goals.

1. Source (sender): The sender or source of a communication is the person or organization

that has information to share with another person or group of people. The source may be an
individual (say, a salesperson or hired spokesperson, such as a celebrity, who appears in a
company’s advertisements) or a nonperson entity (such as the corporation or organization
itself).

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2. Encoding: The communication process begins when the source selects words, symbols,
pictures, and the like, to represent the message that will be delivered to the receiver(s). This
process, known as encoding, involves putting thoughts, ideas, or information into a symbolic
form. The sender’s goal is to encode the message in such a way that it will be understood by
the receiver. This means using words, signs, or symbols that are familiar to the target
audience. Many symbols have universal meaning, such as the familiar circle with a line
through it to denote no parking, no smoking, and so forth.

3. Message: The encoding process leads to development of a message that contains the
information or meaning the source hopes to convey. The message may be verbal or nonverbal,
oral or written, or symbolic. Messages must be put into a transmittable form that is
appropriate for the channel of communication being used. In communication, this may range
from simply writing some words or copy that will be read as a radio message to producing an
expensive television commercial. Message is the content of the communication. Message is
an idea, thought, feeling or emotion that is organized or composed by the sender. The symbols
that represent the message are called codes. There are three basic communication codes.
Nonverbal codes- are all intentional or unintentional codes other than words or written
materials by which a person transmits a message. They include such things as facial
expressions, movements of hands, eye contact, clothing and other body gestures, which can
represent nonverbal communication.
4. Channel: The Channel: The channel in the communication process is the medium that the
sender uses to transmit the message to the receiver. Care needs to be exercised in selecting the
most effective channel for each message. Even though both an oral and a written medium may
be appropriate to transmit a particular message, one medium may be more effective than the
other. To illustrate, let’s assume that an individual desires an immediate reply to a question.
Although the message could be in either an oral or a written form, the oral medium most
likely will be more effective because of the immediacy, if required. In selecting an
appropriate channel, the sender must assess the following factors, as the situation demands:
o need for immediate transmission of message, (fax instead of letter)
o need for immediate feedback, (phone instead of fax)
o need for permanent record of the message, (written rather than oral)
o degree of negotiation and persuasion required, (personal meeting – face-to face)
o the destination of the message, and (far flung area – letter only)
o the nature of the content of the message(has to be a contract –written)
In addition, the sender should take into consideration his/her skill in using each of the
alternative channels, as well as the receiver’s skill in using each of the channels.
Communication rarely takes place over only one channel; two or three even four channels are
normally used simultaneously.

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5. Receiver: The receiver is the person(s) with whom the sender shares thoughts or
information. Generally, receivers are any person who read, hear, and/or see the marketer’s
message and decode it.
6. Decoding: Decoding is the process of transforming the sender’s message back into thought.
This process is heavily influenced by the receiver’s frame of reference or field of experience,
which refers to the experiences, perceptions, attitudes, and values he or she brings to the
communication situation. For effective communication to occur, the message decoding
process of the receiver must match the encoding of the sender. Simply put, this means the
receiver understands and correctly interprets what the source is trying to communicate.
Effective communication is more likely when there is some common ground between the two
parties.

7. Response/Feedback: The receiver’s set of reactions after seeing, hearing, or reading the
message is known as a response. Receivers’ responses can range from non-observable actions
such as storing information in memory to immediate action such as dialing a toll-free number
to order a product advertised on television. Senders are very interested in feedback, that part
of the receiver’s response that is communicated back to the sender. Feedback, which may take
a variety of forms, closes the loop in the communications flow and lets the sender monitor
how the intended message is being decoded and received. For example, in a personal-selling
situation, customers may pose questions, comments, or objections or indicate their reactions
through nonverbal responses such as gestures and frowns. The salesperson has the advantage
of receiving instant feedback through the customer’s reactions.
 Barriers to Communication
This section reminds you the process of communication and potential breakdowns in them. In
fact you have learned about the process of communication in our previous discussions. In this
specific section we will see how breakdowns may occur in each of the phases of the
communication process.

We hope that you have learned that conducting effective communication is not an easy
activity, as it may seem. Since it is a process, it may be broken-down at any point in time.
You; therefore, have to learn the causes of communication barriers and methods of tackling
the same. Why is it important to know the causes of communication breakdown? You might
have questioned. The answer is simple. It is because you should know what types of barriers
you might face in business communication; so as to conduct the whole process effectively.
You will learn these in this specific unit. It discusses about barriers and methods of
overcoming them in a communication process.
As a person who is involved in business, it will be absolutely important to study barriers that
may interrupt the communication process. Several factors may disrupt the communication
process or serve as barriers to effective communication. A communication breakdown or

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barrier may occur at any point in the communication process. The cause may be ascribed to
the sender, the message, the channel or the receiver. Furthermore, a barrier may arise from the
environment in which the communication takes place.
There are various problems that hinder the message does not reach the receiver such as, the
problems of encoding and decoding, faulty selection of channel, wrong language or the
interpretation of the message. These problems are called ‘noise’ in communication.
Throughout the communication process, the message is subject to extraneous factors that can
distort or interfere with its reception. This unplanned distortion or interference is known as
noise. Errors or problems that occur in the encoding of the message, distortion in a radio or
television signal, or distractions at the point of reception are examples of noise.

When you are watching your favorite commercial on TV and a problem occurs in the signal
transmission, it will obviously interfere with your reception, lessening the impact of the
commercial. Noise may also occur because the fields of experience of the sender and receiver
do not overlap. Lack of common ground may result in improper encoding of the message—
using a sign, symbol, or words that are unfamiliar or have different meaning to the receiver.
The more common ground there is between the sender and the receiver, the less likely it is
this type of noise will occur.

Barriers in relation to the sender’s idea

The world constantly bombards us with information: Sights, sounds, scents and so on. Our
minds filter Stream of sensation and organize it into a mental map that represents our
perception of reality. In no case is the maps in a person’s mind the same as the world itself,
and no two maps are exactly alike. As you view the world, your mind absorbs your
experiences in a unique and personal way. For example, if you and a friend go out for lunch,
each of you will mentally grasp different things.
Because your perceptions are unique, the ideas that you want to express differ from other
people. Even when two people have experienced the same event, their mental images of that
event will not be identical. As a communicator, you filter out the details that seem
unimportant and focus your attention on the most relevant and general, a process known as
abstracting.

You also make assumptions and draw conclusions, even though you cannot directly verify
those assumptions. You assume, for example, that the music you hear in the restaurant comes
from the jukebox in the back room, although you cannot see it as you enter. Often your
inferences are correct, but sometimes they are not. When you send a message, you inevitably
distort reality. The idea in your mind is a simplification of the real world. In the process of
conceiving an idea, you leave out many things and assume many others.

Barriers in transforming idea to message

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In a process not completely understood, the idea in your mind is transformed into words; you
decide such issues as length, organization, tone, and style of the message. You can express an
idea in an almost infinite number of ways, but something makes you choose one approach
over another For example, you may decide to say, “The man was driving a car,” rather than,
“The old geezer was poking along in a beat-up green old Ford.” Your choice of words
depends on your subject, your purpose, your audience, and your personal style or mood.

To some extent, your choice of words also depends on your cultural background. If you are a
bureaucrat manager, you might say, “Expedited adjustment assistance may be ineffective in
helping the industry cope with current problems of severe inventory overhang, low prices, and
financial losses.” That sort of language is considered appropriate in some bureaucracies. On
the other hand, if you’re a straightforward manager, you might say, “Even a swift government
bailout won’t save us from going broke.” When you choose your words, you signal that you
are member of a particular association and that you know the code. The nature of your code-
your language and vocabulary-imposes its own limits on your message. For example, the
language of a lawyer differs from that of an accountant or a doctor, and the difference in their
vocabularies affects their ability to recognize and express ideas. Several things can go wrong
when you’re formulating a message. Typical problems involve indecision about message
content, lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver, emotional conflicts, or difficulty
in expressing ideas.

Indecision about Content

Deciding what to say is the first hurdle in the communication process. Many people make the
mistake of trying to convey everything they know about a subject. When a message contains
too much information, it is difficult to absorb. If you want to get your point across; therefore,
you have to decide what to include and what to leave out, how much detail to provide, and
what order to follow. If you try to explain something without first giving the receiver
adequate background, you will create confusion. And if you recommend actions without first
explaining why they are justified, your message may provoke an emotional response that
inhibits understanding.

Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver

Creating an effective message is difficult if you don’t know how it will be used. Let’s say
you’re writing a report on the market for sports equipment. If you don’t know the purpose of
the report, it’s hard to know what to say. What sort of sports equipment should you cover?
Should you include team sports as well as individual sports? Should you subdivide the market
geographically or according to price ranges? How long should the report be? Should it
provide conclusions and recommendations or simply facts and figures? Unless you know why

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the report is needed, you really can’t answer these questions intelligently. You are forced to
create a very general document, one that covers a little bit of everything.

Lack of familiarity with your audience is an equally serious handicap. You need to know
something about the biases, education, age, status, and style of the receiver in order to create
an effective message. If you’re writing for a specialist in your field, for example, you can use
technical terms that might be unfamiliar to a layperson. If you’re addressing a lower-level
employee, you might approach a subject differently than if you were talking to your boss.
Decisions about the content, organization, style, and tone of your message, all depend, at least
to some extent, on the relationship between you and the audience. If you don’t know the
audience, you will be forced to make these decisions in the dark. As a consequence, at least
part of your message may miss the mark.

Emotional Conflicts
Another potential problem in developing the message arises when the sender has conflicting
emotions about the subject or the audience. Let’s say you’ve been asked to recommend ways
to improve the organization of your department. You conclude that the best approach is to
combine two positions. But this solution will mean eliminating the job of one of your close
associates. As you prepare your report, you find yourself apologizing for your
recommendation. Even though you believe your position is justified, you cannot make a
convincing case.

Difficulty of Expressing Ideas

Lack of experience in writing or speaking can also prevent a person from developing effective
messages. Some people have limited education or a lack of aptitude when it comes to
expressing ideas. Perhaps they have a limited vocabulary or are uncertain about questions of
grammar, punctuation, and style. Or perhaps they are simply frightened by the idea of writing
something or appearing before a group. In any case, they are unable to develop an effective
message because they lack expertise in using language.

Problems of this sort can be overcome, but only with some effort. The important thing is to
recognize the problem and take action. Taking courses in communication is a good first step.
Many companies offer their own in-house training programs in communication; others have
tuition reimbursement programs to help cover the cost of outside courses. Self-help books are
other good, inexpensive alternatives.
Barriers while the Message is transmitted
The Third step in the communication process is physical transmission of the message from
sender to receiver. The channel may be nonverbal or verbal, written or spoken. Beyond that,
you can convey a message by phone, computer, letter, memo, report, face-to-face exchange,
or other medium.

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The transmission channel and the medium you choose depend on the message you want to
convey and on other factors, such as the location of your audience, the need for speed, and the
formality of the situation. Feedback was a major consideration when the Detroit Diesel
Corporation, which manufactures truck engines, invited its distributors to visit its new
warehouse in Canton, Ohio, and to suggest ways to improve service. By seeing the facility
and talking face-to-face with Detroit Diesel’s employees, the distributors were able to offer
240 suggestions. The result: Detroit Diesel cut its delivery time for engine parts from five
days to three. What’s more, its market share has doubled in five years, a direct result of the
personal contact with the distributors.

When problems arise during the transmission phase of the communication process, they re
often physical: bad connections, poor acoustics, and illegible copy. Although defects of this
sort (called “noise”) seem trivial, they can completely block an otherwise effective message.
For this reason, you should exercise as much control as possible over the physical
transmission link. If you’re preparing a written document, make sure that its appearance
doesn’t detract from your message. If you’re delivering an oral presentation, choose a setting
that permits the audience to see and hear you without straining.

A more subtle transmission problem arises when two messages compete for attention. For
example, if the receiver is talking on the phone while scanning a report, message has two
possible meanings. Let’s say your boss compliments you on completing an assignment on
time, but you sense a hint of sarcasm in her voice, the nonverbal message contradicts the
verbal one.

Aside from conflicting signal, perhaps the most troublesome transmission problem arises
when the communication chain has too many links. Because everyone’s mental map is
different, some distortion is likely when messages are transferred from person to person. The
original message is interpreted and retold differently by each person. By the time the message
reaches the end of the line, it may have only a vague resemblance to the original version. The
longer the chain is the bigger the problem.

Barriers while the Receiver Gets the Message

For communication to occur, the receiver has to get the message. If you send a letter, the
recipient has to read it before she or he can understand it. If you’re giving a speech, the people
in the audience have to be able to hear you, and they have to be paying attention.
But physical reception is only the first step. The receiver also has to absorb the message
mentally. In other words, the message has to be understood and stored in the receiver’s mind.
If all goes well, the message is interpreted correctly: The receiver assigns the same basic
meaning to the words as the sender intends and responds in the desired way.
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Like transmission problems, problems during the reception phase often have a physical cause.
The receiver may be distracted by competing sights and sounds, an uncomfortable chair, poor
lighting, or some other irritating condition. In some cases, the barrier may be related to the
receiver’s health. Hearing or visual impairment, for example, or even a headache, can
interfere with reception of messages. These annoyances don’t generally block communication
entirely, but they may reduce the receiver’s concentration.

Perhaps the most common barrier to reception is simply lack of attention on the receiver’s
part. We all let our minds wander now and then, regardless of how hard we try to concentrate.
People are, especially likely to drift off when they are forced to listen to information that is
difficult to understand, or that has little direct bearing on their own lives. If they are tired or
concerned about other matters, they are even more likely to lose interest.
Barriers while the receiver reacts and gives feedback to the sender
Feedback is the final link in the communication chain. After getting the message, the receiver
responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The signal may take the form of
a smile, a long pause, a spoken comment, a written message or an action. Even a lack of
response is, in a sense, a form of response.
Feedback is a key element in the communication process because it enables the sender to
evaluate the effectiveness of the message. If your audience doesn’t understand what you
mean, you can tell by the response and refine the message. Feedback plays an important role
by indicating significant communication barriers: differences in background, different
interpretations of words, and differing emotional reactions.
Different backgrounds
Differences in background can be one of the hardest communication barriers to overcome.
When the receiver’s life experience differs substantially from the sender’s, communication
becomes more difficult. If you’ve ever tried to explain something to someone distinctly
different from yourself, you know the problem. Age, education, gender, social status,
economic position, cultural background, temperament, health, beauty, popularity, religion,
political belief, even a passing mood can all separate one person from another and make
understanding difficult. Communicating with someone from another country is probably the
most extreme example of how background may impede communication. But you don’t have
to seek out a person from an exotic locale to run into cultural gaps. You can misunderstand
even your best friends and closest relatives, as you, no doubt, know from personal experience.

Even achieving that limited goal is more difficult than it sounds. Our ability to absorb
information depends on our past experiences. Over time, each of us builds up a view of the
world. When we learn something new, we try to fit it into our existing pattern. If it doesn’t
quite fit, we are inclined to distort the information rather than rearrange the pattern. When we
communicate with people who share similar experience and expectations, much of what we

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say automatically fits into their mental framework. But when we encounter people with
different backgrounds, we often communicate from distinct viewpoints.

Different interpretations of words

Another communication barrier results from differing interpretations of words. Part of the
problem in understanding messages is built into language, which uses words as symbols to
represent reality. Nothing in the word cookie automatically ties it to the physical thing that is
a cookie. We might just as well call a cookie, a zebra. Language is an arbitrary code that
depends on shared definitions. But there is a limit to how completely any of us can share the
same meaning for a given word. Obviously, the fuzziness of words is not an insurmountable
problem. People manage to communicate with one another all the time, despite the limitations
of language. But it’s useful to remember that words, by themselves, don’t mean anything.
Their meanings depend on the ideas they evoke in people’s minds, and no two minds are
identical. Try to overcome differences in the interpretation of words by using the most
specific and accurate language possible.

Different emotional reactions

Finally, different emotional reactions can be serious barriers to communication. Interestingly
enough, one person may react differently to the same words on various occasions. A message
that might be perfectly clear and acceptable in one situation can lead to confusion and
hostility in another, depending on the emotional relationship between receiver and sender.

Every message contains both a content meaning, which deals with the subject of the message,
and a relationship meaning, which suggests the nature of the interaction between sender and
receiver. Communication can break down when the receiver reacts negatively to either of
these meanings. When the boss says, “Get that monthly report on my desk by five o’clock
tonight,” the employee may become angry on two counts: Finishing the report on time may be
difficult, and the boss has the power to make unreasonable demands. Although the employee
may understand the message perfectly, communication suffers because the message creates
hostility.

As you know from your own experience, discussing something with another person is
difficult when either of you is upset. An upset person tends to ignore or distort what the other
person is saying and is often unable to present his or her own feelings and ideas effectively.
This is not to say that you should avoid all communication for misunderstanding that
accompanies aroused emotions.

Complexity of the message

Although all communication is subject to misunderstandings, business communication is
particularly difficult. The material is often complex and controversial, yet both the sender and
the receiver may face distractions that divert their attention. Furthermore, the opportunities for

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feedback are often limited, making it difficult to correct misunderstandings. Business

messages are often hard to formulate. For one thing, you must communicate both as an
individual and as a representative of an organization. Thus, you must adjust your own ideas
and style so that they are acceptable to your bosses. In fact, you may be asked, occasionally,
to write or say something to someone that you disagree with personally. Let’s suppose that
you work in the personnel department as a recruiter for your firm. You have interviewed a
person who you believe could make an excellent employee, but others in the firm have
rejected this person’s application. Now you are in the position of having to write a letter,
telling the candidate, in effect, “Sorry, we don’t want you”. That’s tough assignment. Even
when you agree with the message, you may have emotional reservations about expressing it.

You may know that you are doing the right thing, which you have no choice but to fire this or
that person or to cancel this or that program, but you also would rather avoid causing hardship
or disappointment. Organization is full of difficult decisions like these, decisions that affect
people’s lives. On top of everything else, you may not know as much as you need to know
about the purpose or audience of your message. Furthermore, you may have two days to do a
job that should take ten. You may be interrupted in the middle of your work. You may have to
collaborate with people whose ideas don’t mesh with yours. You may be told to produce a
document that looks professional but, at the same time, not to waste a lot of time and money.
And you may have to revise your message over and over to please everybody in the chain of
command.

Difficult conditions for transmission and reception

Assuming that you succeed in preparing the message, you still have to get through to your
audience. In many business organizations, the filters between you and the receiver are many;
secretaries, assistants, and receptionists. Just getting through by telephone can take a week if
you’re calling someone who’s protected by layers of gatekeepers. Worse yet, your message
may be digested and distilled, and probably distorted, before it is passed on to the intended
receiver. Those same gatekeepers may also translate, embellish, and augment the receiver’s
ideas before passing them on to you. When the message finally does reach the receiver, he or
she may be unable to digest it in peace. You may have to compete with a variety of
interruptions: The phone rings every five minutes, people intrude, meetings are called, and
crises arise. In short, you rarely have the benefit of the receiver’s undivided attention. Your
message may be picked up and put down several times.
Differences between sender and receiver
Your biggest problem is the gulf between you and your receiver. In your work, you often
communicate with an unknown and unseen audience. And even when you know the other
party, you may be separated by differences in function, status, age, or allegiance. These
differences make communication very difficult indeed.
 Learning activity

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Report: Please report the models and communications process followed within business
organization found in your environment.
 Continuous assessment
Quiz and presentation on process and barriers of communication.

 Summary
This section more discussed model and process of communications with relate to its barriers.
Making a model, or a simplified analogy to help understand a complex process, is useful in
thinking about communication. Models sometimes look trivial in the way they compress
massive complexity into neat patterns, but simplification can remind us of obvious, and
therefore often forgotten, points. A model also gets back to first principles, offers a fresh look
at the structure of a situation, and provides a map of the area we are discussing. Shannon and
weaver’s work proved valuable for communication engineers in dealing with such issues as
the capacity of various communication channels in bytes per second. The word process
indicates that it is an activity that is connected with a series of steps that are deliberately
undertaken to reach a goal. The process of communication is as old as man himself. The
known communication processes are: Source (sender), encoding, message, channel, receiver,
decoding and response/feedback: There are several factors that disrupt the communication
process. The cause may be ascribed to barriers in relation to the sender’s idea, barriers in
transforming idea to message indecision about content, lack of familiarity with the situation or
the receiver, emotional conflicts ,difficulty of expressing ideas ,barriers while the message is
transmitted, barriers while the receiver gets the message, barriers while the receiver reacts and
gives feedback, the sender different backgrounds different interpretations of words different,
emotional reactions, complexity of the message, difficult conditions for transmission and
reception differences between sender and receiver.

[Link]. Types of Communication

Pre-test
Dear learners before reading the following section try to think the type of communication
which communicated in the environment, in business area and even with your family and
friends. What are the special known types and forms of communication? (You can take 10
minutes to write your responses on the spaces given below:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 Section content
It is obvious that organization need some networks for structuring who will communicate with
whom. Two kinds of networks exist: formal and informal. This section focuses on these
networks. The types of formal communication networks and the benefit they can bring to the
achievement of organizational goals are discussed in this section. The functions of informal
communication network and the forms are the topics of the last sub-sections.

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 Formal Communication
Formal networks are systems designed by management to dictate who should talk to whom to
get a job done. In a small organization, networks are so simple that they may hardly be
noticeable; in a larger organization, networks become more intricate. Organizational charts-
sometimes called tables of organization- represent formal networks. Organizational charts
describe who has authority over whom. People from different departments work together
daily in most organizations, and flow charts provide a kind of road map that guides them
through complicated task. And since someone is always ultimately responsible for getting a
job done well organizational chart helps to know where that responsibility lies. The formal
communication network consists of downward, upward, and horizontal communications,
which are the topics of the subsequent sub-sections.
Downward Communication
Information circulates through formal communication network in several directions. One of
those directions involves downward communication, which takes place whenever a supervisor
sends a message to one or more subordinates.
Types of downward messages
There are several types of downward communication:
Job instructions: Directions about what to do or how to do it. “When you restock the shelves,
put the new merchandise behind the old stock.”
Job rationale: Explanations of how one task relates to another task. “We rotate the stock like
that so the customers won’t up with stale merchandise.”
Procedures and practices: Information about rules, regulations, policies, and benefits.
“Don’t try to argue with unhappy customers. If you can’t handle them yourself, call the
manger.”
Feedback: Information about how effectively a person is performing. “You’re really catching
on fast. If you keep up the good work, you’ll be an assistant manager by the end of the year.”
Indoctrination: Information aimed at motivating employees by impressing the mission of the
organization upon them and specifying how they should relate to it.
Problems with Downward Communication
Even the best organizations often don’t use downward communication as effectively as
possible. In some cases there isn’t enough information, and in others the messages that do
travel down aren’t clear or complete. These problems fall into several categories.
 Lack of awareness.
 Insufficient or unclear messages.
 Message overload.
Upward Communication

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Upward communication occurs when messages flow from subordinates to superiors. Many
leading businesses attribute their success to the emphasis on upward communication in their
organization.

Types of upward messages

Upward communication can convey four types of messages.
What subordinates are doing: “We’ll have that job done by closing time today.”
Unsolved work problems: “We are still having trouble with the air conditioner in the
accounting office.”
Suggestions for improvement: “I think I’ve figured a way to give people the vacation
schedules they want and still keep our staffing up.”
How subordinates feel about each other and the job: “I’m having a hard time working with
Lemma. He seems to think I am mad at him.” Or “I’m getting frustrated. I’ve been in the
same job for over a year now, and I’m itching for more responsibility.”
Problems with Upward Communication
Three factors create problems with upward communication.
 Risk.
 Distortion.
 Status differential.
Most of the responsibilities for improving upward communication rest on managers. The
place to begin for mangers is to announce their willingness to hear from subordinates. A
number of vehicles facilitate upward messages; to name a few, an “open door” policy,
grievance procedures, periodic interviews, group meetings, and the suggestion box, to name a
few. Informal types of contact can often be most effective; chats during breaks, in the work
place, or at social gatherings can sometimes tell more than planned sessions.
Horizontal Communication
Horizontal (sometimes called “lateral”) communication consists of messages between
members of an organization with equal power. The most obvious type of horizontal
communication goes on between members of the same division of an organization; office
workers in the same department, co-workers on a construction project, and so on. In other
cases, lateral communication occurs between people from different areas; accounting call
maintenance to get a machine repaired hospital admissions calls intensive care to reserve a
bed, and so on.

Types of horizontal messages

Horizontal communication serves five purposes:
Task coordination: “Let’s get together this afternoon, and set up a production schedule.”

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Problem solving: “It takes three days for my department to get reports from yours. How can
we speed things up?’
Sharing information: “I have just found out that a big convention is coming to this town next
week, so you ought to get ready for lost of business.”
Conflict resolution: “I’ve heard that you were complaining about my work to the boss. If
you’re happy, I wish you’d tell me first.”
Building rapport: “I appreciate the way you got that rush job done on time. I’d like to say
thanks by buying you lunch when it’s convenient.”
Factors inhibiting horizontal communication
Despite the importance of these five functions, several forces work to discourage
communication between peers.
o Rivalry.
o Specialization.
o Lack of motivation.
o Information overload.
o Physical barriers.

 Informal Communication
So far, we have focused on networks that are created by management. While flow-charts and
tables of organization can describe some of the ways people interact in organization, they
don’t tell the whole story. Alongside the formal networks, every organization also has
informal networks- patterns of interaction that follow neither the lines of authority described
in both tables of neither organization, nor the functions that flow charts picture.
Some observers consider informal contacts like these to be the primary means of
communication within an organization. Analysts of communication flatly assert that, as much
as 90 percent of what goes on in a company has nothing to do with formal events. There are
several reasons why informal networks are so important.

Amount of Information- Informal networks carry a tremendous amount of information. In one

study, researchers analyzed the communication of general managers over periods of six
months to a year. They found that the managers spent a great deal of time with people who
were not direct subordinates, superiors, or peers- people with whom, according to the official
chain of command, they had no need to deal. Many of these people seemed relatively
unimportant to outsiders: secretaries, lower-level subordinates, and supervisors with little
power. Despite their unrelated job descriptions and low official status, successful managers all
seemed to cultivate these contacts. Speed- Since they are not forced to follow official
channels, these informal sources often provide information much faster than official methods.
While a memo announcing a new policy is being typed and duplicated, a series of telephone
calls from one person to another can spread the news throughout an organization.

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Accuracy- Informal contacts often provide more accurate information than official channels.
Research has demonstrated that informal networks are consistently accurate-between 80 and
90 percent according to many studies. Informal messages are relatively accurate because their
face-to–face nature allows more clarification than the written, one-way, serially transmitted
messages that come via formal channels. However, as the emotional impact of a message
grows, the chances of its being distorted increase.

Informal networks develop for several reasons. Some are based on physical proximity.
Despite their distance on an organizational chart, some people communicate simply because
they spend time close to one another. The office workers who overheard the layoff
information fall into this category. Other networks form around the shared career interests of
their members, as in the case of the management trainees who use computer. Finally, some
networks are based on personal friendships. Sometimes these friendships would exist even if
there were no working relationship between the members. In other cases, the friendship is
more of a means to an end for one or both of the parties.
 Functions of informal communication
Not all informal messages are idle rumors. As the following examples show, informal
communication can serve several useful functions.
Confirming- Some informal communication confirms formal messages. You have probably
heard this sort of confirmation yourself: “The boss is really serious about cutting down on
long–distance calls this time. I heard him yelling about it when I walked past his office.”
Expanding- Informal communication can fill in the gaps left by incomplete formal messages.
You might say to an experienced co–worker: “The invitation to the office says ‘casual dress.’
What does that mean-jeans and T-shirt or sport coat and tie?”
Expediting- Informal networks can often deliver messages more quickly than official
channels.
Contradicting- Sometimes informal networks contradict official messages. You might learn
from a friend in accounting department that the deadline for purchases on the budget of this
year isn’t as firm as it sounded in the controller’s recent memo.
Circumventing- Informal contacts can sometimes help you bypass official channels that are
unnecessarily cumbersome and time-consuming.
Supplementing- Sometimes even a management realizes that informal communication can
get the job done better than the more formal variety. Paradoxical as it seems, many companies
elevate informal communication to an official policy by encouraging open, unstructured
contacts between people from various parts of the organization.
Enlightened organizations do everything possible to encourage constructive, informal
interaction. Some firms mingle workers from different departments in` the same office,
convinced that people who rub elbows will swap ideas and see themselves as part of a
company-wide team. A review of the six functions in this section shows that informal
communication can operate in two ways. In poorly run companies, it is a kind of survival
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mechanism used by employees to get around unproductive policies and practices. In well-
managed organizations informal networks are simply another tool that management uses to
make life more pleasant and efficient. Whichever type of setting you work in, the lesson is
clear: it’s vitally important to encourage and use informal networks as supplement to official
channels.

Cultivating Informal
Developing a strong informal communication network is not all coincidence. Several steps
can help you to develop these important links. Seek exposure to people at all levels of the
organization. Sometimes the best informants are people with low official status. A telephone
operator or receptionist, for example, may have a better idea of who talks with whom than
anyone else in the organization. Secretaries are exposed to most of the information addressed
to their bosses, and they usually serve as gatekeepers who can give or deny access to them.
Custodial and maintenance people travel around the building and, in their rounds, see and
hear many interesting things. Besides, a friendly repairperson can fix a broken widget now
instead of insisting that you file a work order that probably won’t get attention for six weeks.

Treat everyone in the organization with respect. As you will soon read, perhaps the most
important factor in the morale of an organization is the degree to which its members feel
valued. Besides the fact that thoughtfulness and courtesy are simple good manners, they can
make the difference between your developing a network of friends or a network of enemies.
Remember colleagues on holidays. Ask about children. Discuss hobbies. And, above all, be
polite and pleasant.
Ask Questions. When you discover a knowledgeable information source, ask for explanations
of events. The simple question “What’s going on here?” can generate more information than
can a stack of policy manuals and managerial briefings. The other key question to ask is
“Who can help me?” Your personal contacts can often direct you to the person or persons
who can give you the information you need or support your efforts.
 Forms of communication
In this subsection, you will be acquainted with the forms of communication– verbal and non-
verbal communications. These forms of communication are used in our everyday business
activities. Or this subsection can be seen as medium of transmission which classified into two:
verbal (oral & written) and non-verbal. They are, in fact, forms by which we conduct
communication activity.

 Oral Communication
o Speech
Speech is the planed transmission of a specific message. Speaking on a particular subject in
front of a group of people can be termed as speech. In other world, delivering an oral
presentation before an audience is known as speech.

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Types of Speeches
Informative Speeches: An informative speech provides interesting and useful information to
the audience. Informative speeches can be about objects, processes, events or concepts. The
important thing to realize is that no matter which topic format the speech takes on, it can only
be an informative speech if it conveys information that is factual, useful, instructive and/or
enlightening to the audience.

Demonstrative Speeches: Demonstrative speeches also involve the delivery of facts and
information to a desired audience. The main difference with an informative speech lies in the
specific topic: demonstrative speeches deal with subjects that involve processes, procedures,
and methods. A master cook may deliver a demonstrative speech on the many ways of
cooking chicken, first by identifying the key ingredients, then the different cooking tools, and
finally the different ways of dressing the chicken and presenting the finished meal.

Persuasive Speeches: Persuasive speeches are designed with the intention of convincing or
winning over an audience. The goal of the speech is to reinforce an existing idea in the
audience, or to inflict some change in their prevailing mindset.
Inspirational Speeches: Inspirational speeches are usually more general, discuss broader
concerns, and can use stories, facts, and experiences to sway the audience into accepting a
certain point of view or value. The context of the audience is just as important but
inspirational speeches can leave the question hanging for the audience to answer.
Graduation Speeches: Graduation speeches should revolve around the students in the
graduating class and their teachers. Graduation speeches should highlight any major events
that took place in the community, the school or even the world during the past few years that
have led up to the graduation.
Celebration Speeches: Celebration speeches are short, brief and favorable to the person in
whose honor the celebration is being held. In short, celebratory speeches should make the
subject of your speech look good.
Political Speeches: In most cases, you would be making a political speech to a constituency
or your local community. Political speeches usually have an audience, which is not likely to
agree with you. Be prepared for brickbats while making such speeches.

 Parts/structure of a good speech

A good speech, like every good piece of writing, is not just poured out at audience, but is
meaningfully communicated only when it meets a prescribed, conventional specification.
Every speech, good or bad has the following components.

An introduction: Introduction is good; it captivates audiences' attention and stirs up interest:

sends questions, expectations and anxieties running in the minds of the audience. Since poor
introduction, kill their appetite.
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The body: All the points you may have gathered in the research will now be knit together
beautifully and well explained to answer the questions your audience are likely to be asking.
Your points must be well explained and objectively convincing enough that at the end, your
audience will be left in no doubt but rather have clear understanding of your impressions.
The conclusion: the last line of a good presentation should leave a lasting impression on
people's minds. The conclusion should be food for thought, something people should
remember long after they may have forgotten everything else, including the speechmaker.

 Guidelines for effective speech

o Identification of purposes: First purposes of the speech should be clearly identified.
Without proper selection of the objectives, speeches become meaningless.
o Analyzing the audience: The natural of the audience must be evaluated to take proper
strategy.
o Planning the speech: Like written messages, speeches also should be preplanned.
After evaluation the audience the main idea, detailed description and length of the
speech must be fixed.
o Prepare outline: Outline of a speech helps the speaker to present the speech in an
orderly manner. The chance of omitting major points can be minimized.
o Careful about length of speech: Appropriate length of speech should be determined
carefully by considering the purpose of the speech and time available for such speech.
o Appropriate style: Generally, a casual style is followed for small audience and style
that is more formal is followed for big audience.
o Overcoming fears: It is very important for a speaker to overcome fears to ensure
effective speech.

 Face-to-face communication (ffc)

All ffc is oral but all oral communications may not be face to face. Telephonic conversation
and chatting through internet are oral communication but cannot be termed as ffc. When two
or more persons communicate each other through oral media in their physical, presence is
known as face-to-face communication. In the words of Thill and Bovee, “ffc is the richest
medium because it is personal, it provides immediate feedback, it transmits information from
both verbal and non-verbal case, and it conveys the emotion behind the message.”

 Active listening
In our daily life, we cannot make difference between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’. However,
listening means interpretation of hearing. That is it involves understanding of a message. In
the words of Ricks and Gow “Listening involves decoding the message so that its content can
be used.” Thus, it can be stated that listening starts with hearing and ends with interpreting

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and evaluating the message. Listening defined: Listening is "the process of receiving,
attending to and assigning meaning to aural stimulus".

Guidelines for effective listening

o Stop talking: when we are not talking, we are inclined to concentrate on what to say nest
rather than on listening to what is being said. Therefore, you must stop talking before you
can listen.
o Put the talker at ease: If you make the talker fell at ease, she or she will do a better job of
talking. Then you will have better input with which to work.
o Show the talker you want to listen: If you can convince the talker that you are listening to
understand rather than to oppose, you will help create a climate for information exchange.
o Remove distraction: Certain activates can also distract the talker. So do not drawing, tap
with your pencil, shuffle papers or the like.
o Empathize with the talker: If you place yourself in the talker’s position and look at things
from her or his point of view, you will help create a climate of understanding.
o Be patient: You will need to allow the talker plenty of time. Remember that not everyone
can get to the point as quickly and clearly as you.
o Hold your anger: From our review of the workings of our mental fitters, we know that
angry minds do not contribute to communication. Angry people build walls among
themselves. They harden their positions and block their minds to other’s words.
o Go easy on argument and criticism: Argument and criticism tend to put the talker on the
defensive. Thus, he or she tends to “clam up” or get angry. Even if you win the argument,
you lose. Rarely does either party benefit from such controversy.
o Ask Questions: By frequently asking questions. You display an open mind. You show that
you are listening. You also help develop the message and ensure correctness of meaning.

Causes of poor listening

o Boredom or lack of interest.
o The listener’s dislikeof the personality or physical appearance of the speaker.
o A desire to change rather than accept the speaker.
o A willingness in the listener to hear only that part of the message they agree with.
o A perception by the listener that the speaker lack credibility.
o Physical Barriers: a noisy typewriter, duplicating machine, someone's loud voice etc.
o Personal Barriers: Illness, fatigue, and discomfort make us unable to concentrate.
o Psychological distractions: Personal problems such as finances, buying a house etc.
o Attitudinal biases against the speaker are another type of psychological block to listening.
o Semantic Barriers: Semantic means "meaning of words".

 Written Communications
1. Business letters
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A letter is a formal piece of writing used to exchange information of various types. It acts like
an ambassador. Perhaps letter is the most widely used means of written communication. In
business world letters used for different purposes; like placing orders, making inquiries’,
making credit request, requesting claims etc. Letters used for business purposes can be termed
as business letter. Business letters convey messages regarding various business activates. In
the words of H. A. Murphy and others, “The medium used most often for written messages to
persons outside your organization is the business letter.”W. J. Weston said, “Business letter is
the process of accomplishing business transaction in written form.”

 Memo and Report Writing

Memo
A memorandum (known as ‘memo’ in short form) is by definition, “a written statement that
you prepare specially for a person or committee in order to give them information about a
particular matter”. In an organization, it takes the form of “a short official note that you
write to a person or to several people, especially people who you work with.” It has been
derived from the Latin word ‘memorare’ changed to ‘memorandus’ (notable), and means
literally ‘to mention’ or ‘tell’. A memo plays a very useful role in an organization. It
ensures quick and smooth flow of information in all directions. It also enables officers to
maintain good business relationships. A memo will come to your aid when you wish to
avoid coming into personal contact with certain colleague. Another useful function of a
memo is to establish accountability.

Report
The dictionary meaning of report is, it is a formal statement of the results of an investigation.
In the words of Dr. S. M. Aminuzzamn “Report is document in which a given problem is
examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting findings, putting forward ideas,
and sometimes making recommendation. “Thus, it can be stated that a report is a formal
presentation of facts based on investigation, which generally provides recommendations.
Business reports are analytical vehicles, which help managers in to run the business smoothly.
Business reports include both findings and recommendations. The basic objective of business
report is to help the managers in making decisions.”Prof. Ricks and Gow said, “A report is a
written message presenting information that will help a decision maker to solve a business
problem.”Therefore, it can be revealed that business reports are a management tool, which
enables the managements to solve problems and make effective decisions.

Classification of Business Report

A. Based on mode of presentation
1. Oral report: When report on a matter presented verbally or through oral media then it is
known as oral report. In this case, after investigating the matter the investigator express
his/her findings verbally to the top management. It is less effective because it cannot be used
as documentary evidence.

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2. Written report: On the other hand, when reports are presented in written form then it is
called written report. Written reports are prepared by following specific format. It has
documentary evidence.
B. Based on degree of formality: Business reports can be of two types: formal and informal
report.
I. Formal: Formal reports are usually detailed. It examines a complex problem in depth and
provides recommendations. Formal reports are prepared accounting to specific formats. This
type of report again can be divided in two categories: informational and analytical report
1. Informational: This type of report presents information on particular topic but does not
provide any explanation and recommendations.
2. Analytical: Analytical reports not only present and analyze data but also interpret the data
and make recommendation. Usually critical problems are analyzed through analytical
repots. Example: Feasibility reports, request approval, evaluation of investment project,
etc.

II. Informal: These types of reports are prepared to assists routine managerial functions.
These reports are usually written by subordinates. Informal reports are short in length and
written in letter or memo, format. These reports are less planned.
C. On the basis of length: Based on length, repot can be of two types: Short and long report
1. Short Report: Interim, personal activity repot, etc. are examples of short report. Length of
these reports can be on page or several pages. Routine reports are shot in length. Less time is
allotted for the preparation of this type of report.
2. Long report: Length of long report may be more than hundred pages depending on the
nature and importance of the matter.
Elements of a formal report
A. Prefatory Parts: This is the introductory part of any formal report. A prefatory part
includes the following items:
 Cover: The cover page of a formal report usually includes the following things:
o The title of the report
o Writer’s name
o Submission date
o Name, title and organization of the recipient
 Title fly: it is actually a formality and has no real importance to add a title fly.
 Title page: It includes all the items of the cover and placed before the letter of
authorization.
 Letter of authorization: It is the formal request for the preparation of the report.
 Letter of acceptance: It approves the assignment to conduct the research and preparation
of the report.
 Letter of transmittal: it conveys the report to the audience.
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 Table of contents: The headings used in the text of the report are the basis of table of
contents.
 List of illustrations: it is a part of table of contents, but to highlight the given figures and
illustration it becomes a trend to prepare an extra list of illustration.
 Synopsis or executive summary: An executive summary or synopsis is the brief overview
of the whole report.
A. Text of the report: All the collected information’s or data also presented in this section in
a systematic manner.
1. Introduction: In this section by a general discussion researcher introduced the reader to the
research problem, its importance, process of investigation etc. a good introduction should
include the following points:
o Definition and purpose of the problem
o Scope of the report
o Backgrounds
o Data sources
o Research method
o Limitations
o Definition of the technical terms
2. Body of the text report: Detailed and analytical discussions of the problem are given in
this section. The length of the body depends on the importance of the topic and demand of the
audience.
3. Summary of report: The key findings of the report briefly discussed in the summary
section.
4. Conclusion of the text report: his section is reconsidered as the mirror of the report. It
should include:
5. Recommendation of the text report: Under this section, researcher should clearly state
the course of action that should be taken to solve the problem.
6. Notes of the text report: To prepare a report the researcher need to use findings of other
people, quotations of different authors, previously collected data etc. but it is the legal
obligation of the researcher to give others credit, for their work. Mentioning the original
source under notes enhances the acceptance of the report.
C. Supplementary parts
This is the last part of a report. It includes:
1. Appendix: It is a supplementary part, which contains the important materials related to
the report, but not included in the text. Because they are too lengthy or too bulky.
2. Bibliography: all published and unpublished materials used in the report must be
mentioned at the end of the report. This list of references known as bibliography.
3. Index: It is a list of names and subjects mentioned in the report. It is given in an
alphabetical order. The page number of each item also mentioned.
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 Non-Verbal Communication
Communication takes place even without exchange of words, oral or written. Facial expressions
and gestures are used to communicate. Non-verbal communication refers to touch, eye contacts
and body language. In fact, face-to-face communication is accompanied by facial expressions
and gestures. They contribute to developing effective communication. Facial expressions and eye
contact, other body movements and gestures, clothing and personal appearance, distance and
personal space, physical environment and time are some of the non-verbal communication
methods used in various organizations. It has been suggested that knowledge of nonverbal
communication can be an extremely useful tool in organizations.
Types of non-verbal communication
A. Paralanguage
The non-verbal system sometimes called para verbal cues conveys most of our messages
about how to understand what is said. Pitch and pitch change refers to the high or low quality
of the vocal cord. Pitch shows our feelings or the strength of our feelings. High pitch shows
strong feelings of excitement, fear or happiness. Low Pitch we are inferring our intensity or
extreme seriousness. Inflection refers to the change in the way that we modulate our voice
during speech. Thus, pitch and inflection provide an additional dimension to the meaning of
what we say. They do not compete with language but function as part of our message system
to help clarify our meaning. Vocal pattern or tonal pattern we use is revealing. A constantly
flat pattern is a monotone. Monotonous talk becomes boring very quickly.

B. Kinesics
1. General physical movement can secure or detracts from the attention given to the
message, but it can accomplish both goals at the same time. General physical activity can
show the speaker's level of energy. If a speaker is active, but that action is not distracting, the
audience is more interested. They are more likely to believe in both the speaker and the
message.
2. Posture and gesture are another type of NVC. Posture indicates the feelings of the
individual. Poor posture during an interview might be interpreted as disrespect, lack of
enthusiasm or an indication of poor work habits. In one-to-one or small group situations,
posture can indicate liking: Leaning forward indicates a positive feeling toward others,
leaning backward, a negative feeling. Gestures complement our words. They emphasize what
we say. There are many types of gestures: Illustrators (provide directions, like arrow, circle, to
clarify an idea); Regulators (provide a guide try to recognize, handshake, head nod); Emblems
(like finger pointing, forming a circle with index / middle finger signs "okay").

3. Discrete physical movements are those components, which display the minute details like
squinting of the eyes, avoiding eye contact, furrowing your eyebrow, explain or express the
slight intentions of speakers in conversations.
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4. Facial reactions especially the eyes are the most reliable indicators of emotion. The
dilation of the pupil and the rapid shifting of gaze tell us much about the feelings of the
communicator. When eye contact wanders, listeners feel that the speaker is not interested in
them. The total absence of eye contact can be due to nervousness or forgetfulness. To smile
only or to scowl only is not the answer to becoming an effective communicator. The mouth
carries many significant messages about how you feel and think. Remember that your mouth
is one of the most revealing indicators of your feeling and attitude.
5. Slight body responses like a shrug of the shoulders or a hesitating gesture are additional
nonverbal activities that suggest particular mental states. These micro movements and
interpretations indicate the many things to many people. Audiences listen with both their ears
and their eyes.
6. Silence is also a good way of communicating. Disapproval, anger, resentment, lack of
interest, acceptance, respect and fear can be expressed through silence. Silence can be
effectively used while speaking. A slight pause before or after making an important point
during a speech will make it effective. This pause before an important point creates suspense
and raises a sense of anticipation. Hence, the audience listens to the next point more
attentively. A slight pause after making an important point indicates that something very
important has been said. The speaker may desire the audience to assimilate it and realize its
significance before passing on to the next point.
C. Proxemics refers to our use of space and the way that we use space to govern the personal
actions and behavior of others. Each of us needs "our space". We need physical areas where
we can be comfortable. Personal space is relative and depends upon the circumstances and the
person to whom we are interacting. Public space (refers to four to five feet distance), Personal
Space (refers to arms length dealing), Private space (refers to distance less than three feet) and
expressing intimacy. Space helps to define non-verbal relations. We react to people, initiate
communication, and engage in dialogue. In addition, we develop feelings of security /
insecurity, depending upon spatial relationships.
D. Chronemics is the way each of us uses and structures the time in relations with others. We
accept and expect timeliness as an essential element in some of our daily activities.
Punctuality expresses power relationships between two people. The power of chronemics is
great. Waiting, rushing and hesitating occur because of a time orientation, and our response to
time delivers a strong message about us and other people. It suggests how we may feel about
the individual or the mission. The time element is strongly receiver-oriented. The other person
is negatively or positively affected by our actions.
E. Environment: Our environments (i.e., surroundings) tell something about how we feel and
how we will react to people and situations. Therefore, the environment is another powerful
nonverbal message. The color or size of a room says something to you or about you. People
prefer attractive surroundings and they evaluate other people based largely on their reactions

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to the immediate environment. People working in rooms termed ugly had experienced fatigue,
headache, discontent, sleep, irritability and hostility. The arrangements of the objects in an
environment send a message to the observer or listener.
F. Clothing and personal appearance also communicate non-verbal messages. Your
clothing and appearance help others determine your status, creditability and persuasiveness.
There are dress codes for businesses and professions. You may recollect that the personnel at
different petrol pumps in Addis Ababa use uniforms. Their uniforms display the company
logo and other similar things. School students, doctors, technical workers, wear uniforms to
have a professional outlook, build an image to the institution they are serving. Armed forces
and police personnel are wearing uniforms to denote the rank of the officials also.
Learning activity
Practical: Please practice how to write letter, memo and report within business organization.

Practical Tasks (Communication Project Work) to be done in group and presented

Here, students should get together in groups, discuss and prepare a report on the following
tasks and present individually by applying the basic communication principles.
1. Written communication methods (prepare practical business letters for agribusinesses found
in your community, possible responses and simulate in class rooms)

2. Written communication methods (prepare practical Memos and Reports for organizations
and agribusinesses found in your community, possible responses and simulate in class rooms)

3. Oral communication methods: dramatize the whole nature of telephone conversation and
show in your temporary stage i.e. the class room.

4. Meeting: dramatize the whole nature of meeting and minute handling and show in your
temporary stage i.e. the class room.

5. Oral communication methods: prepare and dramatize the whole nature of the various types
of speech and show in your temporary stage i.e. the class room.

6. Prepare a job and professional interview and dramatize the whole nature of Interview and
show in your temporary stage i.e. the class room.

7. Listening and face to face to face communication: prepare and dramatize the whole nature
of listening and face to face communication and show in your temporary stage i.e. the class
room

Individual practical assignment

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1. Prepare your CV and Cover letter to apply for a job you want to apply

Continuous assessment
Written test, and presentation on verbal and non-verbal communication

Summary
The section discussed in detail types and forms of communication in business organizations.
It is obvious that business organization need some networks for structuring who will
communicate with whom. Two kinds of networks exist: formal and informal. Formal
networks are systems designed by management to dictate who should talk to whom to get a
job done. In a small organization, networks are so simple that they may hardly be noticeable;
in a larger organization, networks become more intricate. Information circulates through
formal communication network in several directions. One of those directions involves
downward communication, which takes place whenever a supervisor sends a message to one
or more subordinates. Upward communication occurs when messages flow from subordinates
to superiors. Many leading businesses attribute their success to the emphasis on upward
communication in their organization. Horizontal (sometimes called “lateral”) communication
consists of messages between members of an organization with equal power. So far, we have
focused on networks that are created by management. In the above subsection, you acquainted
with the forms of communication– verbal and non- verbal communications. These forms of
communication are used in our everyday business activities. Or the subsection can be seen as
medium of transmission which classified into two: verbal (oral & written) and non-verbal..
Facial expressions and gestures are used to communicate. Non-verbal communication refers
to touch, eye contacts and body language. In fact, face-to-face communication is accompanied
by facial expressions and gestures.

[Link]. Principles of Effective Communication

Pre-test
Have you ever been concerned about making an effective communication while you try to
communicate with someone else? What do you think that makes communication more
effective? Please take out a piece of paper and write what you think are answers for the
questions before you read the following section. Then after you complete reading this section,
compare your answer with the note in the section.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Section content
This section is designed so as to acquaint students with the meaning of effective communication,
benefits of effective communication, Guidelines for Effective Communication and different principles
of communication. These principles of communication should be used in our everyday business
activities in order to make our communication more effective.
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Effective Communication
Effective communication is the act of influencing and inducing others to act in the manner
intended by the speaker or writer. Effective communication ensures that all persons and
organizations understand the message sent. They also are more likely to respond favorably to
the message if it appears to be reasonable and fair to both the receiver and the business.

Communication plays a major role in employer-employee relationships in any organization. It

also affects the relationships among members on the management team. Although effective
communication does not guarantee success of a business, its absence usually assures
problems. A communication problem may soon become a crisis or it may linger on for years.

Benefits of Effective Communication:

The following can be the benefits of effective communication:
 Steady Workflow: The first benefit of effective communication is the steady workflow as
in organization if the message is completely conveyed and received it will results in
positive feedback of steady workflow.
 Problem Solutions: Effective business communication helps in providing solutions to
any problem. It helps in developing relationships which make easy to find solution if any
problem arises.
 Achieving Goals: Organizational goals can only be attained through effective business
communication. It makes the business relations more strong which enhance opportunities
for any organization.
 Enhance Productivity: It enhances productivity of both monetary and human capital in
terms of performance. People get clearer picture of what they have to give as output which
increase output in any organization.
 Global Market: You can overcome the challenges in global market only through
effective business communication. Developing right attitude is crucial to effective
communication in international markets.
 Decision making: Only through effective business communication one can make decision
making easy and timely for both customers and investors.
Guidelines for Effective Communication
Effective communication skills are necessary for smooth relations with other people. They
can be your family, friends, colleagues or even strangers. Communication is engaging in an
exchange with another person. Knowing how to communicate effectively will help you get
across what you mean more efficiently. You do not need a long list of do’s and don’ts for
verbal use. You do need to understand that language is not always exact. It carries
possibilities for misunderstanding if not carefully controlled. Some general guidelines for
selecting words and some tips for effective communication are noted in the following;
Be Exact: Try to find the most precise and specific words. Pay attention to feedback that
indicates how the meaning is perceived by the receiver.

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 Use the word “is” carefully: When you say; “He is radical,” you may really mean, “He
seems to be a radical.” There is a vast difference between the two statements, and each
might bring a different reactions.
 Avoid Overgeneralization: Lumping groups together verbally expresses a distorted
vision of the world. Prejudice and stereotyping (assuming that an individual will think and
act according to your notion of the typical member of that sex or that ethnic, racial, or
religious group) rarely produce useful dialogue.
 Be sensitive to connotative meaning: Connotative meanings are not the definitions found
in a dictionary. Rather, they are the emotional or implied meanings we attach to certain
words. Even if your intent is to make a simple factual statement, the connotative meaning
of a term can offend someone. If your neighbour’s pet is not from a single breed, you
would probably not want to describe it as a mongrel. The connotative meaning of the term
mongrel is insulting. We reveal a great deal about our attitudes to others if we are
insensitive to the connotative meanings of words.
 Do not to overuse you or your: One sure way to produce a defensive reaction is to assign
ownership. “Your boss made another silly statement in his meeting last night” is almost
guaranteed to produce an argument rather than a discussion. Although we know that
messages can be sent in verbal form, we may not be aware of how the choice of words
affects the ability of the receiver to decode our message accurately. So we should keep in
mind the importance of words in message sending.
 Count from 1 to 10: When you get in the middle of an intense argument or when
someone suddenly lashes out at you, don’t get mad right away. Count 1 to 10 before
responding. This will make you aware that the person you are speaking to might just be
experiencing severe stress and does not intend to attack you personally.
 Recognize that you don’t know all the answers to all questions: If you don’t know the
answer just say that you don’t know. You don’t have to make other people feel and think
that you know everything. Listen to other people’s concerns. People need to be heard just
like you do. More importantly, take the initiative to share in other people’s feelings.
 Always remember that what others may not mean the way we think they mean it:
Our values, beliefs and judgments may have altered the meaning of what someone has
said. Always allow for the possibility that our impression of what someone has said may
not be true.
 Focus on common interests rather than differences: This will help you direct your
energy to promoting the common interest and making everyone happier, and will also help
you avoid frustration. Be aware when you impinge on someone’s space. Personal space is
very important for most people. When you impinge on their space try to ask them
respectfully. Tell them the reason you have to impinge on their space.

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 Think positive: Always see the glass as half full rather than half empty. Doing so will
help you reduce stress. Also it can keep you motivated and pleasant when you deal with
other people. Communicating can be a pleasant and enriching experience when you try to
do it more effectively. These simple pointers can help you moving towards more
effectively dealing with others, and will save you a great deal of stress and energy.
 Principles Effective of communications
Communication is an important part of our world today. The ability to communicate
effectively with others is considered a prized quality of the successful business people. To
compose effective written or oral messages, you must apply certain communication
principles. These principles provide guidelines for choice of content and style of presentation,
adapted to the purpose and receiver of your message. Called the “seven C’s” they are
completeness, conciseness, consideration, concreteness, clarity, courtesy and correctness. To
compose effective messages, you need to apply certain specific communications principles.

1. Completeness
Your business message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs for
the reaction you desire. As you strive for completeness, keep the following guidelines in
mind:
 Provide all necessary information: answering the five W’s helps make messages clear:
o What you want and how much?
o When you need it?
o Where it is to be sent?
o To whom it is to be sent?
o How payment will be made?
 Answer all questions asked: look for questions: some may even appear buried within a
paragraph. Locate them and answer them precisely.
 Give something extra, when desirable: use your good judgment in offering additional
material if the sender’s message was incomplete.
Your message is complete when it contains all facts the receiver needs. Incomplete messages:
 Result in additional expenses
 Spoil goodwill
 Lead to confusion and debates

2. Conciseness
Conciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing
the other C qualities. A concise message is complete without being wordy. To achieve
conciseness, observe the following suggestions:
 Eliminate wordy expressions: use single word in place of phrases. For example, use
‘now’ instead of ‘at this time’.
 Include only relevant material: delete irrelevant words and rambling sentences.

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 Avoid unnecessary repetition: it leads to dullness.

Please do not forget that busy business professionals prefer messages that express
thoughts in the fewest words possible. Well written business messages are only long
enough to present all the necessary information.
 Limit repetition
Repeating a word or an idea is one way to emphasize it. Use a shortened form of noun
and use a pronoun in place of a noun.
 Eliminate Excess Words

 Emphasize Verbs
Verbs are more powerful words in the English Language. Stressing verbs make writing
concise, clear and powerful.

 Use the Active Voice

The active voice tells who is doing what. The passive voice tells what was done by or to
whom or what.
Active: Isabirayit will conduct a cost-benefit analysis.

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Passive: A cost-benefit analysis will be conducted by Isabirayit.

Active: The members elected Negash.
Passive: Negash was elected by the members.
Active: You have not paid your April Bill.
Passive: Your April bill has not been paid.

3. Consideration
Consideration refers to giving thoughtful attention to the receiver/ sender. You have to
prepare every message with the receiver in mind and try to put yourself in his/her place. Try
to visualize your readers/ listeners with their desires, problems, circumstances, emotions, and
probable reactions to your messages. Three specific ways to indicate consideration are:
 Focus on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘We’. People are usually concerned about themselves than
about others. They are likely to read your messages when they see their names and the
pronoun ‘you’ rather than ‘I’ or ‘we’.
 Show interest in readers/ listeners or show reader benefits. Your message should show
interest in and concern for the reader’s needs or viewpoints. Whenever possible and true,
show how your receivers will benefit from whatever the message asks or announces. If so,
they will be more likely to react favorably.
 Emphasize the positive, pleasant facts. For most people negative words like no,
impossible, I cannot etc. have unpleasant emotions. By making clear what you can or will
do, you (by implication) make clear what you cannot do without using a single negative
word.
 Apply integrity and Ethics- integrity refers to high moral standards as honesty, sincerity,
decent character etc. Ethics on the other hand is concerned with what is right human
conduct.
4. Concreteness: Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather
than vague and general. Often it means using denotative (direct, explicit, often dictionary-
based) rather than connotative words (ideas or notions suggested by or associated with a
word or phrase). The following guidelines should help you compose concrete, convincing
messages.
 Use specific facts and figures: whenever possible, use an exact, precise statement or a
figure in place of a general word to make your message more concrete.
 Put action in your verbs: active verbs help make your message more specific, personal,
concise and emphatic.
 Choose vivid, image-building words: business writing uses less figurative language than
does the world of fiction.

Concrete words convey one and only one meaning and more understandable than abstract
words. Abstract words have different meaning to different people. For example; more specific

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than many and Vehicle is less specific than car or truck. To create concrete paragraphs you
should be careful about:
 Unity
Sentences and paragraphs have unity when they have one main idea and other information in
the sentence supports that main idea.
 Coherence
Unified messages are also coherent. They flow naturally and the ideas in them relate to each
other.
 Transitional Words and Phrases
Writers use transitional words and phrases as bridges to join ideas.

 Repetition: Repeating words and using pronouns in place of nouns are other ways to
achieve coherence.
o The pen and pencil sets are packed 12 to a box. Each set comes in a case that has the look
and feel of leather.
o The pen and pencil sets are packed 12 to a box. They are available in gold, silver, or
wood-grain casings.
 Structure: Sentence structure can make a message more interesting and enhance clarity.
o Simple: One main clause (subject and verb). Sue will take the package to Ron.
o Compound: Two main clauses. Sue will take the package to Ron, he is waiting for it.
o Complex: One main clause a done or more sub dependent clause. Before she sorts the
mail, Sue will take the package to Ron.
o Compound-Complex: Two main clauses and at least one sub dependent clause.
Before she sorts the mail, sue will take the package to Ron, he is waiting for it.
5. Clarity

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Clarity means getting your message across so that the receiver will understand what you are
trying to convey. Follow the following guidelines:
 Choose short, familiar, and conversational words. Avoid Greek, Latin or other
technical words.

 Construct short sentences and paragraphs. Generally, short sentences and paragraphs
are preferred; however, a pleasing Varity of length is also desirable. The average length
of sentences suggested is 17-20 words.
 Unity: Have one or main idea in sentence, and any other points or ideas must be closely
related to it. Similarly, in paragraph, have one main idea. Usually a topic sentence is a
good way to express the main idea. The other sentences should contain details to
develop the main idea.
 Coherence: Words should be correctly arranged so that they clearly express the
intended meaning.
 Include examples, illustration, and visual aids when desirable. Some important
statements, words, or phrases may be underlined numbered, typed in capital or italics.
Slang: is the use of informal words and expressions to describe an object or condition. Slang
is also part of day-to-day speaking, but it is too casual to be used in business writing. Because
slang varies by age, gender, culture, and region, its meaning may not be clear to a larger
audience.
 Jargon: is occupational terminology. The words may be new terms or common ones used
in uncommon ways. Noise, bus, culture and virus have different meanings depending on
the profession of those who use them; debit and credit are part of the jargon of accounting.
 Abbreviation: Is a shortened version of a word.
o Co. (Company)
o Dept. (Department)
o Mgr. (Manager)

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 Acronym: is a word formed from the initial letters of major parts of a compound term.
o CEO (Chief Executive Officer)
o CPU (Central Processing Unit)
o LIFO (Last in, first out)
6. Courtesy
Courtesy is a combination of consideration and showing good manners. You can be courteous
in your business communication by being thoughtful, appreciative, and sincerely tactful.
 Avoid expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle others
 Do not ignore answering customers’ or employees’ inquires no matter how busy you are.
Sometimes silence (neglect) may be considered significantly discourtesy. Totally ignoring
inquires communicates unfavorable nonverbal messages that may lead to loss of business
or employee morale.
 Avoid blunt behavior. Blunt behavior is common cause of discourtesy.

7. Correctness
The correctness principle is more than proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. A message
may be perfect grammatically mechanically but still lose a customer and fail to achieve a
purpose. Though mistakes are never intentional, they spoil our image. Errors in the messages
fall in the following categories:
a. Use the right level of language. There are three levels of language –formal, informal, and
sub formal.
o The formal level of language is used for scholarly dissertation, master and doctoral
thesis, government agreements, legal documents, etc.
o The informal language refers to the language of business used for letters, memos,
reports etc.
b. Check the accuracy of words, figures and facts. The following words are often confusing:
a and an, anxious, eager, between and among, counsel, and council etc.
c. Maintain acceptable writing mechanisms. This refers to:
 Spelling errors
 Punctuation marks
 Capitalization
 Grammatical accuracy
 Sentences and paragraph structures
 Format for memos, letters, reports etc.
d. Choose non-discriminatory expressions
 Equal treatment of sexes
 Use humankind rather than mankind
 Use chairperson rather than chairman.
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Learning activities
 Assignment, presentation on the difference between effective and non-effective
communication.
 Group discussion and presentation on the seven principles of effective communication.

Continues Assessment
Test and Quiz on Effective Communication and Principles of Effective Communication

Summary
Effective communication is the act of influencing and inducing others to act in the manner
intended by the speaker or writer. Effective communication ensures that all persons and
organizations understand the message sent. Effective communication skills are necessary for
smooth relations with other people. Communication is engaging in an exchange with another
person. Knowing how to communicate effectively will help you get across what you mean
more efficiently. You do not need a long list of do’s and don’ts for verbal use. You do need to
understand that language is not always exact. To compose effective messages, you need to
apply certain specific communications principles. They tie in closely with the basic concepts
of the communication process and are important for both written and oral communications.
They provide guidelines for choice of content and style of presentation adapted to the purpose
and receiver of your message, called the seven C’s namely clarity, completeness, conciseness,
concreteness, correctness, consideration, and courtesy.

[Link]. Legal, International and Inter-cultural aspect of Communication

Legal Aspect of Communication

Pre-test
What do you think that a sender or receiver of a message should do with legal related aspects
of communication? Please take out a piece of paper and write what you think are answers for
the questions before you read the following section.

Section content
This section is designed so as to acquaint students with the Legal, International and Inter-
cultural aspect of business communication. The section discusses Legal aspect which
refers to the selection of words used in business communication so as to ensure their
conformity with the rules and regulations laid by the country’s business law failure to which
may cause a person to be up against legal actions. In the other way the section also
discusses how international and intercultural factors affect communication in the
international scenario when agribusiness personnel try to communication with
his/her counterparts in other countries.

Legal Aspect of Business Communication

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Legal aspect refers to the selection of words used in Business Communication so as to ensure
their conformity with the rules and regulations laid by the country’s business law failure to
which may cause a person to be up against legal actions. A person or the communicator
should be mindful of the following areas while communicating with:
 Defamation
 Invasion of privacy
 Fraud
 Miscellaneous areas.
1. Defamation: “The unconsented & unprivileged publication of a false idea which injures
the reputation of a person in a society is called Defamation.” We will dilate on this area
by giving a focused view to some of the important terms used in the definition.
 Unconsented: Unconsented means “without agreement”. This makes the first point clear
that whatever a person is to defame the other person, it is against the will or consent of the
other person. However, in some of the cases the act of defamation is carried out with the
consent of the person who is aimed at. Some of those cases are as follows Showbiz ,
Sports and Politics
 Unprivileged: This means “Unrightfully”. It’s plain to understand that it is defaming
another person when he is not given the privilege or right by the law to defame. Some
bodies/organizations/persons have the privilege to make defaming information/material
known to the people other than the two persons in question. Privilege is mainly of two
types.
 Absolute privilege.
 Conditional/Qualified privilege.
A. Absolute Privilege: A person has absolute privilege to defame the other person means he
has been given full right by the law to defame the other person on any matter whatsoever.
This case is limited to the following areas:
 Judicial Proceedings.
 Assembly Proceedings.
 Official Proceedings.
o Judicial Proceedings: A particular action or a course of action in the law court is called
Judicial Proceedings. The Lawyers in such proceedings have full right to defame the
person against whom a suit is filed.
o Assembly Proceedings: Legislature is the place where representatives of political
parties have full liberty to ensure the government or vice versa.
o Official Proceedings: Government bodies such as NAB (National Accountability
Bureau) have been given absolute privilege to defame the nabbed person.
B. Conditional/Qualified Privilege: Privilege under certain conditions or privilege to
defame on certain matters is called Conditional Privilege. For example, an employer may

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defame his employee on the following matters like tenure or salary or Responsibilities.
The following are types of conditional / qualified privilege:
i. Publication: When a defamatory matter is made known to a third party either
intentionally or unintentionally it’s called publication. Publication branches off into two
types:
 Slander: Slander is an oral defamation.
 Libel: It means to use written material such as newspapers, letters, pictures etc. to
defame a person. As against slander, libel is considered as the severer one and is of
more serious consequences because the defamatory material is at hand to drag the
defamer to the court of law.
ii. False Idea: A statement which is termed as defamatory should be false in its nature. If it’s
right and not false, then it can never be termed as defamation. Therefore, if in a court of
law the defendant proves that whatever he made public about the plaintiff is absolutely
true, he could no more be liable in the case of defamation.

2. Invasion of Privacy
Invasion of privacy includes:
 Intrusion into a Person’s Physical solitude: This sheds light upon the fact that there are
certain activities we engage in our solitude or loneliness. If a person infringes upon
another person’s such activities, he’s invading upon that person’s privacy.
 Disclosure of private facts about an individual: If some private facts shared by two
individuals are disclosed by any one of person, it’s invasion of privacy.
 Using a person’s name or identity for a commercial purpose without his permission:
We call it invasion of privacy when without the consent of a person, his name or identity
is used..
 Throwing false public light to a person unintentionally: If unintentionally a person is
exposed to public attention censure then the person responsible for it may have the court
of law to answer to for invading upon the innocent’s privacy.
3. Fraud
“Fraud is an intentional misrepresentation of facts with a view to induce the other to enter into
a contract”.
Essential elements of a fraud

 It must be intentional: To do a fraud a person should willingly misrepresent a fact.

 It must relate to a material fact: It means that a fraud is always related to an
important fact (A fact upon which a contract is made).
 It must be given before the conclusion of the contract: This signifies that a fraud is
always done before the ending of a contract. After the end of the contract a fraud
cannot be termed as a fraud even if it is a fraud. Therefore, making the person
responsible for the fraud not liable for any legal proceedings.

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 It must induce the other party: A fraud is designed in a manner so as to compel the
other party to engage in a contract.
 It must be a statement of fact not a statement of opinion: It means that it should
base upon a concrete fact, which does not vary from person to person.
 It must result in a loss to the aggrieved party: It makes the point distinct that a
fraud is always end in a financial loss to the victim.

4. Miscellaneous areas
 Currency notes and government papers etc: A person who counterfeits currency
notes, treasury bills or bonds may find himself in the court of law for a crime like that.
 Copyright: Theft of copyright material such as republishing a book without the
consent of the publisher and reproduction of an authorized recorded tapes or CDs may
cause a person liable to legal actions.
 Pornographic material: Any obscene material, which is against the morality.
International and Inter-cultural aspect of Business Communication
Pre-test
Have you ever noticed that cultural, language etc differences between a sender and receiver
affects communication effectiveness. Please take out a piece of paper and write your
experience of the same?
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
International communication
International communication defined as communication that occurs across international
borders has been traditionally concerned with government-to-government information
exchanges in which a few powerful states dictated the communication agenda. Currently
international communication is communication between cultures and political sciences.

Inter-cultural Communications
There is no better arena for observing a culture in action than business. Cultures tend to reveal
themselves in situations where much is at stake, because it is here that their resources are most
needed. Marriage, family obligations, and such stressful experiences as illness and the death
of a loved one bring out much of what is distinctive and fundamental in a culture. The same is
true of business, because economic survival is at stake. Business practices are shaped by
deeply-held cultural attitudes toward work, power, trust, wealth—and communication.
Communication is fundamental in business, because business is a collaborative activity.
Goods and services are created and exchanged through the close coordination of many
persons, sometimes within a single village, and sometimes across global distances.

Coordination of this kind requires intense communication. Complex product specifications

and production schedules must be mutually understood, and intricate deals between trading

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partners must be negotiated. Communication styles vary enormously around the world, and
these contribute to a staggering variety of business styles.

Probably the single most useful concept for understanding cultural differences in business
communication is Edward T. Hall’s (1976) distinction of low-context and high-context
cultures. It explains much about how negotiation proceeds, how agreements are specified, and
how workers are managed. Yet this distinct on, insightful as it is, is derivative. It is best
understood as reflecting a more fundamental distinction between rule-based and relationship-
based cultures, which is in turn grounded in different conceptions of human nature. The
discussion here begins by showing how business practices reflect low-context and high-
context characteristics, but it subsequently moves to the deeper levels to explore how
communication styles are integrally related to other characteristics of the culture. Intercultural
communication, as the name indicates, is concerned with communication across cultures. A
communication studies scholar distinguishes it from cross-cultural studies of communication
as follows:
‘Cross-cultural’ and ‘intercultural’ are often regarded as interchangeable. They are,
nevertheless, different. Cross-cultural research involves comparing behavior in two or more
cultures (e.g. comparing self-disclosure in Japan, the USA and Iran when individuals interact
with members of their own culture). Intercultural research involves examining behavior when
members of two or more cultures interact (e.g. examining self-disclosure when Japanese and
Iranians communicate with each other). Understanding cross-cultural differences in behavior
is a prerequisite for understanding intercultural behavior.
We all communicate with others all the time in our homes, in our workplaces, in the groups
we belong to, and in the community. No matter how well we think we understand each other,
Communication is hard. Just think, for example, how often we hear things like, "He doesn't
get it," or "She didn't really hear what I meant to say." "Culture" is often at the root of
communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we
participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often
surprised at how differently people approach their work together.

Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put, "culture”
refers to a group or community with whom we share common experiences that shape the way
we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as gender, race, or
national origin. It also includes groups we join or become part of. For example, we can
acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a change in our economic status, or by
becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly, we realize we all belong to many
cultures at once. Our histories are a critical piece of our cultures. Historical experiences --
whether of five years ago or of ten generations back shape that we are? Knowledge of our
history can help us understand ourselves and one another better. Exploring the ways in which

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various groups within our society have related to each other is a key to opening channels for
cross-cultural communication.

Six fundamental patterns of cultural differences

In a world as complex as ours, each of us is shaped by many factors, and culture is one of the
powerful forces that acts on us.
1. Different Communication Styles
The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of
communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in
different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning
of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.
Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal
communication.
Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves
seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms
regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural
misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised voices to be
a sign that a fight has begun, while some black, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that
an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white
Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some
American ethnic or non-white racial groups.
2. Different attitudes toward conflict
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be
avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal
directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are
recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many
Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule,
differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to
address the conflict.

3. Different approaches to completing tasks

From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks.
Some reasons include different access to resources; different judgments of the rewards
associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how
relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together. When it comes to working
together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on
establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic
cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared
project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-
Americans. European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let
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relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one
of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task or value
relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.

4. Different decision-making styles

The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For
example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated that is, an official assigns
responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin
American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities
oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach
in the U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations
about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of
reference.
5. Different attitudes toward disclosure
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a
conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you
are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict,
be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. The variation
among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you
conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people
with whom you are working.
6. Different approaches to knowing
Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies that is, the
ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired
through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of
coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures' preference for affective ways of
knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to
emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence. Recent
popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to previously
overlooked ways of knowing. Indeed, these different approaches to knowing could affect
ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your
group may want to do library research to understand a shared problem better and identify
possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced
challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere.
4. Guidelines for multicultural collaboration
Cultural questions about who we are and how we identify ourselves are at the heart of toward
a more perfect union in an age of diversity, and will be at the heart of your discussions. As
you set to work on multicultural collaboration in your community, keep in mind these
additional guidelines:

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 Learn from generalizations about other cultures, but don't use those generalizations to
stereotype, "write off," or oversimplify your ideas about another person. The best use of a
generalization is to add it to your storehouse of knowledge so that you better understand
and appreciate other interesting, multi-faceted human beings.
 Practice, practice, practice. That's the first rule, because it's in the doing that we actually
get better at cross-cultural communication.
 Don't assume that there is one right way (yours!) to communicate. Keep questioning your
assumptions about the "right way" to communicate. For example, think about your body
language; postures that indicate receptivity in one culture might indicate aggressiveness in
another.
 Don't assume that breakdowns in communication occur because other people are on the
wrong track. Search for ways to make the communication work, rather than searching for
who should receive the blame for the breakdown.
 Listen actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes.
 Especially when another person's perceptions or ideas are very different from your own,
you might need to operate at the edge of your own comfort zone.
 Respect others' choices about whether to engage in communication with you. Honor their
opinions about what is going on.
 Stop, suspend judgment, and try to look at the situation as an outsider.
 Be prepared for a discussion of the past. Use this as an opportunity to develop an
understanding from "the other's" point of view, rather than getting defensive or impatient.
 Acknowledge historical events that have taken place. Be open to learning more about
them. Honest acknowledgment of the mistreatment and oppression that have taken place
on the basis of cultural difference is vital for effective communication.
 Awareness of current power imbalances and openness to hearing each other's perceptions
of those imbalances is also necessary for understanding each other and working together.
 Remember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular individual.
We are all shaped by many, many factors our ethnic background, our family, our
education, and our personalities and are more complicated than any cultural norm could
suggest. Check your interpretations if you are uncertain what is meant.
 International Communication and Communication Content
The key question for international marketers/business personnel is whether the specific
communication message and media strategies must be changed from region to region or
country-to-country because of environmental requirements. Proponents of the one world, one
voice" approach to global communication believes that the era of the global village is fast
approaching and that tastes and preferences are converging worldwide.

According to the standardization argument, because people everywhere want the same
products for the same reasons, companies can achieve great economies of scale by unifying
communication around the globe. International Business owners who follow the localized

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approach are skeptical of the global village argument. Even Coca-Cola, the most global brand
in the world, records radio spots in 40 languages with 140 different music backgrounds. Coca-
Cola asserts at consumers still differ from country to country must be reached by advertising
tailored to their respective countries. Proponents of localization point out that most blunders
occur because advertisers have failed to understand and adapt to foreign cultures.

Certain consumer products lend themselves to communication extension. If a product appeals

to the same need around the world, there is a possibility of extending the appeal to that need.
The list of products "going global," once confined to a score of consumer and luxury goods, is
growing. Global communication/advertising is partly responsible for increased worldwide
sales of disposable diapers, diamond watches, shampoos, and athletic shoes. Some longtime
global advertisers are benefiting from fresh campaigns. Jeans marketer Levi Strauss &
Company racked up record sales in 1991 on the strength of a campaign extended unchanged to
Europeans, Latin Americans, Africans and Australians. The basic issue is whether there is in
fact a global market for the product. If the market is global, appeals can be standardized and
extended. Soft drinks, Scotch whiskey, Swiss watches, and designer clothing are examples of
product categories whose markets are truly global.

As Kansu correctly notes, the controversy over communication approaches will probably
continue for years to come. Localized and standardized communication and promotion both
have their place and both will continue to be used. Kansu’s conclusion: What is needed for
successful international communication and promotion is a global commitment to local vision.
In the final analysis, the decision of whether to use a global or localized campaign and
language depends on recognition by agribusiness managers of the trade-offs involved. On the
one hand, a global campaign will result in the substantial benefits of cost savings, increased
control, and the potential creative leverage of a global appeal. On the other hand, localized
campaigns and communications have the advantage of appeals that focus on the most
important attributes of a product in each nation or culture. The question of when to use each
approach depends on the product involved and a company's objectives in a particular market.

Whatever the case is these mitigating factors can be called "noise" and have an effect on the
decision to "extend", "adapt" or "create" new messages. Language differences may mean that
straight translation is not enough when it comes to message design. Advertising may also play
different roles within developed, between developed and underdeveloped and within
underdeveloped countries. In developing countries "education" and "information" may be
paramount objectives. In developed countries, the objectives may be more persuasive. Cultural
differences may account for the greatest challenge. Three major difficulties occur in attempting
to communicate internationally:
o the message may not get through to the intended recipient, due to a lack of media
knowledge;

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o the message may get through but not be understood, due to lack of audience understanding
and:
o the message may get through, be understood but not provoke action. This may be due to
lack of cultural understanding. Media availability is a mitigating factor. Take for example,
television. Whilst in Africa a number of countries do have it, the extent of its use and time
available may be limited.

Selecting a communicating and promoting agency

Another international communication and promotion issue company’s face is whether to
create ads in house, use an outside agency, or combine both strategies. For example, Chanel,
Benetton, and Diesel rely on in-house marketing and advertising staffs for creative; Coca-
Cola has its own agency, Edge Creative, but also uses the services of outside agencies such as
Leo Burnett. When one or more outside agencies are used, they can serve product accounts on
a multi-country or even global basis. It is possible to select a local agency in each national
market or an agency with both domestic and overseas offices. Today, however, there is a
growing tendency for Western clients to designate global agencies for product accounts in
order to support the integration of the marketing and advertising functions; Japan based
companies are less inclined to use this approach. Agencies are aware of this trend and are
themselves pursuing international acquisitions and joint ventures to extend their geographic
reach and their ability to serve clients on a global account basis. In selecting a communicating
and promotion agency, the following issues should be considered:

o Company organization: Companies that are decentralized may want to leave the
choice to the local subsidiary.
o National responsiveness: Is the global agency familiar with local culture and buying
habits in a particular country, or should a local selection be made?
o Area coverage: Does the candidate agency cover all relevant markets?
o Buyer perception: What kind of brand age does the company want to project? If the
product needs a strong local identification, it would be best to select a national agency.

The Message: The message of a communication or promotion refers to the facts or

impressions the sender wants to convey to potential customers. For example, an automobile
manufacturer may want to convey a message of value (low price) and / or reliability (quality).
The choice of message is an important reflection on how the firm sees its own products and
services and how it wants them to be seen by customers. For example, coca-cola believes that
its products help consumers enjoy life, and its advertising messages consistently stress this
theme worldwide. Consider the company’s today’s advertising logo of “enjoy the Coke side
of life”. Products that are used for different purposes in different areas will need to be
marketed differently. The country of origin of a product often serves as an important part of
the advertising message. For example, among fashion-conscious teenagers and young adults

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in Europe and Japan, USA, even in Africa goods are often viewed as being very trendy. Thus,
Jeans producers, among others, highlight the origins of their products.

Medium: The medium is the communication channel used by the advertiser to convey a
message. A firm’s international marketing manager must alter the media used to convey its
message from market to market based on availability, legal restrictions, standards of living,
literacy levels, the cultural homogeneity of the national market, and other factors. In bilingual
or multilingual nations, international marketers must adjust their mix of media outlets in order
to reach each of the country's cultural groups.

A nation's level of economic development may also affect the media firm’s use. For example,
in many less developed countries like Ethiopia, television ownership may be limited and
literacy rates low. This eliminates television, newspapers, and magazines as useful media but
favors radio advertising. Price may also come into play. For ex, television advertising is
mostly very costly than Radio, newspaper ads. Legal restrictions may also prompt the use of
certain media. Most national governments limit the number of television channels. To sum up,
to help deal with issues related to message and media, many international marketers use
multinational advertising agencies, which have branch offices or affiliates in many national
markets. International marketers sometimes use local advertising agencies too.

Cultural Considerations: Knowledge of cultural diversity, especially the symbolism

associated with cultural traits, is essential when creating advertising. Local country managers
will be able to share important information, such as when to use caution in advertising
creativity. Use of colors and man-woman relationships can often be stumbling blocks. For
example, white in Asia is associated with death. In Japan, intimate scenes between men and
woman are considered to be in bad taste; they are outlawed in Saudi Arabia. There are a whole
range of cultural issues that international business personnel need to consider when
communicating with target audiences in different cultures.

Language will always be a challenge. One cannot use a single language for an international
campaign. For example, there are between six and twelve main regional variations of the
Chinese languages, with the most popular being Mandarin (c 850 Million), followed by Wu
(c. 90 million), Min (c. 70 million) and Cantonese (c. 70 million). India has 22 languages
including Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, and Tamil to name but a
few. Of course language choice could affect branding choices, and the names of products and
services. Hidden messages and humour would be especially tricky to convey. Famous
examples include the Vauxhall Corsa, which was called the Nova in the United Kingdom - of
course No Va! Would not be an acceptable name in Spanish. A similar problem was left
unaddressed by Toyota, with their MR2 in France (think about it!).

Design, symbolism and aesthetics sometimes do not transcend international boundaries. For
example Japanese aesthetics sometimes focus upon taste and beauty. Also look at Japanese
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cars from the front - they have a smiling face. The manner in which people present themselves
in terms of dress and appearance changes from culture to culture. For example in Maori
culture, dress plays a central role with everyday clothing differing greatly from ceremonial
costume. Whereas in Western business-culture the standard 'uniform' tends to be a
conservative collar and tie.

Other factors that need to be considered in relation to international marketing communications

(Promotion) include:
 The work ethic of employees and customers to be targeted by media
 Levels of literacy and the availability of education for the national population
 The similarity or diversity of beliefs, religion, morality and values in the target nation
 The similarity or diversity of beliefs, religion, morality and values in the target nation
 The family and the roles of those within it are factors to take into account.

 Gender Communication
Communication is necessary in all aspects of human endeavor. This module looks at the
difference in the way women and men communicate. It looks at social settings and attempts to
provide an understanding of behaviors that will ultimately help people feel comfortable and
be effective in mixed gender environments. Here the objectives are to provide an
understanding of the basic verbal communication differences between men and women.

Different Communication styles

All of us have different styles of communicating with other people. Our style depends on a lot
of things: where we're from, how and where we were brought up, our educational
background, our age, and it also can depend on our gender. Generally speaking, men and
women talk differently although there are varying degrees of masculine and feminine speech
characteristics in each of us, but men and women speaking particular ways mostly because
those ways are associated with their gender. The styles that men and women use to
communicate have been described as "debate vs. relate", "report vs. rapport, or "competitive
vs. co-operative". Men often seek straightforward solutions to problems and useful advice
whereas women tend to try and establish intimacy by discussing problems and showing
concern and empathy in order to reinforce relationships.

Gender Split
Here is a truly interesting fact: When you start canvassing men and women on the subject of
their social conversational preferences, you find a great deal of agreement. Ten successful
self-confident men and women ranging in age from mid-twenties to 60-something are
concurred on two key points. The first, and perhaps most surprising, is that, in mixed
company, men are boring. The second: Under similar conditions, women are not. The second
point is kind of a corollary to the first. Given a choice, everyone prefers talking to women. Of
course there are boring women and interesting men. What we're dealing with here are broad

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strokes, generalities, even stereotypes. Okay? So now we can ask the following: Why are men
boring? At least why are they so much more boring than women? The consistent answer from
my interviewees is that women get involved in conversation. They get personal. Men do not.

"Men only want to talk about business. They don't want to get into personal stuff," says Bob
Ramsay of Ramsay Writes, a Toronto communications firm. "I mean, God only knows what
we would get into there!" For many men, a party is just a business meeting with food and
drink, an occasion to trot their high-level contacts, deals and even resumes around the table
with impunity (unless, of course, being deemed a dullard is an undesirable consequence). But
for a woman to do the same would be breathtakingly inappropriate, even if she were the CEO
of General Motors. Women downplay their accomplishments as a rule. "This is a good thing.
It makes them more approachable. It’s socially graceful," comments Margaret Went, the
editor of the Globe and Mail’s “Report on Business." "Women are looking for a way to
connect and that, in my opinion, is strength." Went, who's in the unusual position of being
regularly chatted up by men who believe she has inside information, doesn't necessarily
regard this as perk? "I have to tell you, these business conversations are usually as boring as
bad jokes."

3 "Male Logic" and "Women's Intuition"

Men and women are, of course, biologically different. There are even significant differences
in male and female brains; women, for example, have a thicker corpus callosum (the thing
that connects the two halves of the brain). However, it is a giantleap from observing that there
are neurological differences between the sexes to assuming that these differences correspond
to the classic categorization of men being logical and women being emotional.

The left hemisphere of the brain generally deals with linear processing, as found in language
and some types of mathematics, and this hemisphere develops faster in girls than in boys. The
old "11 plus" test of verbal reasoning used in British schools was actually adjusted to bring
boys' scores up to the level of girls'! Whatever the case, it is a mistake to look at people's
brains and then decide that they must think in a certain way; it would be far better to try and
find out how people actually think, and then to see if this corresponds to brain structure. Since
our main guide to how people think is their language, the fact that in most cultures men and
women talk in different ways, and about different things, may lead us to false conclusions
about the way they think in general. Women's conversation tends to emphasize feelings more,
which may also mean that they think about feelings more. It does not, however, mean that
woman is more emotional. It is perfectly possible that men are just as emotional, but for social
reasons they talk (and think) about their feelings less. Similarly, the fact that in most cultures
men argue more about abstract things does not mean that men are naturally more logical, it
just means that the things men prefer to talk about require logical argument more than they
require expression of feelings. Obviously the more you argue, the better you get at it, hence
the prejudice that men are somehow biologically more logical. This would be like assuming
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that I am biologically better at speaking English (my first language) than Turkish (my
second).
Gender Differences in Communication
Who talks the most?
 In mixed-gender groups, at public gatherings, and in many informal conversations, men
spend more time talking than do women.
 For example, in one experiment, the men with expertise talked longer than the women
with expertise.
 Men initiate more interaction than do women.

Who interrupts?
 Men are more likely than women to interrupt the speaking of other people.
 A study of faculty meetings revealed that women are more likely than men to be
interrupted.
 Some of the interruptions that women experience come from other women.
 (Women, when they do interrupt, are more likely to interrupt other women than they are to
interrupt men, according to two studies.)
 Women are more likely than men to allow an interruption of their talk to be successful
(they do not resist the interruption as much as men do).
Gender patterns in formal group meetings
 In meetings, men gain the "floor" more often, and keep the floor for longer periods of
time, regardless of their status in the organization.
 In professional conferences, women take a less active part in responding to papers.
 When women do ask a question, they take less time in asking it than do men. In addition,
they employ much less pre-question predication, they are less likely to ask multiple
questions, and they are more likely than men to phrase their question in personal terms.
Gender patterns in informal group meetings?
When the floor is an informal, collaborative venture, women display a fuller range of
language ability. Here, in the kind of conversation where women excel, people jointly build
an idea, operate on the same wavelengths, and have deep conversational overlaps.
Does it matter?
 Those who talk more are more likely to be perceived as dominant and controlling of the
conversation.
 Those who talk the most in decision-making groups also tend to become the leaders.
Especially important are "task leadership behaviors," such as asking questions, helping to
set up structures and procedures for the groups, giving information and opinions, and
identifying and solving problems.
 Interrupters are perceived as more successful and driving, but less socially acceptable,
reliable, and companionable than the interrupted speaker.

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Learning activities
 Visit: Pleases visit multicultural organization and report on it how cultures affect
communication in business organization.
 Group work: Write on the legal aspect practiced in the business organization relating to
agribusiness.
Summary
Legal aspect refers to the selection of words used in Business Communication so as to ensure
their conformity with the rules and regulations laid by the country’s business law failure to
which may cause a person to be up against legal actions. A person or the communicator
should be mindful of the following areas while communicating with: Defamation, Invasion of
privacy, Fraud and other issues. Communication experts generally agree that the overall
requirements of effective communication and persuasion are fixed and do not vary from
country to country. The same thing is true of the components of the communication process:
The marketer/business person or sender's message must be encoded, conveyed via the
appropriate channel(s), and decoded by the customer or receiver. Communication takes place
only when meaning is transferred. The key question for international marketers/business
personnel is whether the specific communication message and media strategies must be
changed from region to region or country-to-country because of environmental requirements.
Generally, as a firm develops its communication strategy at international level, it must at least
consider three factors: the message it wants to convey, the media available for conveying the
message and the extent to which the firm wants to globalize its communication effort
(whether to follow standardization or adaptation). At the same time, the sender of the
message/business person must take into account relevant cultural, linguistic, and legal
constraints found in various national markets.

3.1.4. Proof of Ability

The instructor/s will examine skills, knowledge and attitude required of the students when
they complete business communicating in agri-business (50%).

Product Criteria/ Assessment Competency Score

Understand the Correctly defining the concept Discuss concepts of 10
basic concept of of communication, list the business communication.
communication importance and types of
communication(written test)
Principles of List and differentiate the Apply the principles of 10
effective seven principles of effective business
communication communication(role model communication to value
played in class rooms) chain development

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Model and process Listing and differentiate the Apply the model and 10
of Communication different elements of process of communication
communication process (role in details
model played in class rooms)
Types of List and differentiate the Differentiate the types 10
communication different types of Communication
communication(Written test)
Legal, cultural and Justify how communication is Distinguish among legal, 10
intercultural affected legal and international and inter-
communications. intercultural factors. (role cultural business
model played in class rooms) communication.
aspects of

4. Major References
Books

Adler, Ronald B. Communicating at Work: Principles & Practices for Business &
the Professions. Sydney: McGraw Hill, Inc, 1992.
Andrews, Deborahc. & William D. Andrews, Business Communication. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988
Aurner, Robert R. & Morn's Philip Wolf, Effective Communication in Business:
with Management Emphasis. Chicago: South Western Publishing
Company, 1967
Berko, Roy M, et al., This Business of Communicating. Dubuque Iowa: Wm. C.
Brown, 1990
Bovee, Courtland L. & John V. Thill, Business Communication Today. New
York: McGraw Hill, Inc., 1992.
John Hooker: Cultural Differences in Business Communication, Tepper School of Business
New York Harper & Row, 1994
Pearson, Judy C. & Paul E. Nelson, An Introduction to Human Communication:
Understanding & Sharing. Boston: McGraw Hill, Inc., 1997. Second
edition, published by Pearson Education (Singapore) P.L .Indian Branch,
Wahlstrom, Billie J., Perspective on Human Communication. Minnesota: Wm.c.
Brown Publishers, 1992
Websites

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63
Knowledge Management and Communication: Business Communication

[Link] downloaded and retrieved on February 22,

20013

Universityjohn@[Link] downloaded and retrieved on February 22, 20013

Jimma, Haramaya,Hawasa, Ambo, Adama, Wolaita Sodo, Semera Universities

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