DC machines, covering both generators and motors.

It delves into the fundamental principles of operation, constructional details, various

types, excitation methods, characteristics, performance analysis, starting methods, speed
control techniques, braking methods, testing procedures, losses, efficiency calculations,
all-day efficiency, regulation, and parallel operation of both DC generators and DC motors.

Construction of DC Machine – Tabular Summary

Part Function / Purpose Material MCQ Insights

Yoke Outer frame, supports Cast iron (small Also called magnetic frame;
machine, provides low machines), Cast flux returns through yoke
reluctance path for steel (large
magnetic flux machines)

Pole Core & Holds field windings, Laminated steel / Pole shoe increases area ⇒
Pole Shoe spreads magnetic flux cast steel reduces flux density and
uniformly over armature armature reaction
surface

Field Produces magnetic field Copper In shunt type: many turns, thin
Winding (excitation) wire; in series: few turns, thick
wire

Armature Cylindrical rotor; provides Laminated silicon Laminations reduce eddy

Core magnetic path and houses steel current loss
conductors in slots

Armature Copper conductors placed Copper Lap winding → more current;

Winding in slots; generate EMF Wave winding → more voltage
(generator) or carry
current (motor)

Commutator Converts armature AC to Copper segments Works as a mechanical

DC; ensures + mica insulation rectifier; ensures smooth DC
unidirectional torque output

Brushes Carbon blocks that Carbon or Provide path for current; brush
maintain sliding contact graphite sparking occurs due to poor
with commutator commutation
Excitation Methods in DC Machines

Type Field Connection EMF Source Behavior MCQ Insights

Separately Field winding gets External DC Field current “Field winding is

Excited supply from external supply independent of supplied from?” →
DC source armature; precise External source
control

Self-Excited Field winding is Generator’s Needs residual “Self-excitation

connected to its own own EMF magnetism to start possible due to?” →
armature output Residual magnetism

Types of Self-Excited Generators

Type Field Location Current Path Behavior MCQ Notes

Series Field winding Armature → Field current = load “Field winding in series
in series with Field → current → flux with armature?” → Series
armature External load varies with load

Shunt Field winding Armature Field current is Critical resistance concept

in parallel with terminal → constant (approx.) applies
armature Field → constant EMF

Compound Has both series Combined Can be cumulative “Best voltage regulation?” →
and shunt field effects of both or differential Level compound generator
windings shunt & series based on flux
direction

Compound Generator – Subtypes

Type Connection Field Winding Path Behavior

Short Shunt across armature only Armature → Shunt field; Mostly used setup
Shunt Armature + Series field → Load

Long Shunt across both Armature → Series → Load; Same external effect,
Shunt armature and series field Shunt across total terminal different internally

Armature Reaction –the effect of the magnetic field produced by the armature current on
the main field flux in a DC machine.
-Happens when machine is under load (i.e., current flows through armature)​
​ -Alters the distribution and strength of the original flux (Φmain)​
Effect of Armature Flux
When armature current flows, the flux produced by armature conductors:
●​ Distorts the main field
●​ Weakens or shifts the neutral axis (N.A.)
●​ Causes sparking at brushes due to improper commutation
Neutral Axis: Axis along which no EMF is induced in the coil; ideally where brushes are
placed.

Cross-Magnetizing Effect Demagnetizing Effect Compensating Winding

->The armature flux acts Occurs when brushes are A set of windings embedded
perpendicular to the main shifted to the new neutral in pole faces and connected
field axis: in series with the armature.
->It distorts the main field ->Part of armature MMF Purpose:
lines → Flux gets shifted opposes main flux​ -Neutralizes
toward one pole edge​ ->Reduces net flux → cross-magnetizing effect​
decreases generated EMF -Maintains original flux
Result: distribution even under load​
~Shift in neutral plane​ -Especially used in traction
~Causes sparking at motors and DC machines
commutator​ with varying loads

MCQ: “Distortion of field

due to armature flux is
called?” →
Cross-magnetizing effect

Remedies for Armature Reaction

Method How it helps Use

Brush shifting Adjusts for new neutral axis Basic remedy but causes
demagnetization

Interpoles Small poles between main poles; For reversing loads

aid commutation

Compensating Cancels armature flux under pole High-load machines

winding face

Commutation - the process of reversing the current direction in an armature coil as it passes
under a new pole in a DC machine.
This occurs at the commutator and brush interface — enabling the conversion of
internal AC to DC (in generators) or ensuring continuous torque (in motors).

Why is it Needed?
In a rotating armature, EMF direction in conductors reverses under opposite poles.
To maintain unidirectional current at the terminals, commutation is essential.
Commutation happens during the short-circuit of a coil by the brush.
Ideal vs. Practical Commutation

Type Description

Ideal Commutation Current reverses completely without sparking

Poor Commutation Delayed reversal, causes sparking at brushes

Term Meaning

Commutator Segment Copper strips linked to armature coil ends

Commutating Zone Region where commutation occurs (near brush contact)

Reactance Voltage Inductive EMF opposing current reversal

Problems in Commutation Interpoles are small auxiliary poles placed

-Sparking at brushes​ between main poles. They are connected in
-Brush wear​ series with the [Link]:
-Poor efficiency​ ●​ Produce a flux that aids in quick
-Torque fluctuations​ reversal of current during
Cause: commutation
-Self-inductance of coil resists current ●​ Counteracts armature reaction in
reversal​ the commutation zone
-Flux distortion due to armature reaction​ Features
*Physically placed between main poles
*In series with armature winding
*Same as the next main pole ahead in
rotation direction(polarity)
MCQ: Interpoles connected in...? → Series with
armature

Methods to Improve Commutation

Method Description Usefulness

Brush Shifting Shifting brushes to new neutral Basic method, but may cause
axis demagnetization

Interpoles Auxiliary poles aiding Most effective, used in modern

commutation zone machines

Compensating Cancel cross-flux under poles Improves flux distribution

Windings

Resistance Brushes Use brushes with higher Reduces current peaks

resistance (carbon)

Reducing Speed Less reactance voltage due to Reduces inductive effects

slower rotation
 General Characteristics of DC Machines

GENERATOR MOTOR

EMF Equation E = (P × ϕ × Z × N) / (60 × A) Same EMF, but acts as back EMF (Eb)

Speed Equation N ∝ (V - Ia × Ra)/ϕ N ∝ (V - Ia × Ra)/ϕ

Torque T ∝ ϕ × Ia T ∝ ϕ × Ia
Equation

Efficiency η = Output / Input η = Output / Input

Type of Open Circuit Internal External Key Features &

Generator Characteristic (OCC) Characteristic Characteristic Applications

Separately EMF increases with Falls due to Falls slightly due to Good voltage control;
Excited If armature reaction Ra + armature used in labs,
reaction electroplating

Shunt Similar to separately Slight fall with Terminal voltage Self-exciting, used in
excited load drops gradually lighting, battery charging

Series Not applicable (no EMF increases Terminal voltage Not for constant loads;
independent field) sharply with load rises with load used as boosters (old
current systems)

Cumulative Similar to shunt Slight rise or flat Good regulation Best voltage regulation;
Compound (almost constant used in general-purpose
voltage) DC supply

Differential Similar to shunt Falls sharply with Unstable; voltage Rarely used; not
Compound load falls sharply preferred

Type of Motor Speed vsTorque Torque vs Ia Key Behavior Typical

Applications

Shunt Motor Almost flat Linear (T ∝ Ia) Speed ≈ constant; low Lathes, fans,
(constant speed) starting torque conveyors

Series Motor Steeply drooping Non-linear (high Torque ∝ Ia²; speed Cranes, hoists,
curve starting torque) falls drastically with traction motors
load

Cumulative Medium drop; Smooth curve Combines good Presses, elevators,

Compound better than shunt starting torque + rolling mills
regulated speed

Differential Speed increases Unstable Not used due to poor Rare use; mostly
Compound with load (unstable) characteristics theoretical
Losses in DC Machines
Losses occur both in DC Generators and DC Motors (similar classification).

Type Explanation Depends on Load?

1. Copper Losses I²R losses in windings (armature, field, brush ✅ Yes

contact)

2.
- Armature Cu loss Ia Ra Yes

- Shunt field Cu loss 2

Ish Rsh ~ 𝑅
𝑉
2
❌ No (nearly
𝑠ℎ
constant)

2
- Series field Cu loss Ise Rse ✅ Yes
2. Iron (Core) Losses In armature core due to rotation in magnetic field ❌ No
n
- Hysteresis loss ∝ f.B max No

2 2
- Eddy current loss ∝ B max.f No

3. Mechanical Due to friction (bearings, brush) and windage (air ❌ No

Losses drag)

4. Stray Losses Combination of iron + mechanical + small ❌ No (approx 1%)

unknown losses

Total Loss:
Total Loss=Copper Losses+Iron Losses+Mechanical Losses
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Let:
2
●​ Output = V × ILVariable Loss = Ia Ra (only varies with load)
●​ Constant Loss = iron + friction + field losses (independent of load)

Efficiency Equation:
η=OutputOutput + Losses
Maximum Efficiency Condition:
When armature copper loss equals constant losses, efficiency is maximum
DC Motor Starting and Speed Control
Why Starting is Needed in DC Motors
At start:
Rotor is stationary ⇒ EB = 0
Starting current: Ia=VRa(since Eb=0)
Since Ra is small (~0.2 Ω), current becomes dangerously high ⇒ armature damage​

So, we insert resistance temporarily using a starter.

Type Used For Main Parts Special Features

3-Point DC Shunt Motors L, A, F terminals, Simple, but NVC

Starter overload coil, no-volt coil disconnects with field
drop

4-Point DC Shunt + Separate supply for Suitable when field is

Starter Variable field no-volt coil varied (speed control)
motors

2-Point DC Series Motors Only L and A terminals, Basic overload protection

Starter no shunt field only

NVC: No Volt Coil ensures motor disconnects if supply fails​

Overload coil: Trips when armature current exceeds safe value

Speed Control of DC Motors

N∝V−IaRaϕ
→ So speed can be controlled by:
Changing Armature Voltage (V) - Changing Field Flux (ϕ) - Adding External Resistance (Ra)​

Speed Control Methods

A. DC Shunt Motor

Method How It Works Speed Effect Used In

Field Control Vary field resistance ⇒ Speed ↑ when ϕ ↓ Best for wide,
controls ϕ smooth control

Armature Voltage Vary applied voltage Speed ↑ with Precision drives

Control voltage ↑

Armature Add resistance in Speed ↓, poor Rarely used, heating

Resistance armature circuit efficiency losses

Field control is most preferred for shunt motors​

Speed is inversely proportional to ϕ
B. DC Series Motor

Method How It Works Speed Effect Used In

Field Diverter Add resistance in parallel Reduces field → Variable speed drives
to series field speed ↑

Tapped Field Change number of field Step speed Electric traction, lifts
Control turns control

Series-Parallel Two motors connected in Speed ∝ total Trains, electric cars

Control series/parallel voltage (old systems)

Cannot use normal field weakening like shunt​

High starting torque makes them ideal for traction

C. DC Compound Motor

Method Remarks

Shunt field control Same as DC shunt motor

Series diverter Same as series motor (adds diverter resistance)

Combines both Complex control possible

Cumulative compound motor allows better load regulation with controlled speed.

Braking in DC Motors
Braking is the method of slowing down or stopping a motor quickly and safely, by converting
kinetic energy into:
Electrical energy (fed back or dissipated)
Heat (in resistance or motor winding)​

Type of Braking Principle Key Feature

1. Regenerative Braking Motor feeds power back to supply Used in systems where
DC shunt motors (constant speed) Energy is saved, not wasted Eb > V

2. Dynamic (Rheostatic) Motor acts as generator, energy Simple, energy wasted

Braking Traction, cranes, hoists dissipated in resistor as heat

3. Plugging (Reverse Supply polarity reversed → Fastest stop but

Current Braking) Used for armature current reverses highest power loss
instant stopping, not energy saving
Comparative Table: Braking in DC Motors

Method Motor Energy Energy Use Speed Applications

Works As Conversion Behavior

Regenerative Generator Mechanical → Fed back to Decelerates Electric

Electrical source naturally trains, lifts

Dynamic Generator Mechanical → Wasted in Slows Hoists,

(Rheostatic) Electrical → resistor gradually elevators,
Heat cranes

Plugging Motor Electric → Consumes Fastest stop Urgent stop

(reversed) Magnetic extra power (industrial)
reverse torque

Testing, Voltage Regulation, and Parallel Operation in DC Machines,

Testing of DC Machines
The main goals of testing:
To determine efficiency
To analyze losses
To ensure proper operation under rated load​

A. Swinburne’s Test
Used for: Small & medium DC shunt machines (motor or generator)

Feature Details

Test type No-load test

Machine run as Motor (usually)

Efficiency determined Adding constant & variable losses

by

Advantages Simple, low cost, gives efficiency at any load

Limitation Doesn’t account for commutation and armature reaction under

load

Steps:
1.​ Run motor at no-load → measure Io, V, Ish
2.​ Calculate:
○​ No-load input: Pin=V⋅Io
○​ Shunt field loss: Psh=V⋅Ish
○​ Constant losses: Pc=Pin−Psh
3.​ Efficiency at any load current: η=V⋅IL/V⋅IL+Ia2Ra+Pc
B. Hopkinson’s Test (Back-to-back Test)
Used for: 2 identical DC machines (one motor, one generator)

Feature Details

Test type Full-load test

Machines used Identical DC machines

Setup One as motor, drives the other as generator (mechanically

coupled)

Advantage Tests at full load, low power drawn from supply

Application Power plants, large motors

Most accurate tests include full commutation, armature reaction, heating, etc.

2. Voltage Regulation in DC Generators

Voltage Regulation=Eo−VFL/VFL×100%
Behavior in Generator Types:

Type Voltage Regulation Behavior

Shunt Generator Positive regulation (voltage drops slightly)

Series Generator Negative regulation (voltage rises with load)

Cumulative Compound Best (zero or low regulation)

Differential Compound Very poor (voltage drops heavily)

3. Parallel Operation of DC Generators

Necessary for:
Sharing loads
Maintenance without full shutdown
Flexibility and redundancy​

Conditions for Parallel Operation

Condition Explanation

1. Same terminal voltage Match generated EMF before connection

2. Same polarity To avoid short circuit

3. Same load sharing capability Based on droop characteristics (resistance,

compounding)
 Parallel Operation of Shunt Generators: Parallel Operation of Compound
Need equal voltage settings Generators:
Small differences cause circulating Cumulative compound generators
current are best for this
Bus-bar voltage slightly drops → Their drooping characteristics allow
natural load sharing​ automatic load sharing
Need equal series field resistance

Differential compound generators are NOT suitable — they tend to decrease output with load,
making sharing unstable.

Transformers
Classification & Types of Transformers

Based on Types

Core Core type, Shell type

Construction

Number of Phases Single-phase, Three-phase

Voltage Level Step-up, Step-down

Cooling Method Air-cooled, Oil-cooled, Forced-air, Forced-oil

Application Power transformer, Distribution, Instrument, Auto, Isolation

etc.

Construction Working Principle:

Main Parts: Based on mutual induction​
Core: Provides low reluctance path AC in primary → alternating magnetic flux
for magnetic flux (CRGO steel) → EMF induced in secondary
Windings: Copper or aluminum,
primary and secondary
Insulation: Paper, pressboard, oil
Tank: Contains core, oil; dissipates
heat

EMF Equation of Transformer Transformer Ratio (k)

E=4.44fNϕm 𝑁
k= 𝑁2 =
𝑉2

1
𝑉1

Step-up: k>1
Step-down: k<1​
 No-Load Condition: On-Load Condition:
Secondary open Load connected to secondary
Small current flows in primary Secondary current causes back EMF
(magnetizing + core loss) in primary
Power drawn: only core loss (iron Transformer delivers power with
loss)​ voltage drop due to impedance

Equivalent Circuit
Represents transformer with:
Series resistance Re→ winding resistance
Series reactance Xe→ leakage flux
Core loss resistance Rc
magnetizing reactance Xm​

Voltage Regulation
​ %Regulation=VNL−VFL/VFL×100%
Depends on load power factor​
Best: 0% (ideal)​

Losses in Transformer

Type Formula / Nature

Iron Loss (core) Constant; Piron=Ph+Pe

n
- Hysteresis loss Ph∝f⋅Bm

2
- Eddy current loss Pe∝f2⋅Bm

2
Copper Loss Pcu=I R → variable with load

No mechanical loss — transformers have no moving parts

Efficiency of Transformer
η=Output Power/Input Power
η=V2I2cosϕ2/losses+V2​I2​cosϕ2​

Maximum efficiency when: Pcu=Piiron

Testing of Transformer

Test Purpose Measured Parameters

Open Circuit Iron losses (core loss), no-load Supply primary at rated voltage,
Test current secondary open

Short Circuit Copper loss, equivalent Short secondary, apply reduced voltage
Test impedance to primary
Parallel Operation
Conditions: Same voltage ratio-Same polarity-Same per unit impedance (X/R ratio)-Same
phase sequence (for 3-phase);Used for: load sharing, redundancy, ease of maintenance
Three Phase Transformer

Type Construction Winding Connection

3-phase unit One core, three Star-Star, Star-Delta,

limbs Delta-Delta etc.

Bank of Three single-phase Used in distribution

1-phase units

Star-Delta → step-down​
Delta-Star → step-up
Auto-Transformer
Single winding used as both primary and secondary
Partial winding common
Advantages:
Less copper → cheaper
Compact, more efficient
Disadvantages:
No electrical isolation
Not suitable for high voltage safety-critical applications
Construction and Operation of Induction Motors

Component Construction Details Function / Operation

Stator Laminated steel core with distributed Produces rotating magnetic

3-phase winding in slots field (RMF) when 3-phase AC
supply is applied

Rotor (2 - Squirrel cage: Conductors (bars) Induced EMF from stator RMF
types) short-circuited by end rings - Wound → rotor current → develops
rotor: 3φ winding + slip rings torque

Air Gap Small gap (0.5–1.5 mm) between stator Allows magnetic coupling (no
and rotor mechanical contact)

Frame (Yoke) Cast iron or steel, encloses stator and Provides mechanical strength
supports the whole assembly and supports core, windings,
bearings

Bearings At both shaft ends Allow smooth and low-friction

rotation of rotor

Cooling Fan Mounted on shaft Cools motor during operation

(prevents overheating)

Key Point: Induction motor is self-starting due to interaction of induced rotor current and
RMF.
Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF) in a 3-phase Induction Motor,

3-phase AC currents are equal in magnitude, 120° out of phase.

These currents flow in 3 stator windings placed 120° apart → produces 3 individual
alternating magnetic fields.
The vector sum of these fields results in a constant magnitude rotating magnetic
field.​
Table: RMF Formation – Phase-by-Phase Explanation

Time Phase A Current Phase B Phase C Net Magnetic Field

Instant (IA) Current (IB) Current (IC) (Bnet) Direction

0° Maximum (+ve) Negative half Negative half Along Phase A axis

60° Decreasing Increasing Negative max Between A and B

120° Zero Maximum (+ve) Negative half Along Phase B axis

180° Negative max Decreasing Slightly +ve Between B and C

240° Negative half Zero Maximum (+ve) Along Phase C axis

300° Slightly +ve Negative max Decreasing Between C and A

360° Back to Negative half Negative half Along Phase A (cycle

Maximum (+ve) repeats)
Important Induction Motor definitions, formulas, conditions, and MCQ insights

Concept Definition Conditions / MCQ Insight

Slip (s) Difference between synchronous S=

𝑁𝑠− 𝑁𝑝
𝑁𝑠
and rotor speed, as a ratio.
Always < 1; 0 at synchronous speed (never in IM)

Rotor Frequency of rotor EMF/current fr=s.f

Frequency (fr) due to slip fr = f at standstill; fr= 0 at synchronous speed

Rotor Torque Torque developed by interaction 3𝐸2.

2 𝑅2

T=
𝑠

(T) of rotor current and RMF ω𝑠[(

𝑅2 2
) + 𝑋2 ]
2
𝑠

ω𝑠​=2πNs/60​​;
T ∝ 1/s at high slip

Starting Torque at s = 1 (standstill Tstart ∝

𝑅2

Torque condition)
2 2
𝑅2+ 𝑋2

(Tstart) For max starting torque: R2=X2

Max Starting Max torque during starting when R2=X2

Torque rotor resistance matches Used in wound rotor motors by adding
reactance external resistance

Torque Under Torque produced at normal slip Same as above, but s<1
Running (0 < s < 1) Normal operating slip for IM ≈ 2%–6%
Conditions

Condition for Slip at which torque is max in Smax= 𝑋2

𝑅

Max Torque running condition 2

2
𝐸2
Under Tmax​∝ 2𝑋 ; independent of slip, depends on
2
Running rotor impedance

Induction Unified torque expression used

2
3𝑉1𝑅2/𝑠
T=
Motor Torque for all operating points
2 2
ω𝑠[(𝑅1+ 𝑅2/𝑠) +(𝑋1+ 𝑋2) ]

Equation V1​= Stator voltage; R1,X1 = stator parameters

Rotor Output Mechanical power developed by Pm​=(1−s)⋅Pg

Power (Pm) rotor Power left after rotor copper loss removed

Power Total power distribution in IM Pin​=Stator loss+Pg

Balance Pg=Rotor Cu Loss + Pin
Equation Input power splits into core loss, copper loss,
mechanical output

Maximum Occurs when rotor R2/s = rotor X2 ame as torque condition: smax= 𝑋2
𝑅

Power Output 2

Power max ≠ torque max; both occur at same

slip, but different torque values
Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor - An induction motor can be modeled like a
transformer with rotating secondary (rotor).

Stator Side (Primary)

Element Meaning

Resistance Stator winding resistance

Reactance Leakage reactance of stator winding

Core loss resistance Core (iron) loss component

Magnetizing Needed to produce rotating magnetic

reactance field

Rotor Side (Referred to Stator)

Element Description

Rotor resistance Rotor resistance referred to stator side

Rotor reactance Rotor leakage reactance referred to stator side

Rotor resistance with Total effective resistance under slip ss; shows power
slip transfer to rotor

Important Formulas:

Parameter Formula

Total input power Pin​=3​⋅V⋅I⋅cosϕ

Rotor copper loss Pcu,rotor​=s⋅Pg

Rotor output (mechanical) Pmech​=(1−s)⋅Pg​

Electromagnetic torque T=
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
ω𝑟

Air gap power

'
𝑅2
2’
Pg​=3⋅I . 2 𝑠
Types of Induction Machines, their torque-slip characteristics, and typical applications
Types of Induction Machines – Torque-Slip & Applications

Type Feature Torque-Slip Characteristics Applications

Squirrel Cage Simple rotor with Low starting torque Fans, blowers,
IM bars & end Torque increases linearly with pumps, lathes,
ringsRobust, no slip (low s) domestic machines
brushes Sharp fall after max torque
(pull-out)

Slip Ring 3-phase wound High starting torque Cranes, lifts, hoists,
(Wound rotor with slip Adjustable torque-slip with mills
Rotor) IM ringsExternal rotor resistance
resistance Suited for varying load

Single Phase Aux winding used Poor starting torque Ceiling fans,
IM for startingNot High slip washing machines,
self-starting by Torque is pulsating, not refrigerators
default smooth

Linear IM Primary & Similar to squirrel cage Maglev trains,

(LIM) secondary Used where linear motion conveyors,
flatLinear motion required actuators

Hysteresis Smooth rotor with Constant torque from Electric clocks,

Motor hysteresis loss standstill to sync timers, recorders
material Torque independent of slip

Reluctance Salient pole rotor Pull-in torque low Automatic control,

Motor with no winding Synchronizes via minimum servos,
reluctance path instrumentation

Starting Methods of Induction Motors,

Motor Starting Method Working Principle When Used / Advantages

Type

Squirrel DOL Starter Full voltage applied directly; Small motors (<5 HP);
Cage IM high starting current & torque Simple and cheap

Star-Delta Starts in star (reduced Large motors with

Starter voltage), then switches to light/no-load start
delta (full voltage) (reduces current 1/3)

Auto-Transform Reduced voltage through Medium/large motors;

er Starter auto-transformer during start better voltage control

Soft Starter Gradually increases voltage Smooth acceleration, less

electronically mechanical stress
 Slip Ring Rotor External resistors connected High starting torque
IM Resistance to rotor via slip rings; increase applications like
Starter torque cranes/lifts

Single Capacitor Start Uses capacitor in series with Medium torque needs
Phase IM aux winding for starting (compressors,
torque refrigerators)

Split Phase Start Aux winding with high Fans, blowers, washing
resistance; torque produced machines
due to phase difference

Shaded Pole Shaded portion of pole delays Very low power uses
Start flux; creates starting torque (toys, desk fans)

Key Parameters Comparison (Squirrel Cage)

Starter Starting Current Starting Torque Motor Size Suitability

DOL 5–7 times full load High Small (<5 HP)

Star-Delta 1/3 of DOL 1/3 of DOL Medium motors

Auto-transforme Adjustable Adjustable Medium to large motors

r

Rotor Resistance High Very High Slip ring only (cranes, hoists)

Speed Control Methods of Induction Motors

Formula Reminder: Nr​=Ns(1−s)

I. Stator Side Speed Control

Method Principle Effect on Speed Remarks / Usage

Frequency Changing supply Directly varies Ns Best method with V/f

Control frequency f constant (used in VFDs)

Voltage Varying stator voltage Decreases torque Poor efficiency, used in

Control → speed ↓ small fans, pumps

Pole Changing number of Discrete steps in Used in two-speed

Changing poles PP (Dahlander Ns motors, fans
winding)

V/f Control Keep V/f constant while Smooth & efficient Used in modern drives
(VFD) changing frequency speed change (AC drive panels)
II. Rotor Side Speed Control (Only for slip ring IMs)

Method Principle Effect on Speed Remarks / Usage

Rotor Adding external resistance Increases slip → High torque at low

Resistance to rotor circuit speed ↓ speed; poor
Control efficiency

Slip Power Recover rotor slip power Improves Used in large

Recovery and return to supply efficiency at slip-ring motors
(Scherbius method) lower speed (pumps, mills)

Cascade Connect rotor of 1st IM to Effective Ns Complex & outdated

Connection stator of 2nd IM control

Braking Methods in Induction Motors (IM)

Type of Working Principle How It Works When Used /

Braking Applications

1. Plugging Supply phase sequence is Rotor slows due to Cranes, elevators,

(Reverse) reversed → reverse torque reversed torque, then emergency
opposes rotation supply must be cut off braking
to stop fully

2. Dynamic Motor disconnected from Rotor EMF drives Trains, hoists,

(Rheostatic) supply; rotor connected current through resistor electric drives
to braking resistor → braking torque
generated

3. Regenerative Occurs when rotor speed Motor becomes Downhill

> synchronous speed → generator; feeds energy conveyors, lifts,
power returned to supply back to grid flywheels

Comparison Table

Criteria Plugging Dynamic Regenerative

Energy Use Wasted in Wasted in Returned to source

resistor resistor

External Resistor Not needed Needed Not needed

Control Complexity Low Medium High

Torque Direction Opposite Opposes motion Opposes excess speed

Speed Condition Any speed Any speed Only if Nr>Ns

No-load Test and Blocked Rotor Test of Induction Motors

Testing of Induction Motor – No-load vs Blocked Rotor

Aspect No-load Test Blocked Rotor Test

Purpose To determine core loss, magnetizing To determine equivalent circuit

current, and friction & windage loss parameters: R1+R2′,X1+X2′

Rotor Runs freely (at near synchronous Rotor is locked mechanically

Condition speed)

Applied Rated voltage Reduced voltage (to limit

Voltage current)

Current Flow Small magnetizing current only Full load current through stator
and rotor

Power Loss Core loss + friction + windage losses Mostly copper losses (no core
Measured loss due to low voltage)

Wattmeter Power = No-load losses Power = Copper losses

Reading

Frequency Supply frequency (50 Hz) Supply frequency (50 Hz)

Circuit Part Magnetizing branch: RcR_c, XmX_m Series branch: R1+R2', X1+X2′
Modeled

Diagram Setup 1-phase wattmeter + voltmeter + Same setup with rotor clamped
ammeter

Common MCQ What is found in the No-load test? → What is found in the Blocked
Q Core loss Rotor test? → Equivalent
impedance

Single Phase Induction Motors (IMs)

General Torque-Slip Curve (Single Phase IM)

At start (slip = 1): No self-starting torque unless aux winding or shaded pole is used​
Running region (s ≈ 0.05): Similar to squirrel cage IM after reaching speed
 Single Phase Induction Motors – Types, Torque-Slip, Applications

Type Working Principle Torque-Slip Applications

Characteristics

1. Split Phase IM Main winding + auxiliary Moderate starting torque Ceiling fans, washing
winding with resistance Normal running torque machines, small tools
difference → phase shift

2. Capacitor Start Capacitor + aux winding High starting torque Compressors, pumps,
IM used only for starting → Improved curve during refrigerators
high phase difference start

3. Capacitor Start Capacitor remains during Smooth torque over entire Air conditioners, fans,
& Run (PSC) start & run → better power range medical equipment
factor & torque Good efficiency

4. Shaded Pole IM Shaded portion of stator Very low starting torque Table fans, hair dryers,
pole → delayed flux in Torque-slip curve is weak toys (low-power
shaded zone → low torque devices)

5. Repulsion IM Uses commutator; operates Good starting torque; no Rarely used now;
like repulsion motor → external capacitor needed replaced by capacitor
torque from brush angle types

Special Motors: Hysteresis & Reluctance – Comparison Table

Aspect Hysteresis Motor Reluctance Motor

Working Principle Torque due to retentivity Rotor aligns along minimum

(hysteresis loss) in rotor reluctance path in magnetic field

Rotor Smooth cylindrical rotor made of Salient pole rotor without

Construction hard magnetic material (no slots) winding; variable reluctance

Starting Method Self-starting due to induced Not self-starting; needs auxiliary

hysteresis torque motor or winding

Speed Constant speed (synchronous) Constant speed after it

from standstill synchronizes (synchronous)

Torque Constant torque from zero to Pull-in torque low, but

Characteristics synchronous speed synchronizing torque sharp

Noise & Vibration Very low (smooth & silent) Higher than hysteresis motor

Efficiency Low to medium Higher than hysteresis motor

Used In Timers, clocks, tape recorders, Control systems, robotics,

audio equipment instrumentation, electric meters
Synchronous Motor – Detailed Overview

Aspect Explanation

Construction Similar to alternator:• Stator: 3-phase armature winding (same as

IM)• Rotor: Field winding (excited by DC or permanent magnets)

Excitation • DC supply via slip rings & brushes (salient or cylindrical rotor)• Can
also be Permanent Magnet type

Operation Runs at constant speed

Principle Not self-starting; needs auxiliary motor or damper winding for
startup

V-Curves Graph of Armature Current (Ia) vs Field Current (If):• Lagging PF →

High Ia• Unity PF → Minimum Ia• Leading PF → Ia increases again

Inverted V-Curve Graph of Power Factor vs Field Current• PF changes from lagging →
unity → leading with increase in excitation

Efficiency High if excitation is optimal and load is constant

Voltage %Regulation=VNL−VFL/VFL×100%
Regulation

Parallel Operation Two or more synchronous machines share load if:• Same voltage,
frequency, phase sequence, phase angle• Synchronizing torque
required

Power Factor • Overexcited → leading PF → compensates lagging loads• Used as

Improvement synchronous condenser

V-Curve and Inverted V-Curve Explanation

Field Current Armature Current – V-Curve Power Factor – Inverted

V-Curve

Low (Underexcited) High Ia– lagging PF Poor (lagging)

Medium (Normal Minimum Ia– unity PF Best (unity)

excitation)

High (Overexcited) High Ia – leading PF Leading PF

PMSM vs BLDC Motor – Full Comparison Table

Aspect PMSM (Permanent Magnet BLDC (Brushless DC Motor)

Synchronous Motor)

Working Principle Rotor with permanent magnets Rotor with permanent magnets,
runs synchronously with stator driven by electronic commutation
RMF

Rotor Type Permanent magnets on rotor (can Permanent magnets on rotor

be surface or buried) (usually surface mounted)

Stator 3-phase AC winding (like Stator has distributed winding

synchronous motor) (like AC motor)

Commutation Method Sensor-based sinusoidal Electronic commutation using Hall

commutation sensors or encoders

Shape of Back EMF Sinusoidal Trapezoidal

Speed-Torque Smooth, constant torque at all Ripple in torque due to trapezoidal

Characteristics speeds EMF

Control Complexity More complex – needs sinusoidal Simpler – uses six-step inverter
controller (vector or FOC) control

Starting Not self-starting without Needs inverter and commutation

controller logic

Efficiency High High

Applications Electric vehicles, CNC machines, Home appliances, drones, EVs, fans
robotics

Extra Tip: Both motors are highly efficient and maintenance-free, but PMSM gives smoother
torque, while BLDC is cost-effective for simpler systems.​
Stepper Motor – Types, Working & Applications
Basic Principle:
A stepper motor rotates in discrete steps rather than continuous motion.
Each input pulse moves the rotor by a fixed angle (called step angle).
Position control is achieved without feedback → open-loop system.​

Types of Stepper Motors

Type Construction & Working Key Features Applications

1. Variable Rotor has teeth; no permanent Simple & cheap Printers, scanners,
Reluctance magnets Step angle: 5°–15° x-y plotters
(VR) Rotor aligns with stator field
to minimize reluctance

2. Permanent Rotor made of permanent Higher torque than Toys, basic

Magnet (PM) magnets VRStep angle: robotic arms,
Rotor aligns with stator pole 7.5°–15° analog clocks
field

3. Hybrid Combines VR and PM designs High precision, CNC, medical

Rotor has toothed permanent better torque instruments,
magnets Step angle: cameras
0.9°–3.6°

Key Parameters

Term Definition

Step Angle (θ) Angle moved per pulse (usually 1.8°, 7.5°, 15°, etc.)

Resolution Steps per revolution = 360° ÷ step angle

Holding Torque Max torque to keep shaft in place without

movement

Detent Torque Torque with no power applied (due to magnetism)