SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS Lesson 08
Chapter 8 Shallow Foundations
Testing
Theory
Experience
Topics
g Topic g Topic
1 (Section 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4) 2 (Section 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9)
- General and Bearing Capacity - Settlement - Spread footings on embankments, IGMs, rocks - Effect of deformations on bridge structures
3 (Section 8.10)
g Topic
- Construction
Shallow Foundations
Lesson 08 - Topic 1
General and Bearing Capacity
Section 8.0 to 8.4
Learning Outcomes
g At
the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
- Identify different types of shallow foundations - Recall foundation design procedure - Contrast factors that influence bearing capacity in sand and clay Compute bearing capacity in sand and clay Describe allowable bearing pressure for rock foundations
Stresses Imposed by Structures
g Abutment
and piers may have shallow or deep foundations
General Approach to Foundation Design
g Duty
of Foundation Designer
- Establish the most economical design that safely
conforms to prescribed structural criteria and properly accounts for the intended function of the structure
g Rational
method of design
- Evaluate various foundation types
Recommended Foundation Design Approach
g Step
1: Determine:
- Direction, type and magnitude of foundation loads Tolerable deformations Special constraints
Underclearance requirements Structure type, span lengths Time constraints on construction Extreme event loading Construction load requirements
Recommended Foundation Design Approach
g Step
2: Evaluate subsurface investigation and laboratory testing data for reliability and completeness Choose design method consistent with quality and quantity of subsurface data
Recommended Foundation Design Approach
g Step
3: Consider alternate foundation types
Foundation Alternatives
g Shallow
Foundations g Deep Foundations
- Piles, shafts
Foundation Cost
g Express g TOTAL
foundation capacity in terms of $
cost of foundation system divided by the load supported by the foundation in tons cost of a foundation must include ALL costs associated with the foundations - Need for excavation support system, pile caps, etc. - Environmental restrictions - All other factors as applicable
g TOTAL
Foundation Cost
g If
estimated costs of alternative foundation systems during design are within 15%, the alternate foundation designs should be considered for inclusion in contract documents
Loads and Limit States
g Loads
- Permanent and Transient - Codes specify load combinations
limit states
g Foundation
- Ultimate
Bearing capacity, eccentricity, sliding, global stability, structural capacity Excessive settlement, excessive lateral displacement, structural deterioration of foundation
- Serviceability
Types of Shallow Foundations
g Isolated
Spread Footings
- Length (L) to width (B) ratio, L/B < 10
Types of Shallow Foundations
g Combined
Strip Spread Footings
- Length (L) to width (B) ratio, L/B 10
Shallow Foundations for Bridge Abutments
Shallow Foundations for Retaining Walls
Combined Footings
Abutment Fill 2 1 Toe of End Slope
Original Ground
Toe of Side Slope
Mat Foundations
REINFORCED CONCRETE MAT
Spread Footing Design Procedure
g Geotechnical
design of spread footing is a two part process Part:
g First
- Establish an allowable stress to prevent shear
failure in soil
g Second
Part:
- Estimate the settlement under the applied stress
Allowable Bearing Capacity
g Allowable
bearing capacity is lesser of:
Applied stress that will result in shear failure divided by FS - Ultimate limit criterion OR Applied stress that results in a specified amount of settlement of the structure - Serviceability criterion
Bearing Capacity Chart
Ultimate Bearing Capacity, qult Allowable Bearing Capacity,
Allowable Bearing Capacity, ksf (kPa)
q q all = ult FS
Contours of Allowable Bearing Capacity for a given settlement S1 S2 S3
Effective Footing Width, ft (m)
Design Process Flow Chart
g Figure
8-10
Bearing Capacity
g Bearing
capacity failure occurs when the shear strength of foundation soil is exceeded g Similar to slope stability failure
Q L=
A
q
E
III II
Bearing Capacity Failure Mechanisms
g General
LOAD SETTLEMENT
(a) GENERAL SHEAR
shear g Local shear g Punching shear
LOAD SETTLEMENT
(b) LOCAL SHEAR
LOAD SETTLEMENT
TEST AT GREATER DEPTH SURFACE TEST
(c) PUNCHING SHEAR
Footing Dimension Terminology
g Bf
= Width of footing
Df Bf
- Least lateral dimension
= Length of footing
Lf
g Lf g Df
= Depth of embedment of footing
Basic Bearing Capacity Equation
g Equation
8-8
q ult = c (N c ) + q (N q ) + 0.5 ( )(B f )(N )
c = cohesion q = surcharge at footing base Nc, Nq, N = Bearing capacity factors = unit weight of foundation soil
Assumptions of Basic Bearing Capacity Equation (Section 8.4.3)
g Strip
(continuous) footing g Rigid footing g General shear g Concentric loading (i.e., loading through the centroid of the footing) g Footing bearing on level surface of homogeneous soil g No impact of groundwater
Bearing Capacity Factors
1000
Figure 8-15 Table 8-1
Bearing Capacity Factors
100
10
Nc Nq N
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
1 0
Friction Angle, degrees
Example 8-1
d = D = 5
T = 125 pcf
B = 6
sub = 63 pcf
= 20 c = 500 psf
Example 8-1
g Solution
Effect of Variation of Soil Properties and Footing Dimensions (Table 8-2)
Properties and Dimensions = a = effective unit weight b = submerged unit weight Df = embedment depth Bf = footing width (assume strip footing) A. Initial situation: = 120 pcf, Df = 0', Bf = 5', deep water table B. Effect of embedment: Df = 5', =120 pcf, Bf = 5', deep water table C. Effect of width: Bf = 10' = 120 pcf, Df = 0', deep water table D. Effect of water table at surface: = 57.6 pcf, Df = 0', Bf = 5' Cohesive Soil =0 c = 1000 psf qult (psf) 5140 Cohesionless Soil = 30o c=0 qult (psf) 6720
Effect of Variation of Soil Properties and Footing Dimensions (Table 8-2)
Properties and Dimensions = a = effective unit weight b = submerged unit weight Df = embedment depth Bf = footing width (assume strip footing) A. Initial situation: = 120 pcf, Df = 0', Bf = 5', deep water table B. Effect of embedment: Df = 5', =120 pcf, Bf = 5', deep water table C. Effect of width: Bf = 10' = 120 pcf, Df = 0', deep water table D. Effect of water table at surface: = 57.6 pcf, Df = 0', Bf = 5' Cohesive Soil =0 c = 1000 psf qult (psf) 5140 5740 5140 5140 Cohesionless Soil = 30o c=0 qult (psf) 6720 17760 13440 3226
Student Exercise 5
g Find
the allowable bearing capacity assuming a FS=3 for the condition shown below for a 10x50 footing with rough base
Final Grade 4 30 10 Sand = 115 pcf = 35 C=0
Bearing Capacity Correction Factors
g Footing g Depth
shape
- Adjusted for eccentricity
of water table g Embedment depth g Sloping ground surface g Inclined base g Inclined loading
Student Exercise 5
g Solution
Modified Bearing Capacity Equation Equation 8-11
q ult = cN c s c b c + qN q C Wq s q b q d q + 0.5 B f N C W s b
g g g g g
sc, s, sq
shape correction factors
bc, b, bq base inclination correction factors Cwq, Cw dq groundwater correction factors embedment correction factor
Nc, N, Nq bearing capacity factors as function of
Estimation of for Bearing Capacity Factors (Table 8-3)
Description Corrected N-value N160 Friction angle Degrees Moist unit weight () pcf Very Very Loose Medium Dense Loose Dense 0 25 30 70 100 4 27 32 90 115 10 30 35 110 130 30 35 40 120 140 50 38 43 130 150
Shape Correction Factors
g Basic
equation assumes strip footing which means Lf/Bf 10 footings with Lf/Bf < 10 apply shape correction factors
g For
g Compute
the effective shape of the footing based on eccentricity
Effective Footing Dimensions
Bf = Bf 2eB ; Lf = Lf 2eL ; A= Bf Lf
Pressure Distributions
Structural design Sizing the footing
Shape Correction Factors
Factor Friction Angle Cohesion Term (sc)
Bf 1+ 5L f
Bf 1+ L f
Unit Weight Term (s) 1.0
Bf 1 0.4 L f
Surcharge Term (sq)
Shape Factors, sc, s, sq
g In
=0 >0
1.0
Bf tan 1+ Lf
N q N c
routine foundation design, use of effective dimensions in shape factors is not practical
Location of Groundwater table
g To
correct the unit weight
DW CW CWq 0 0.5 0.5 Df 0.5 1.0 > 1.5Bf + Df 1.0 1.0 Note: For intermediate positions of the groundwater table, interpolate between the values shown above.
Embedment Depth
g To
account for the shearing resistance in the soil above the footing base
Friction Angle, (degrees) 32
Df/Bf 1 2 4 8 1 2 4 8 1 2 4 8
dq 1.20 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30
Note: The depth correction 37 factor should be used only when the soils above the footing bearing elevation are as competent as the soils 42 beneath the footing level; otherwise, the depth correction factor should be taken as 1.0. See Note
Sloping Ground Surface
g Modify
the bearing capacity equation as follows:
q ult = c (N cq ) + 0.5 ( )(B f )(N q )
g Useful
in designing footings constructed within bridge approach fills
Footing in Slope
Footing Near Slope
Inclined Base
g Footings
1 b q 1 bq N 147.3tan c
with inclined base should be avoided or limted to angles less than 8-10 g Sliding may be an issue for inclined bases
Cohesion Friction Term (c) Angle bc Unit Weight Term () b 1.0 Surcharge Term (q) bq 1.0
Factor
Base =0 Inclination Factors, >0 (1-0.017 tan)2 (1-0.017 tan)2 bc, b, bq = friction angle, degrees; = footing inclination from horizontal, upward +, degrees
Inclined Loading
g If
shear (horizontal) component is checked for sliding resistance, the inclination correction factor is omitted g Use effective footing dimensions in evaluation of the vertical component of the load
Comments on Use of Bearing Capacity Correction Factors
g For
settlement-controlled allowable bearing capacity, the effect application of correction factors may be negligible of correction factors is secondary to the adequate assessment of the shear strength characteristics of the foundation soil through correctly performed subsurface exploration
g Application
Local or Punching Shear
c* = 0.67c *=tan-1(0.67tan)
g Loose
sands g Sensitive clays g Collapsible soils g Brittle clays
Bearing Capacity Factors of Safety
q ult q all = FS
g qall
= allowable bearing capacity g qult = ultimate bearing capacity g Typical FS = 2.5 to 3.5 g FS is a function of
- Confidence in shear strength parameter, c and - Importance of structure - Consequences of failure
Overstress Allowances
g For
short-duration infrequently occuring loads, an overstress of 25 to 50 % may be allowed for allowable bearing capacity
Practical Aspects of Bearing Capacity
Presumptive Allowable Bearing Capacity
g NOT
recommended for soils g See Tables 8-8, 8-9 and 8-10 for rocks
Learning Outcomes
g At
the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
- Identify different types of shallow foundations - Recall foundation design procedure - Contrast factors that influence bearing capacity in sand and clay Compute bearing capacity in sand and clay Describe allowable bearing pressure for rock foundations
Any Questions?
THE ROAD TO UNDERSTANDING SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS
Shallow Foundations
Lesson 08 - Topic 2
Settlement, footings on embankments, IGMs, rocks, effect of deformations on bridge structures
Section 8.5 to 8.9
Learning Outcomes
g At
the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
- Calculate immediate settlements in granular -
soils Calculate consolidation settlements in saturated fine-grained soils Describe tolerances and consequences of deformations on bridge structures
Settlement of Spread Footings
g Immediate
(short-term) g Consolidation (long-term)
Immediate Settlement
g Houghs
method method
- Conservative by a factor of 2 (FHWA, 1987) - More rational - Based on nonlinear theory of elasticity and
measurements
g Schmertmanns
Charts Figure 2-11
g Ds
= 4B to 6B for continuous footings where Lf/Bf 10 = 1.5B to 2B for square footings where Lf/Bf = 1
g Ds
Trend of Analytical Results and Measurements
Legend: Square footings where Lf/Bf =1 Continuous footings where Lf/Bf 10
Depth below Footing
Vertical Strain, %
2B
4B
Schmertmann Method
S i = C1C 2 p H i
i =1 n
Iz H i = H c XE
t (years) C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 0.1
po C1 = 1 0.5 p
g Iz gE gX g C1 g C2
0 .5
Strain Influence Factor Elastic Modulus, Table 5-20 Modification factor for E Correction factor for strain relief Correction factor for creep deformation
p I zp = 0 . 5 + 0 . 1 p op
0 .5
see ( b ) below
Axisymmetric Lf/Bf =1 Lf = Length of footing Bf = least width of footing
Bf
p = p po
po
Plane Strain Lf/Bf 10
Bf /2 (for axisymmetric case) Bf (for plane strain case) Depth to Peak Strain Influence Factor, Izp
p op
Example 8-2
g Given:
6x24 footing on soil profile shown below. Determine settlement at end of construction and 10 years after construction
Ground Surface
Clayey Silt Sandy Silt Coarse Sand Sandy Gravel Bf = 6 ft
3 ft 3 ft 5 ft 25 ft
t = 115 pcf; N160 = 8 t = 125 pcf; N160 = 25 t = 120 pcf; N160 = 30 t = 128 pcf; N160 = 68
Draw Strain Influence Diagram
0 0 0.1 0.2 Influence Factor (Iz) 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 4 4
Depth below footing
12
2B
12
Axisymmetric Lf/Bf =1
16
3B
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Influence Factor (Iz) 0.5 0.6 0.7
16
20
20
Plane Strain Lf/Bf 10
g Calculate
peak Iz = 0.64
Strain Influence Diagram Divide into layers
0 0
Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3
0.1
0.2
Influence Factor (Iz) 0.3 0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7 0
Depth below footing (ft)
12
Layer 4
12
16
16
20 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Influence Factor (Iz) 0.5 0.6 0.7
20
Determine Elastic Modulus, Es
g Use
Table 5-20, Page 5-90
Layer 1: Sandy Silt: E = 4N160 tsf Layer 2: Coarse Sand: E = 10N160 tsf Layer 3: Coarse Sand: E = 10N160 tsf Layer 4: Sandy Gravel: E = 12N160 tsf
g Calculate
X-factor, X = 1.42
Setup Table for Settlement Computation
Layer Hc (inches) 1 2 3 4 36 12 48 96 25 30 30 68 N160 E (tsf) 100 300 300 816 XE (tsf) 142 426 426 1,159 Z1 (ft) 1.5 3.5 6 12 0.31 0.56 0.55 0.22 Hi= IZ at Zi
I Hi = Z Hc XE
(in/tsf) 0.0759 0.0152 0.0599 0.0176 0.1686
Compute Correction Factors C1 , C2
po 3 ft 115 pcf = 1 0.5 C1 = 1 0.5 1655 psf p = 0.896
t (years) C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 0.1
g At
end of construction, t=0.1 year
0.1 C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 = 1.0 0.1
g At
t=10 years
10 C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 = 1.4 0.1
Determine Immediate Settlement
g At
end of construction, t = 0.1 year
S i = C1C 2 p H i 1655psf in S i = (0.896)(1.0) 0.1686 psf tsf 2000 tsf S i = 0.125 inches
g At
t = 10 years
1.4 S i = 0.125 inches = 0.175 inches 1.0
Consolidation Settlement
g Same
procedures as in Chapter 7 (Approach Roadway Deformations)
Example 8-3
g
Calculate consolidation settlement for following case: 130 kips
4 10 10
Gravel T = 130 pcf Normally consolidated clay sub = 65 pcf, e0 = 0.75, Cc = 0.4 Rock
Example 8-3
p0 = (14 130 pcf) + (5 65 pcf) = 2,145 psf
130 kips 130kips p = = = 0.208 ksf = 208 psf 2 625 ft (10 ft + 15 ft)
p 0 + p Cc H = H log 10 p 1 + e0 0
2145 psf + 208 psf 0.4 H = 10ft log10 2145 psf 1 + 0.75
H = 0.09 = 1.1
Student Exercise 6
g Find
footing settlement (immediate + consolidation) for the following case
5 25 Sand and Gravel Avg. N = 40
Clayey Silt CC = 0.25 e0 = 0.90 (Normally Consolidated)
45
Student Exercise 6
Pressure - psf
Depth ft.
Spread Footings on Embankments
g Section
8.6 g If spread footings are placed on embankments, structural fills that include sand and gravel sized particles should be used that are compacted properly (minimum 95% of standard Proctor energy)
Settlement of Footings on Structural Fills
g In
absence of other data, use N160 = 32 for the structural to estimate settlement of footings on compacted structural fill
Vertical Stress Distribution
0 20 40 Depth
h=20 h=20 h=40 h=40 Bridge Pier Bridge Pier Earth Earth Embankment Embankment
60 80 100
0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
Vertical Stress Vertical Stress
Footings on IGMs and Rocks
g Use
theory of elasticity
Cd p Bf (1 2 ) v = Em
where: v Cd p Bf Em = = = = = = vertical settlement at surface shape and rigidity factors (Table 8-12) change in stress at top of rock surface due to applied footing load footing width or diameter Poissons ratio (refer to Table 5-23 in Chapter 5) Youngs modulus of rock mass (see Section 5.12.3 in Chapter 5)
Effect of Deformations on Bridge Structures
g Section
Tilt (Rotation)
8.9
Differential Settlement
Differential Settlement
Tolerable Movements for Bridges (Table 8-13)
Limiting Angular Distortion, /S 0.004 0.005 Type of Bridge Multiple-span (continuous span) bridges Single-span bridges
Note: is differential settlement, S is the span length. The quantity, /S, is dimensionless and is applicable when the same units are used for and S, i.e., if is expressed in inches then S should also be expressed in inches.
Construction Point Concept for Evaluation of Settlements
g Divide
the loadings based on sequence of construction g Key construction point is when the final load bearing member is constructed, e.g., when a bridge deck is constructed
g Table
8-14
- Put in a slide
Learning Outcomes
g At
the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
- Calculate immediate settlements in granular -
soils Calculate consolidation settlements in saturated fine-grained soils Describe tolerances and consequences of deformations on bridge structures
Any Questions?
THE ROAD TO UNDERSTANDING SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS
Shallow Foundations
Lesson 08 - Topic 3
Construction
Section 8.10
Learning Outcomes
g At
the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
- Discuss elements of shallow foundation
construction/inspection
Key Elements of Shallow Foundation Construction
g Table
8-15 set-up
g Contractor g Excavation g Shallow
foundation g Post installation
- Monitoring
Structural Fill
g Tests
for gradation and durability of fill at sufficient frequency to ensure that the material meets the specification g Compaction tests g If surcharge fill is used for pre-loading verify the unit weight of surcharge
Monitoring
g Check
elevations of footing, particularly when footings are on embankment fills g Periodic surveying during the service life of the footing, particularly if the subsurface has soft soils within the depth of influence g Impacts on neighboring facilities g Use instrumentation as necessary
Learning Outcomes
g At
the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
- Discuss elements of shallow foundation
construction/inspection
Any Questions?
THE ROAD TO UNDERSTANDING SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS
Interstate 0 Apple Freeway Note: Scale shown in Station Form
S.B. Apple Frwy N.B. Apple Frwy
Baseline Baseline Stationing Stationing
90 90
91 91
92 92
93 93
Interstate 0 Interstate 0
Proposed Toe Proposed Toe of Slope of Slope Proposed Final Grade Proposed Final Grade
2
Existing Existing Ground Surface Ground Surface
Proposed Proposed Abutment Abutment
Apple Freeway Exercise
g Appendix
Subsurface Investigations Basic Soil Properties
Terrain reconnaissance Site inspection Subsurface borings Visual description Classification tests Soil profile Po diagram Test request Consolidation results Strength results Design soil profile Circular arc analysis Sliding block analysis Lateral squeeze analysis Design soil profile Magnitude and rate of settlement Surcharge Vertical drains
Laboratory Testing
- Section A.7
Slope Stability
Approach Roadway Settlement
Spread Footing Design
Design soil profile Pier bearing capacity Pier settlement Abutment settlement Surcharge Vertical drains
Driven Pile Design
Design soil profile Static analysis pier Pipe pile H pile Static analysis abutment Pipe pile H pile Driving resistance Lateral movement - abutment Wave equation Hammer approval Embankment instrumentation
Construction Monitoring
APPLE FREEWAY PIER BEARING CAPACITY
Assumptions: Footing embeded 4 below ground Footing width = 1/3 pier height = 7 Footing length = 100 L/W = 100/7 > 10Continuous 9
BAF 2
N
4 6 11 21 22 40 37 33
4 7 10 15
Sand
Clay
Compute N160 values
Depth (ft.) 5 7 8 10 12 14 p0 (psf) 550 770 880 1100 1195 1290 p0 (tsf) 0.275 0.385 0.440 0.550 0.598 0.645 N (bpf) 11 21 22 40 37 33 Hammer Efficiency (Ef) 65 65 65 65 65 65 Ef / 60 N60 (bpf) Cn N160 (bpf) 17 30 30 52 47 41 36
1.083 12 1.43 1.083 23 1.32 1.083 24 1.28 1.083 43 1.20 1.083 40 1.17 1.083 36 1.15 Average corrected blow count =
APPLE FREEWAY PIER SETTLEMENT
SAND
CLAY -1
CLAY-2 CLAY-
Time (days)
50 100 150 200 250
H = 2.85
APPLE FREEWAY EAST ABUTMENT SETTLEMENT
Pressure (psf)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Sand 10
Pf
4470
5550 4920
Pabut
Po
Clay
5850
Depth (ft)
20
Pc
5650 6200
30
40
50
Gravel Layer
Time (days)
0 100 200 300 400 500
H
2
H = 2.59
APPLE FREEWAY EAST ABUTMENT SETTLEMENT TREATMENT
Time days
100 0 Assume Wick Drains Installed 5 *0.25 Remaining 30 days after abutment loaded Begin Abutment Footing Construction 12.66 emb. 15 200 300 400
10
HABUT
15.25 Emb. + Abut
Time Days
0 0.83 5 100 200 300 240 days 400 400 days 500
H
Total 10 13.7 t90 15
30 Fill to 10 Surcharge
*Assume 10 Surcharge Used
15.25Total H
SPREAD FOOTING DESIGN
Design Soil Profile Strength and consolidation values selected for all soil layers. Footing elevation and width chosen. Pier Bearing Capacity Qallowable = 3 tons/sq.ft. Pier Settlement Settlement = 2.8", t90 = 220 days. Abutment Settlement Settlement - 2.6", t90 = 433 days. Vertical Drains t90 = 60 days - could reduce settlement to 0.25" after abutment constructed and loaded. Surcharge 10' surcharge: t90 = 240 days before abutment constructed.
Any Questions?
THE ROAD TO UNDERSTANDING SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS
