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 Ward
Third Edition
WATER SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

•
Trimble

Environmental
•
Third Edition Burckhard

Environmental Hydrology •
Lyon

The late Professor Reds Wolman in his Foreword to the award-winning 2nd Edition said “This is not your ordinary

Hydrology

Environmental Hydrology
textbook. Environmental Hydrology is indeed a textbook, but five elements often found separately combine here in
one text to make it different. It is eclectic, practical, in places a handbook, a guide to fieldwork, engagingly personal and
occasionally opinionated….. And, perhaps most engaging to me, in places the authors offer personal views as well as more
strongly worded opinions. The former often relate to evaluation of alternative approaches, or formulations, of specific
solutions to specific hydrologic problems.” The First and Second Editions have been bestsellers and the Third promises to
educate people new to hydrology and challenge professionals alike with insightful solutions to classical problems as well
as trendsetting approaches so important to the evolving genre.

The 3rd Edition enhances materials in the 2nd Edition and has expanded information on many topics and in particular
evapotranspiration, soil erosion, two-stage ditch design and applications, and stream processes. There are new sections on
rock structures in streams, hypoxia, harmful algal blooms, and agricultural practices to reduce nutrient discharges into water
resources. The format has been enhanced to aid the reader in finding Tables, Figures, and Equations. The book contains more
than 370 Figures, 120 Tables, 260 Equations, 100 worked examples, 160 problems and more than 1000 references. Collectively,
the authors have more than 130 years of international experience and the addition of John Lyon and Suzette Burckhard as co-
authors expands the breadth of knowledge presented in this book. Also, assistance was provided by more than 60 scientists
and engineers in Australia, Canada, Europe, and the United States to round out the offerings and ensure applicability to
hydrology worldwide.

Andy D. Ward
Stanley W. Trimble
Suzette R. Burckhard
John G. Lyon

K20405
Third
Edition
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017
an informa business
2 Park Square, Milton Park
w w w. c r c p r e s s . c o m Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK
w w w. c r c p r e s s . c o m
Tribute

M. Gordon “Reds” Wolman (August 16, 1924–February 24, 2010)

Sadly, since publication of the second edition of this textbook, the world has lost
Reds Wolman and Luna Leopold, who were friends and perhaps the United States’
greatest giants in stream geomorphology. Reds kindly wrote a preface to the ­second
edition of this book. This new edition builds on the second edition, and we would
like to take this opportunity to remember a remarkable man who was inspirational
to us and many who work in hydrology, geomorphology, water resources, and
­environmental studies. Reds was a brilliant, witty, and friendly person who got the
name “Reds” for his red hair. He wore bow ties every day, drove convertibles, and
often wore suspenders. He was the son of Abel Wolman, who was known as the
“father of sanitary engineering” and in 1937 established the Department of Sanitary
Engineering at Johns Hopkins University. In 1949, Reds graduated with a degree in
geology from Johns Hopkins and then earned a doctorate degree in geology from
Harvard. He worked for 8 years with the U.S. Geological Survey and then joined the
faculty at Johns Hopkins as chair of geography. He played a key role in forming the Department of Geography and
Environmental Engineering. At the time of his death, he was still teaching courses at Johns Hopkins.
Among his many scholarly contributions was the development of the Wolman Pebble Count Method and the
Wolman–Miller Model for determining geomorphic work. In 1964, Luna Leopold, Reds Wolman, and John Miller
published their seminal book, Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology. This book is still being widely used around
the world. Reds was one of the first people who recognized the environmental threats to the Chesapeake Bay. He
was also a president of the Geological Society of America. He was an elected member of the National Academy of
Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. Reds was also the recipient of many ­scholarly awards.
In part of a wonderful tribute, Peter Wilcock, an ­eminent stream geomorphologist in his own right and a long-
time friend and colleague of Reds, said, “His indefatigable service, combined with his good-natured wisdom, influ-
enced environmental decisions and ­decision-makers around the world. For those who knew him, Reds’ professional
accomplishments merely provide context for his greater personal contributions through his inspired combination
of warmth, wit, and genuine affection for all he came into contact with. The whole exceeded the sum of the parts.
Reds was a distinguished scholar who played a central role in defining our modern understanding of rivers, a vision-
ary academic who pioneered integrated environmental education, a devoted citizen who worked tirelessly to apply
an understanding of rivers to their protection and wise use, and an extraordinary human being who inspired and
delighted generations of students and colleagues, all friends.”
As a tribute to Reds, part of the author’s royalties will be donated to The M. Gordon Wolman Fellowship at
Johns Hopkins University. The fellowship will be awarded to an outstanding incoming PhD student eager
to pursue challenges in the environment and society in an integrated and interdisciplinary context. Please con-
tact the Johns Hopkins Office of Development and Alumni Relations at 410-516-8723 or engineering@jhu
.edu if you would like to honor Reds by donating to this fellowship.
Contents
Foreword: For the Student.........................................................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................................. xxiii
Authors.....................................................................................................................................................................xxv
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................xxix

Chapter 1 The Hydrologic Cycle, Water Resources, and Society............................................................................1

1.1 The Water, Food, Industry, Population Growth Nexus................................................................1
1.2 The Hydrologic Cycle..................................................................................................................7
1.2.1 Precipitation...................................................................................................................8
1.2.2 Infiltration......................................................................................................................8
1.2.3 Evaporation, Transpiration, and Evapotranspiration.....................................................8
1.2.4 Runoff, Overland Flow, and Interflow...........................................................................9
1.2.5 Percolation, Groundwater Recharge, and Groundwater................................................9
1.3 Water Resources in the United States..........................................................................................9
1.4 The Importance of Hydrology to Society.................................................................................. 14
1.5 Modeling the Hydrologic Cycle................................................................................................. 14
1.6 Hydrologic Data Analysis.......................................................................................................... 15
1.6.1 Experimental Error......................................................................................................15
1.6.2 Plotting Data................................................................................................................16
1.6.3 Statistics.......................................................................................................................18
1.6.4 Probabilities and Distributions....................................................................................19
1.6.5 Normal Distribution....................................................................................................20
1.6.6 Descriptive Statistics for Normal Distributions...........................................................20
1.6.7 Standard Error.............................................................................................................23
1.6.8 Standardized Normal Deviate......................................................................................23
1.6.9 Student t Distribution...................................................................................................23
1.6.10 Confidence Intervals....................................................................................................23
1.6.11 Properties of Statistical Procedures.............................................................................24
1.6.12 Inferential Statistics and Hypothesis Testing..............................................................24
1.6.13 Probability Values........................................................................................................25
1.6.14 Statistical Errors..........................................................................................................25
1.6.15 Linear Regression........................................................................................................26
1.6.16 The Use and Misuse of Regression Equations............................................................28
1.6.17 Data Transformations..................................................................................................30
1.6.18 Multiple Regression Analysis...................................................................................... 31
1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Modeling Data.................................................................... 33
1.8 Typical Model Architecture....................................................................................................... 33
Problems...............................................................................................................................................34

Chapter 2 Precipitation..........................................................................................................................................37
2.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................37
2.1.1 Precipitation Data........................................................................................................40
2.2 Causes of Precipitation..............................................................................................................40
2.2.1 Frontal Precipitation.................................................................................................... 41
2.2.2 Convection................................................................................................................... 41
2.2.3 Orographic...................................................................................................................42

ix
x Contents

2.3 Precipitation Events...................................................................................................................42

2.3.1 Geographical and Seasonal Variations........................................................................42
2.3.2 Historic Time Trends...................................................................................................44
2.3.3 Storm Area Patterns....................................................................................................46
2.4 Measurement of Precipitation.................................................................................................... 47
2.4.1 Measurement of Rainfall............................................................................................. 47
2.4.2 Measurement of Snowfall............................................................................................50
2.5 Storm Time Trends.................................................................................................................... 51
2.5.1 Time Sequence Patterns.............................................................................................. 51
2.6 Average Precipitation over an Area........................................................................................... 52
2.6.1 Rainfall Distributions for Short Time Periods.............................................................54
2.7 Rainfall Frequency Distributions............................................................................................... 55
2.7.1 St. Louis Frequency Relationship Transferred to the Contiguous
United States��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
2.7.2 Regional Frequency–Magnitude Relationships: Seattle, Santa Fe,
Chicago, and New Orleans�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
2.7.3 Brief History of Probability Relationships and Their Application..............................62
2.8 Probability of an Event Occurring.............................................................................................65
2.8.1 Seasonality of Storm Probability.................................................................................65
2.8.2 Probable Maximum Precipitation................................................................................66
2.9 Rainfall Erosivity....................................................................................................................... 67
2.10 Climate Change and Uncertainty..............................................................................................68
Problems...............................................................................................................................................70

Chapter 3 Infiltration and Soil Water Processes....................................................................................................73

3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................73
3.2 Soil Water Relationships............................................................................................................73
3.3 Infiltration and Soil Water Retention.........................................................................................78
3.4 Factors Affecting Water Movement into and through Soils......................................................83
3.4.1 Soil Properties.............................................................................................................86
3.4.2 Soil Condition..............................................................................................................88
[Link] Soil Structure and Compaction.....................................................................88
[Link] Organic Material...........................................................................................88
[Link] Soil Fauna (Endopedofauna)........................................................................89
[Link] Soil Profile Truncation..................................................................................89
[Link] Hydrophobicity (Water Repellancy).............................................................89
[Link] Antecedent Soil Moisture.............................................................................90
[Link] Surface Crusting and Surface Sealing..........................................................91
[Link] Frozen Soil...................................................................................................92
[Link] Time..............................................................................................................94
3.5 Soil Water Balance....................................................................................................................94
3.6 Estimating Infiltration Rates......................................................................................................96
3.6.1 Horton Equation..........................................................................................................96
3.6.2 Green–Ampt Equation.................................................................................................96
3.6.3 Physically Based Methods...........................................................................................96
3.7 Perspective on Infiltration Methods...........................................................................................99
3.8 Measurement of Soil Properties................................................................................................99
3.8.1 Particle Size Analysis..................................................................................................99
3.8.2 Particle Density.........................................................................................................100
3.8.3 Bulk Density..............................................................................................................100
3.8.4 Soil Hydraulic Properties.......................................................................................... 102
3.8.5 Soil Water Content..................................................................................................... 102
Contents xi

3.8.6 Soil Suction and Soil Water Release/Retention Characteristics................................103

3.8.7 Infiltration..................................................................................................................105
3.8.8 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity.........................................................................106
3.8.9 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity............................................................................. 106
Problems............................................................................................................................................. 108

Chapter 4 Soil Moisture and Evapotranspiration................................................................................................. 111

4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 111
4.2 Evaporation Process................................................................................................................. 111
4.2.1 Fick’s First Law of Diffusion..................................................................................... 112
4.2.2 Potential Evapotranspiration versus Actual Evapotranspiration................................ 113
4.2.3 Evaporation from Open Water................................................................................... 113
4.2.4 Evaporation from Bare Soil....................................................................................... 113
4.3 Evapotranspiration from Soil and Plants................................................................................. 114
4.3.1 Interception................................................................................................................ 114
4.3.2 Transpiration.............................................................................................................. 114
4.3.3 Factors That Affect Transpiration Rates................................................................... 116
[Link] Type of Plant............................................................................................... 116
[Link] Wind...........................................................................................................118
[Link] Plant Available Water................................................................................. 118
4.3.4 Transpiration Ratio and Consumptive Use................................................................ 119
4.3.5 Potential Evapotranspiration and Actual Evapotranspiration Concepts and
Practices in Agriculture�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
4.3.6 Reference Crop Evapotranspiration...........................................................................120
4.4 Measuring Evaporation or Evapotranspiration........................................................................120
4.4.1 Evaporation Pan.........................................................................................................121
4.4.2 Etp Gages....................................................................................................................122
4.4.3 Soil Water Depletion.................................................................................................123
4.4.4 Water Balance............................................................................................................123
4.4.5 Lysimeters.................................................................................................................123
4.4.6 Energy Balance and Mass Transfer...........................................................................124
4.5 Weather Data Sources and Preparation...................................................................................124
4.5.1 Saturation Vapor Pressure..........................................................................................125
4.5.2 Actual Vapor Pressure...............................................................................................126
4.5.3 Vapor Pressure Deficit...............................................................................................126
4.5.4 Mean Temperature.....................................................................................................129
4.5.5 Solar Radiation..........................................................................................................130
4.5.6 Extrapolating Wind Speed......................................................................................... 132
4.6 Estimating Evaporation and Evapotranspiration..................................................................... 133
4.6.1 Evaporation from Open Water...................................................................................133
4.6.2 Estimating Evapotranspiration..................................................................................134
4.6.3 Blaney–Criddle Methods...........................................................................................135
4.6.4 Jensen–Haise Alfalfa-Reference............................................................................... 142
[Link] Radiation Method....................................................................................... 142
4.6.5 Thornthwaite Method................................................................................................145
4.6.6 Penman’s Method......................................................................................................147
4.6.7 Penman–Monteith Methods...................................................................................... 149
4.7 Advances in Estimating Crop Evapotranspiration...................................................................151
4.8 Evapotranspiration and Soil Water Budgets in Space and Time............................................. 152
4.8.1 Class A Pan................................................................................................................152
4.8.2 Lake Evaporation....................................................................................................... 153
xii Contents

4.8.3 Time Patterns and Variance...................................................................................... 154

4.8.4 Soil Water Budgets.................................................................................................... 156
4.9 Using Evapotranspiration Data and Management Strategies................................................... 156
Problems............................................................................................................................................. 158

Chapter 5 Runoff and Drainage........................................................................................................................... 161

5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 161
5.2 Factors Affecting Runoff Processes........................................................................................ 164
5.2.1 Horton Overland Flow Model...................................................................................164
5.2.2 Variable Source Area Concept or Hewlett Model.....................................................164
5.2.3 Precipitation............................................................................................................... 165
5.3 Watershed Factors That Affect Runoff.................................................................................... 168
5.3.1 Size and Topography.................................................................................................168
5.3.2 Soil.............................................................................................................................174
5.3.3 Shape and Orientation...............................................................................................174
5.3.4 Geology.....................................................................................................................175
5.3.5 Interflow and Baseflow.............................................................................................. 176
5.4 Runoff Characteristics: The Hydrograph.................................................................................176
5.5 Predicting Volume of Stormflow and Total Runoff.................................................................179
5.6 Prediction of Peak Runoff Rate............................................................................................... 184
5.6.1 Graphical Peak Discharge Method............................................................................184
5.6.2 Rational Equation......................................................................................................187
5.6.3 US Geological Survey Empirical Regression Models............................................... 193
5.7 Stormwater Hydrographs......................................................................................................... 198
5.7.1 Unit Hydrograph Methods.........................................................................................198
5.7.2 Time–Area Method...................................................................................................203
5.7.3 Kinematic Approach..................................................................................................204
5.8 Assessment and Application of Flood Estimation Techniques................................................204
5.9 Agricultural Land Drainage Modifications.............................................................................207
5.9.1 Surface Improvements...............................................................................................209
5.9.2 Subsurface Improvements.........................................................................................210
5.9.3 Perceptions................................................................................................................ 210
5.10 Determining Subsurface Drainage Flows................................................................................211
5.11 Flow Duration and Water Yield...............................................................................................215
5.12 Planning for Low Flow Water Shortages.................................................................................216
5.13 Runoff Characteristics–Pollutograph......................................................................................218
Problems...............................................................................................................................................219

Chapter 6 Stream Processes................................................................................................................................223

6.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................223
6.2 Interaction of Streams with the Landscape.............................................................................224
6.2.1 The Influence of Temporal and Spatial Scales on Geomorphology..........................224
6.2.2 Basic Terms and Geomorphic Work..........................................................................226
6.2.3 Channel Types (Summarized from Usda-Nrcs 2007)..........................................227
6.3 Stream Orders..........................................................................................................................228
6.4 Stream Biota............................................................................................................................ 232
6.5 Stream Characteristics............................................................................................................. 233
6.5.1 Channel Profile.......................................................................................................... 233
6.5.2 Stream Channel Patterns...........................................................................................234
6.5.3 Stream Dimensions.................................................................................................... 237
6.5.4 Regional and Stream-Type Curves............................................................................238
Contents xiii

6.6 Stream Stability and Sediment Transport................................................................................ 241

6.6.1 Source of Sediment................................................................................................... 241
6.6.2 Shear Stresses and Tractive Force.............................................................................242
6.6.3 Sediment Transport...................................................................................................244
6.6.4 Bank Stability............................................................................................................246
6.7 Meander Migration, Floodplains, and Streamways.................................................................247
6.8 Stream Classification...............................................................................................................250
6.8.1 Mountain Stream Morphology Classes.....................................................................250
[Link] Cascade Channels.....................................................................................251
[Link] Step–Pool Channels..................................................................................253
[Link] Plane–Bed Channels.................................................................................253
[Link] Pool–Riffle Channels................................................................................253
[Link] Dune–Ripple Channels.............................................................................253
[Link] Colluvial Channels...................................................................................253
[Link] Bedrock Channels.................................................................................... 253
6.8.2 Alternative Mountain Stream Classification System.................................................254
6.8.3 Rosgen Stream Classification Method.......................................................................254
[Link] Rosgen Type A Stream.............................................................................256
[Link] Rosgen Type B Stream.............................................................................257
[Link] Rosgen Type C Stream.............................................................................257
[Link] Rosgen Type D Stream.............................................................................257
[Link] Rosgen Type E Stream.............................................................................257
[Link] Rosgen Type F Stream.............................................................................257
[Link] Rosgen Type G Stream............................................................................. 257
6.8.4 Using Stream Classification Methods........................................................................ 258
6.9 Channel Evolution.................................................................................................................... 262
6.9.1 Disturbance................................................................................................................ 262
6.9.2 Evolution Models.......................................................................................................264
6.10 What to Measure and Why the Measurement Should Be Made..............................................265
6.10.1 Site Selection and Reconnaissance at a Watershed Scale..........................................266
6.10.2 Drainage Area Determination....................................................................................267
6.10.3 Discharge and Sediment Data...................................................................................267
6.10.4 Channel Properties....................................................................................................268
6.10.5 Elusive Nature of Bankfull (Effective Discharge) Dimensions.................................269
6.10.6 Bed Material Characterization.................................................................................. 272
6.11 Some Other Important Factors................................................................................................ 274
6.11.1 Bed Armoring............................................................................................................274
6.11.2 Maintenance of Pool–Riffle Sequences.....................................................................275
6.11.3 Losing (Influent) and Gaining (Effluent) Streams.....................................................276
6.12 Stream Restoration.................................................................................................................. 278
6.12.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................278
6.12.2 A Perspective on Stream Restoration Approaches (by Andy Ward).........................279
6.12.3 Stream Restoration Resources and Guidelines..........................................................283
Problems................................................................................................................................................285

Chapter 7 Uniform Open Channel Flow.............................................................................................................287

7.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................287
7.2 Flow Velocity and Discharge...................................................................................................288
7.2.1 Manning’s Equation..................................................................................................288
7.2.2 Approximation and Estimation Errors......................................................................294
7.2.3 The Darcy–Weisbach Equation.................................................................................294
xiv Contents

7.3 Grassed Waterways..................................................................................................................296

7.4 Compound Channels...............................................................................................................297
7.5 Two-Stage Agricultural Ditches and Canals............................................................................300
7.6 Other Compound Channel Applications..................................................................................303
7.7 Modifying, Managing, and Enhancing Constructed Channel.................................................304
7.7.1 Stream Power Changes Due to Channel Modification..............................................304
7.7.2 Roughness Changes Associated with Channel Modifications...................................308
7.7.3 Channel Management Options.................................................................................. 310
Problems.............................................................................................................................................313

Chapter 8 Hydraulic Control Structures.............................................................................................................. 315

8.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 315
8.2  pecific Energy an Critical Discharge..................................................................................... 316
S
8.3 Riffles, Pools, and Runs (Based on Newbury et al., 2011, with permission from the
American Geophysical Union)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 319
8.4 Weirs, Flumes, and Culverts....................................................................................................324
8.5 Backwater Analysis................................................................................................................. 330
8.6 Rock Structures....................................................................................................................... 333
8.6.1 NRCS Stream Barbs (Based on Fripp et al. 2012)..................................................... 334
[Link] Design Guidelines....................................................................................334
[Link] Depth of Bed Key.....................................................................................338
8.6.2 Bendway Weirs.......................................................................................................... 338
8.6.2 1 Design Guidelines....................................................................................340
8.6.3 Rosgen Vanes and Weirs (Based on Rosgen 2006)................................................... 342
8.6.4 Performance of Rock Structures................................................................................ 345
8.6.5 Scour Pool Depth.......................................................................................................346
8.7 Sizing Rock.............................................................................................................................. 347
8.8 Routing flows through Channels and Rivers........................................................................... 354
8.9 Routing flow through Reservoirs............................................................................................. 357
8.9.1 Determination of Stage–Storage Relationships.........................................................358
8.9.2 Detention or Residence Time....................................................................................359
8.9.3 Spillways.................................................................................................................... 361
Problems.............................................................................................................................................366

Chapter 9 Soil Conservation and Sediment Budgets........................................................................................... 367

9.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 367
9.2 Factors Affecting Erosion by Water........................................................................................368
9.2.1 Climate......................................................................................................................368
9.2.2 Soil.............................................................................................................................368
9.2.3 Vegetation..................................................................................................................368
9.2.4 Topography................................................................................................................369
9.3 Types of Erosion......................................................................................................................369
9.3.1 Interrill Erosion.........................................................................................................369
9.3.2 Rill Erosion................................................................................................................370
9.3.3 Gully Erosion............................................................................................................370
9.3.4 Stream Channel Erosion............................................................................................371
9.4 Estimating Soil Loss and Soil Loss Tolerance........................................................................ 371
9.5 Universal Soil Loss Equation.................................................................................................. 372
9.5.1 Rainfall Erosivity R...................................................................................................372
9.5.2 Soil Erodibility K.......................................................................................................374
9.5.3 Topographic Factor LS..............................................................................................376
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Contents xv

9.5.4 Cover Management Factor C................................................................................ 377

9.5.5 Estimating Seasonal C Factors for Agricultural Crops........................................380
9.5.6 Erosion Control Practice P...................................................................................383
[Link] Contouring..........................................................................................383
[Link] Strip Cropping....................................................................................384
[Link] Terracing............................................................................................. 385
9.6 Nonagricultural Applications of the Usle..........................................................................386
9.7 Downstream Sediment Yields..............................................................................................387
9.8 Single-Event Sediment Yields..............................................................................................388
9.9 Sediment Budget Concepts.................................................................................................. 389
9.9.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................389
9.9.2 Sediment Delivery from Slopes...........................................................................389
9.9.3 Sediment in Streams............................................................................................390
9.9.4 Southern Piedmont..............................................................................................393
9.9.5 Hydraulic Mining in California...........................................................................395
9.9.6 Driftless Area of the Upper Midwest...................................................................397
[Link] Tributaries...........................................................................................399
[Link] Upper Main Valley..............................................................................403
[Link] Lower Main Valley.............................................................................406
9.9.7 Urban Streams.....................................................................................................407
9.10 Sediment Storage in Large Reservoirs.................................................................................409
9.10.1 Estimating Sediment Storage in Management Ponds..........................................412
Problems............................................................................................................................................ 415

Chapter 10 Hydrology of Forests, Wetlands, and Cold Climates........................................................................ 417

10.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................417
10.2 How Are Forests Different?.................................................................................................418
10.3 Forest Climates: Rain and Snow..........................................................................................420
10.3.1 Characteristics of Snow.......................................................................................420
10.4 Interception: Rain, Snow, and Fog.......................................................................................422
10.4.1 Rain Interception.................................................................................................422
10.4.2 Snow Interception................................................................................................424
10.4.3 Fog Drip...............................................................................................................424
10.5 Energy Balance in Forests....................................................................................................424
10.6 Evapotranspiration...............................................................................................................426
10.7 Snowmelt.............................................................................................................................427
10.7.1 Snowmelt Modeling over a Watershed................................................................428
10.7.2 Snow Cover Distribution.....................................................................................429
10.7.3 Critical Temperature for Rain–Snow Transition.................................................. 429
10.8 Infiltration............................................................................................................................430
10.9 Subsurface Flow (Interflow)................................................................................................431
10.10 Surface Runoff.....................................................................................................................432
10.11 Streamflow and Watershed Hydrology................................................................................433
10.12 Erosion: Sediment Budget...................................................................................................438
10.12.1 Sheet-and-Rill Erosion........................................................................................438
10.12.2 Gully Erosion.......................................................................................................438
10.12.3 Channel Erosion..................................................................................................439
10.12.4 Mass Wasting.......................................................................................................440
10.13 Deforestation, Fires, and Silviculture..................................................................................442
10.4 Commercial Logging...........................................................................................................442
10.13.1 Deforestation Associated with Agriculture..........................................................442
xvi Contents

10.13.2 Deforestation Associated with Silviculture.........................................................443

10.13.3 Impacts of Deforestation.....................................................................................443
10.13.4 Wildfires..............................................................................................................444
10.14 Rangelands and Grazing......................................................................................................444
10.14.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................444
10.14.2 Upland Slopes......................................................................................................444
10.14.3 Stream Channels..................................................................................................446
10.15 Wetlands...............................................................................................................................448
10.15.1 Definitions and Importance.................................................................................448
10.15.2 Identification of Wetlands....................................................................................449
10.15.3 Wetlands as Water Treatment Systems................................................................ 450
10.15.4 Hydraulics and Treatment Characteristics........................................................... 451
10.15.5 Using Constructed Wetlands to Treat Livestock Wastewater.............................. 452
Problems............................................................................................................................................ 453

Chapter 11 Hydrogeology.................................................................................................................................... 455

11.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................455
11.2  haracterization of Groundwater Flow................................................................................455
C
11.3 Groundwater Flow Patterns and Stream Interaction............................................................463
11.4 Flow to Wells.......................................................................................................................467
11.5 Capture Zones of Wells........................................................................................................470
11.6 Fracture Flow....................................................................................................................... 473
11.6.1 Fracture Flow in Rock.........................................................................................473
11.6.2 Fracture Flow in Unconsolidated Materials......................................................... 474
11.7 Groundwater Vulnerability.................................................................................................. 474
Problems............................................................................................................................................ 474

Chapter 12 Human Impacts on Water Resources: Prevention and Treatment Strategies.................................... 477
12.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 477
12.2 Human Impacts on Stream Health....................................................................................... 478
12.2.1 Biological Assessment Methods.......................................................................... 478
12.3 Flood Forecasting and Management....................................................................................480
12.3.1 Flood Forecasts....................................................................................................480
12.3.2 Flood Zones.........................................................................................................482
12.3.3 Flood Management..............................................................................................483
12.4 Urban Impacts......................................................................................................................484
12.5 Conundrum of Understanding Discharge Frequency...........................................................487
12.6 Reducing Runoff From Urban Areas...................................................................................492
12.7 Detention and Retention Ponds............................................................................................496
12.7.1 Using Detention/Retention Ponds to Improve Water Quality..............................497
12.7.2 Sizing Detention Ponds to Improve Water Quality.............................................. 498
12.7.3 Detention Ponds for Channel Stability................................................................502
12.8 Agricultural Impacts on Water Quality................................................................................505
12.8.1 Freshwater Systems..............................................................................................506
12.8.2 Salt Water and Brackish Systems: The Baltic Sea...............................................507
12.8.3 Salt Water Systems: Gulf of Mexico.................................................................... 512
12.9 Agricultural Water Quality Best Management Practices..................................................... 514
12.9.1 Soil Amendments, Fertilizers, and Soil Conditioners......................................... 515
12.9.2 Phosphorus Index................................................................................................. 518
12.9.3 Tillage Practices.................................................................................................. 519
12.9.4 Cover Crops......................................................................................................... 522
Contents xvii

12.9.5 Precision Agricultural and Variable-Rate Technology Applications................... 523

12.9.6 Subsurface Drainage Water Quality Best Management Practices....................... 524
12.9.7 Filter Strips and Riparian Buffers........................................................................ 526
12.9.8 Two-Stage Ditches, Low-Head Weirs, and Vegetated Ditches............................ 529
12.10 Landfills............................................................................................................................... 532
12.10.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 532
12.10.2 Landfill Processes................................................................................................ 533
12.10.3 Surface Water Management in Landfills............................................................. 533
12.10.4 Leachate Management in Landfills..................................................................... 534
[Link] Leachate Collection and Storage.....................................................535
[Link] Leachate Treatment.........................................................................535
[Link] Leachate Recirculation.................................................................... 535
12.10.5 Landfill Water Balance........................................................................................ 535
12.10.6 Hydrology and Landfills...................................................................................... 536
Problems............................................................................................................................................ 537

Chapter 13 F
 undamentals of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Hydrologic
Applications������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 539
13.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 539
13.1.1 What Are Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems?....................539
13.1.2 Mapping Science and Engineering Technologies................................................539
13.1.3 Geographic Information Systems........................................................................539
13.1.4 Remote Sensing...................................................................................................540
13.1.5 Image Interpretation.............................................................................................540
13.1.6 Photogrammetry and LiDAR...............................................................................542
13.1.7 Surveying.............................................................................................................544
13.2 Products...............................................................................................................................544
13.2.1 Images and Photographs......................................................................................544
13.2.2 Historical Maps....................................................................................................544
13.2.3 Digital Images...................................................................................................... 545
13.3 Parts of the Spectrum and Radiation Characteristics.......................................................... 547
13.3.1 Visible, Infrared, and Thermal Infrared...............................................................548
13.3.2 Radar....................................................................................................................550
13.3.3 Radiation..............................................................................................................550
13.3.4 Lambert’s Law.....................................................................................................550
13.3.5 Projected Source Area..........................................................................................551
13.3.6 Isotropic Source...................................................................................................551
13.3.7 Solid Angle..........................................................................................................551
13.3.8 Radiance...............................................................................................................552
13.3.9 Spectral Relative Units......................................................................................... 553
13.4 Data Types and Databases................................................................................................... 554
13.4.1 Data Types............................................................................................................554
13.4.2 Raster...................................................................................................................554
13.4.3 Vector...................................................................................................................554
13.4.4 Attribute Layers...................................................................................................554
13.4.5 Databases.............................................................................................................555
13.4.6 Historical Aerial Photo Databases.......................................................................555
13.4.7 Digital Elevation Model.......................................................................................555
13.4.8 Digital Terrain Model, Digital Line Graph, and
Other Data............................................................................................................555
13.4.9 Continental Land Cover Datasets........................................................................ 556
xviii Contents

13.5 Remote Sensing Characteristics of Water............................................................................ 556

13.6  pplications......................................................................................................................... 557
A
13.6.1 General Characteristics of Applications...............................................................557
13.6.2 Planning...............................................................................................................557
13.6.3 Site Selection Determinations..............................................................................557
13.6.4 Management.........................................................................................................557
13.6.5 Best Management Practices.................................................................................558
13.6.6 Water Resource Applications...............................................................................558
13.6.7 Quantity................................................................................................................558
13.6.8 Quality and Nonpoint Sources.............................................................................559
13.6.9 Erosion and Disaster Studies...............................................................................559
13.6.10 Hazardous Waste..................................................................................................560
13.6.11 Wetlands...............................................................................................................560
13.6.12 Evapotranspiration...............................................................................................560
13.6.13 System of Systems...............................................................................................561
13.6.14 Hyperspectral Studies.......................................................................................... 561

Chapter 14 Practical Exercises on Conducting and Reporting Hydrologic Studies............................................ 563

14.1 I ntroduction.......................................................................................................................... 563
14.2 Conducting a Hydrologic Study........................................................................................... 563
14.2.1 Define the Question..............................................................................................563
14.2.2 Conduct a Preliminary Investigation....................................................................564
14.2.3 Undertaking Detailed Planning............................................................................564
14.2.4 Conducting the Detailed Study............................................................................565
14.3 Reporting a Hydrologic Study..............................................................................................565
14.4 Report Contents...................................................................................................................566
14.5 General Guidelines for Preparing Exercise Reports............................................................568
14.6 Exercise 14.1: Precipitation..................................................................................................568
14.6.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................568
14.6.2 Part I. Time Trends...............................................................................................568
14.6.3 Part II. Frequency and Magnitude........................................................................569
14.6.4 Part III. Spatial Distribution................................................................................. 570
14.7 Exercise 14.2: Evaporation................................................................................................... 570
14.7.1 Part I. Annual Lake Evaporation (Surrogate for Potential Evapotranspiration)..570
14.7.2 Part II. Daily and Monthly Lake Evaporation......................................................571
14.7.3 Part III. Estimating Actual Evapotranspiration Rates.......................................... 571
14.8 Exercise 14.3: Runoff........................................................................................................... 572
14.8.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 572
14.9 Exercise 14.4: Flow Duration............................................................................................... 578
14.9.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 578
14.10 Exercise 14.5: Storm Runoff, Totals, and Peaks..................................................................580
14.11 Exercise 14.6: Erosion and Elementary Sediment Routing.................................................. 581
14.12 Exercise 14.7: Streamflow Measurement in the Field........................................................... 582
14.12.1 Part I. Gaging Streamflow by Instrument............................................................582
14.12.2 Part II. Gaging Streamflow by the Float Method.................................................583
14.12.3 Part III. Stream Gaging Exercise......................................................................... 583
14.13 Exercise 14.8: Watershed or Drainage Basin Morphology................................................... 583
14.13.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 583
14.14 Exercise 14.9: Practical Use of Soil Surveys for Environmental Management.................... 587
14.14.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................587
14.14.2 Practical Use of Soils Maps for Management......................................................587
Contents xix

Appendix A: Unit Conversion Factors................................................................................................................. 591

Appendix B: Glossary............................................................................................................................................ 593
Appendix C: Precipitation Frequency-Magnitude Information for the United States....................................607
Appendix D: Hydrologic Soil Group and Erodibility Factors for the Most Common Soils
in Each State........................................................................................................................................................... 611
Appendix E: Sources of Data and Images........................................................................................................... 619
References............................................................................................................................................................... 623
Index........................................................................................................................................................................ 653
Foreword: For the Student
This is not your ordinary textbook. Environmental Hydrology is indeed a textbook, but five elements often found
separately combine here in one text to make it different. It is eclectic, practical, in places a handbook, a guide to
fieldwork, engagingly personal, and occasionally opinionated.
The material covered includes expected chapters on basic aspects of the hydrologic cycle such as rainfall, runoff,
and evapotranspiration. There is, at the same time, extensive coverage of stream processes, soil erosion and sedi-
mentation, and human impacts on the hydrologic cycle.
Throughout, the authors have chosen to emphasize the practical rather than the theoretical aspects of hydrology.
Many texts do this in hydrology, perhaps too many, but in this book that orientation is enhanced with a content and
style that evidence their commitment to what the authors call a “student-centered” view. Many, if not most of us, in
the academic world profess this centered vision but quickly lodge our teaching on the periphery. Not so here.
Chapters devoted to the application of remote sensing and geographic systems to hydrology and to conducting and
reporting hydrologic studies nicely capture the practical flavor. At the same time, a focus on the practical leads not
only to the inclusion of many approaches to solving specific problems but also to the inclusion in text and appendices
of the vital statistics of hydrology, thus the attribute of a modest handbook.
I hope any student will enjoy and not just profit from the careful advice given to those involved in their first obser-
vations of rivers in the field. For example, the authors “stoop” to telling the student reader how many persons should
be engaged in carrying out a task; perfectly laughable unless you have nearly drowned by failing to do the obvious,
or finished a day’s fieldwork and notes by lantern in the dark.
And, perhaps most engaging to me, in places the authors offer personal views as well as more strongly worded
opinions. The former often relate to evaluation of alternative approaches, or formulations, of specific solutions to
specific hydrologic problems. One or the other of the authors, not the anonymous royal we, states his choice based on
his own experience. More rarely, it is noted that, contrary to the notoriety of some hydrologic findings, the findings
are grossly in error and the resulting policies foolish and misdirected.
This thick book is a labor of love. No doubt it contains errors of commission and perhaps even omission. One
hopes that students, as they struggle with the material in the text, will warm both to what inspires the authors and
through that to the subject—hydrology.

Professor M. Gordon Wolman (deceased)

The Johns Hopkins University

Note from the Authors

Reds Wolman wrote this Foreword for the second edition. In the third edition we have retained all materials from the
second edition but also added a substantial amount of new material that is primarily practical. We have also included
discussion of many published studies during the past decade, some of the work that we have done since the second
edition, and a few more opinions! The reader is encouraged to read our tribute to Reds Wolman.

xxi
Acknowledgments
Preparation of the third edition would not have been possible without the outstanding help from many people.
We regret that it is not possible for us to fully express our gratitude for these efforts or to adequately recognize
every contribution. The third edition builds on the award-winning second edition, so we feel it is appropriate to
recognize the extraordinary efforts of the many people who made that edition possible. They include Dawn Farver
for her extraordinary efforts in coordinating the final preparation of the book materials, contributing to Chapters 1
and 12, and providing many valuable suggestions. Thanks to Chase Langford, Matt Zebrowski, and Diane Yagich,
who brilliantly produced many of the final illustrations in the book. Dan Mecklenburg reviewed Chapter 6 and
parts of Chapter 12, provided technical assistance with several of the Excel illustrations, provided data for several
examples and figures, and provided some photographs of streams for the second and third editions. Several illustra-
tions were prepared by Jeff Blatt and Julie Thomas. Bill Elliot, David Montgomery, and the Center for Watershed
Protection provided several of the photographs. Charles Luce wrote parts of Chapter 10, and E. Scott Bair wrote
most of Chapter 11. Bill Elliot wrote some of the materials on soil erosion (the first part of Chapter 9) and con-
tributed to Chapters 1 and 2. Portions of Chapters 3 and 4 are based on material from the first edition that were
prepared by Jay Dorsey and Sue Nokes. Contributions were also provided by Jan Boles (part of the discussion on
cold climate hydrology in Chapter 9), Anne Christy and Julie Weatherington-Rice (fracture flow, Chapters 5
and 11), Kerry Hughes (landfills, Chapter 12), Tim Lawrence (NEMO, Chapter 12), and Lance Williams (stream
biota, Chapters 6 and 12). Reviews of portions of the book were provided by Felicia Federico, John D. Hewlett,
Anand Jayakaran (several chapters), David Montgomery (classification section of Chapter 6), Frank Parker (part of
Chapter 12), Mike Singer (part of Chapter 3), Terry Stewart (several chapters), Peter Whiting (Chapter 6), Lance
Williams (Chapter 6), and Jon Witter (several chapters). Other important contributions were provided by Jean
Boenish, Jan Boles, Tess Brennan, Ann Chin, Jeff Harvey, John Hewlett, Barbara Hoag, Linda O’Hirok, Norman
Meek, Alex Mendel, Paul Price, Lisa Lindenmann, Ken Schwarz, and Steve Workman. Terry Stewart assisted with
several aspects of the second edition. The help of Anand Jayakaran, Jon Witter, and Jessica D’Ambrosio is greatly
appreciated. Thanks to Erik Powell, who prepared a solution manual for the second edition.
Many of the new illustrations in the third edition were brilliantly produced by Matt Zebrowsky. We are grate-
ful to Jon Fripp, Bob Newbury, Dave Derricks, and Wayne Kinney, who provided materials, images, and many
excellent suggestions on the Rock Structures section in Chapter 8. Jon Fripp also provided helpful suggestions for
other parts of the book. Thanks to Tess Thompson at Virginia Tech, who provided many useful suggestions and
contributed to Chapters 7 and 8. We greatly appreciate the assistance of Martin Hansson and Lars Andersson at
the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. They provided data and images and also helped to draft the
section, in Chapter 12, on hypoxia and harmful algae blooms in the Baltic Sea. Thanks to Trevor Daniell, Gaston
Demaree, Giovanni De Cesare, Patrick Willems, and Daniel Dourte for their assistance in identifying, or providing,
some of the intensity or depth duration-frequency data reported in Chapter 3. Jim Hoorman and Warren Dick at
the Ohio State University kindly provided assistance with the sections on cover crops and soil amendments, respec-
tively (Chapter 12). We are grateful to Larry Brown, Ehsan Ghane, and Serge-Stephan Kpoti Gunn, who provided
assistance on water table management practices, woodchip bioreactors, and phosphorus filters. Thanks to Samantha
Ward for the many hours she spent proofreading chapters. Kailen Akers and Jakob Burckhard each kindly provided
a photograph for the front cover. The authors recognize the valuable support and many sacrifices that were made by
their families and students during the development of the book. The permission that was granted by many people
and organizations to use a diversity of copyrighted materials helped us to produce a book of this quality. We apolo-
gize if we have inadvertently failed to recognize anyone for their contribution. Preparation of this book was made
possible through the support of the Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department at the Ohio State
University, the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, and the Department of Geography at UCLA.

xxiii
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about it, showed the hardihood to seem to want to escape, when a
little group of their pals probably at that very moment were
struggling with the heavy cable which at any time might be charged
with the death-dealing current.
Every man present held his breath when the captain suddenly
dashed into sight, quickly lifted himself to the ground, and, grabbing
a spade from one and a pair of rubber gloves from another, started
back over the line which the tunnel followed to the bomb chamber.
“Connection’s cut, but I want to see something,” he told them.
As he began digging they gathered in a wide circle about him.
Presently he struck a hard metallic substance. With a wave of his
hand he requested them to get to a greater distance. A few more
cautious jabs with the spade and he stooped over, gripping
something with both hands and tugging upward with all his strength.
The blood rushed to his face and the veins on his neck and forehead
stood out, but after a little the thing he was pulling began to give
way.
It was the severed cable. With a final jerk he pulled the loose end
through the ground, and all hands could see where the cut had been
made. At last the terrible menace was over. The captain looked
triumphantly at his superiors. He laid the cable on the ground.
“Don’t go near it,” he cautioned, “because—”
The sentence was never finished. There was a sudden sharp
crackling, a gasp of exclamations from the throng, and a shower of
sparks shot into the air from where the severed cable end lay upon
the ground.
The Germans had turned on the current, but they had turned it on
a moment too late!
The narrow margin by which a terrible tragedy had been averted
was obvious to all. They stood about, awed and silent, watching the
deadly current expend itself in a harmless sputter.
 The general himself was a man of few words. He summoned the
lads to him.
“Young men,” he said, “I congratulate and thank you. You have
saved an army. It will not be forgotten.”
And the three youths flushed deeply as a lusty cheer went up from
the men gathered about them.
 CHAPTER XIII

Captured

AS the three lads, hoping for a snatch of sleep before the orders
came for a renewal of the battle, settled into their blankets in a
dug-out which only forty-eight hours before had been occupied by
Germans who held forth there in that sublime assurance born of four
years of uninterrupted and practically unchallenged possession, Ollie
Ogden chuckled audibly.
“What’s the matter now?” demanded George Harper, none too
graciously, for already he had drowsed, and the injection of humor,
particularly when the cause was unknown, was not altogether
pleasant.
Tom, too, looked sharply at his friend, but with other reason. For
an instant he feared that the low laugh was the first hysteria which is
the forerunner of one phase of shell shock—that dreaded punishment
when taut nerves break, the mind snaps, and a strong man
temporarily is transformed into a cowering, jabbering, pitiful hulk of
his former self, actuated by one thought, escape from the thing that
caused his mental wreck.
But Tom’s one quick glance was sufficient to assure him. To be sure
Ollie showed the same evidences of fatigue as did the others; but all
three had built up for themselves, in the sports and athletics at
Brighton, constitutions which it would require far more than their
experiences of the last twenty-four hours to break, harrowing as
those experiences had been, and Ollie was only giving vent to
amusement at a sudden thought that had flashed through his mind.
 “What are you giggling at?” Harper demanded again, now only half
awake.
“Remember that relay race at Brighton,” Ollie answered, “when
you, Tom, ran the first mile, George the second, and I was to finish
with the third?”
“Aw, can’t you ever forget that?” Harper interrupted, peevishly.
“What’s the idea of rehashing that thing again?” he added, suddenly
forgetting his sleepiness.
“I’m not rehashing it,” Ollie assured him, in soothing tones. “I was
just thinking about it, that was all.”
“Well, what’s that got to do with us and this war?” George
demanded, showing no disposition to abandon the subject which
always was an unpleasant one to him.
“Oh, it just occurred to me that it was somewhat of a parallel case
in a way.”
“What way?”
Tom also was evidencing an awakened interest, and cast another
inquiring glance at Ollie.
“I’ll tell you,” the latter answered, at the same time giving Tom a
sly wink which entirely escaped the other youth, who at that time
with belligerent movements was disentangling himself from his
blanket, in order to get into a sitting posture.
“Well tell us,” he snapped. “You might as well get it off your mind.”
“Now don’t get so peeved,” Ollie soothed again. “It’s nothing to get
so excited about.”
“Oh, no, of course not,” from Harper again. “Nothing to get excited
about, of course. Well, are you going to tell us what you were
grinning and sputtering about a moment ago?”
“Sure,” Ollie answered, “if you’ll just give me half a chance.”
“Go ahead, I’m not interrupting you.”
 “You remember, Tom,” again giving him the wink, “that you got so
far ahead of the others that you had the race practically won at the
end of the first mile, when you touched George’s hand, and he was
off, to maintain that lead to the end of the second mile, when I was
waiting to finish up?”
“Yes,” Tom drawled, trying vainly to suppress a smile, while George
squirmed uneasily and had to interrupt with, “You always have to
review the whole thing, don’t you?”
As George seemed about to break forth with another impatient
interruption, Ollie turned to Tom again with another grimace. “It
wasn’t George’s fault that he started across country in the wrong
direction,” he went on. “We all know he didn’t do that on purpose. He
ran like the wind, all right, but it just happened that he ran the wrong
way.”
There was a distinctly audible grunt of disgust from Harper.
“Yes, I remember,” Tom responded in tone so obviously
sympathetic as merely to aggravate the victim of the story further.
“Well, as I stood there with the relay men of the other teams,” Ollie
continued, “and as one after another they were touched off and were
away, I kept wondering and wondering what in the world could have
happened to Harper, and—”
“You’ve said all that at least a dozen times before,” the latter
interjected again. “What’s the idea of—”
“And finally the last man was away, and still I stood there, just
wondering and wondering—”
“And wondering, like a blamed idiot,” Harper shot out again, in
deep disgust.
Ollie went on as though there had not been an interruption to his
reminiscence.
“At last I gave up in despair and trudged back to Brighton.
Remember,” to Tom, “the race was over before George ever stopped.
Didn’t even hesitate until he’d reeled off about five miles, and then it
took him an hour to get back, after he’d realized he was away up the
county and far off the course of the race. Well, I just recalled how I
felt, when I was waiting there for something to happen, and nothing
did. I was thinking that those Germans, waiting for that mine to
explode and send us all into Eternity, must have felt somewhat the
same way as I did.”
“Huh!” George Harper grunted, in deep disgust. But Tom and Ollie
burst into laughter which was none the less uproarious if suppressed
by the necessities of their present situation; and their merriment was
not so much at the predicament of the Germans, if the truth be told,
as in the mischievous delight they took in the increased misery with
which Harper heard this oft’ repeated tale of his mistake in that
Brighton relay race.
“Think you’re smart Alecks, both of you, don’t you?” Harper
growled, from the depths of his blanket, while distinct gasps of
amusement continued to come from Tom and Ollie as they wrapped
themselves in theirs; but a few moments later all three were sleeping
as soundly and as peacefully as though nothing more serious than
the story just told had disturbed the quiet routine and happiness of
their lives.
And thus, too dog-tired even for dreams, as oblivious to all that
was going on about them as they were themselves for the time
completely forgotten by the officers and men of their own company,
they slept on and on, hour after hour, unmindful and unknowing that
overhead—above the dark and hidden hole in which they lay
unheeded—their own advance army had moved out, and entirely
vanished in pursuit of the enemy; the whole American movement
pushing forward, circling about them, leaving them alone, forgotten,
abandoned.
The afternoon was well on the wane when Tom Walton, falling into
a dream of that foot race which had been the subject of their
conversation just before they slumbered off, awoke panting and as
breathless as though in fact he had just run a mile in record-breaking
time.
 For a moment he looked about the dark cavern dazedly, unable to
remember where he was or why he was there. Then slowly it began
to dawn upon him that he had been asleep for a long time, and he
rose hurriedly, throwing his blanket aside and hurrying up the short
ladder to the outside world above.
What he saw almost took his breath away. The thousands of men
who had been there when he and his two companions turned in for
their much-needed sleep were nowhere to be seen. The land all
about was a shell-torn desolation. Here and there lay corpses as grim
reminders of the awful struggle which had marked the taking of what
once had been the town of Thiaucourt; but so far as Tom could see
there was not a sign of life anywhere—except that which was
betokened in the dull booming of guns far, far to the northward.
Shouting to awaken George and Ollie, he descended part way into
the dug-out.
“Up, slackers!” he called, still rubbing the sleep out of his own
eyes, scarcely able as yet to fully comprehend the truth of the
situation.
As the other two lads raised tousled heads inquiringly out of the
warm depths of their blankets, peering at him blankly as exhausted
persons do in that first instant of suddenly being brought back to
wakefulness, Tom was up and out of the dug-out again, taking a
second survey of the scene, reviewing the events which had
preceded their turning in, casting about in his still muddled mind for
some explanation of the surprising situation he found himself and his
friends in.
What had happened? Why hadn’t they been summoned to join
their company whenever and wherever it went? A score of such
questions chased each other through his mind, to be capped with the
utterly disconcerting one—which way had the American army gone?
Had it advanced, even beyond sight and sound, or had it—had it
been compelled to retire?
 For an instant Tom shivered as though he suddenly had been
struck by a chilling wind, but in another he had regained his
assurance and confidence, for did not the booming of the guns to the
north indicate beyond question that there the battle raged anew—
that in the quick advance they had been forgotten and left there to
sleep away their fatigue?
Of course! And thus Tom quickly summed up the situation for his
two surprised friends when they emerged from the dug-out to
demand excitedly the whys and the wherefores of their sudden
awakening.
“Apparently the whole army that was in this section has gone
ahead for two or three miles,” Tom told them briefly. “We were
overlooked, which is a good warning that we should not place too
great a value upon ourselves, or overestimate our own importance.”
“But when,” demanded George Harper, excitedly, “when did all this
happen? I didn’t hear anything.”
“Nor I,” added Ollie, not without a sense of humor, even in the
most trying situation, “and yet the evidence is pretty conclusive.
Apparently it did happen, and right effectively, too.”
“Yes,” Harper admitted slowly, and then added: “I wonder whether
we’d be classed as deserters or deserted?”
“I feel like I did the day of that race, when I—” Ollie began, but
the rest was lost as he dodged suddenly to escape a well-aimed kick
from the irritated Harper.
It required Tom’s diplomacy to restore peace and calm
consideration of what they were to do in the situation confronting
them.
“Only one thing to it, as I see it,” said George Harper at last, “and
that is to head out toward the sound of those guns and just keep on
until we come up with some of our own men.”
“Yes, just keep on going, that’s you,” Ollie answered, his
mischievous nature again cropping out. “But how about your sense of
direction?”
A tart reply which Harper already had phrased upon his lips
remained unsaid as he abruptly pointed upward to where a big
aeroplane was approaching them from out of the north. They stood
silent as it came swiftly and majestically down the wind toward them.
“An American,” Tom announced at last, when able to make out the
markings on the machine. “Wish he’d come down and give us our
bearings.”
“Seems as if he was thinking of that himself,” said Ollie, as the
’plane nosed downward in its approach. “Maybe he’s got some engine
trouble and is going to make a landing.”
“Changed his mind,” Harper remarked, as the machine passed over
them, took an upward tack again, then at a higher altitude began
circling about them. “Looks as though he was sort of sizing us up.
Tom, why not signal him?”
Acting upon the suggestion, Tom, who was the only one of the
three who could talk in the arm signalling code, began to reveal their
identity, while if the maneuvers of the aeroplane were significant,
those in it looked on with interest.
“Americans seeking our own lines,” Tom spelled out with quick
upward and outward jerks and sweeps of both arms.
The three youths waited for something that might be taken as an
acknowledgment or reply, but none came, or, if it did, they were too
far away to see it; and a moment later the machine swept to the
eastward, swooped down so close to the ground that for a time it
was completely lost to sight behind a nearby wood, then rose again
and taking a wide swerve east and north finally disappeared entirely.
“He’s polite, anyway, whoever he is,” Ollie commented as they gave
up hope of the pilot having any intention of returning to them. “He
might at least have dropped us a biscuit or two.”
“Which reminds me that I’m pretty hungry myself,” admitted Tom
Walton.
 “Ravenous, better describes my awful emptiness,” said Harper,
“and I don’t see any hope of eats around here. Let’s get started.”
They descended together into the dug-out to roll their blankets and
get their equipment, but they were not to move on just then with the
freedom they had expected.
The aeroplane, camouflaged as an American machine, had done
some signalling, too, but not to the boys from Brighton. Its mission in
descending almost to earth behind the wood had been to make the
presence of the Americans known to a small detachment of Germans
which somehow had escaped detection in remaining there, and which
had been waiting for darkness to fall, in order to make an effort to
skirt the long American lines and join their own, further on.
And while Sergeant Tom Walton and Privates Ollie Ogden and
George Harper were down in the dug-out, totally ignorant of what
was going on above, half a dozen of these Germans had crept up and
concealed themselves in positions most advantageous to the capture
of the Americans.
The three youths had not moved fifty feet from the dug-out when
without the slightest warning, or time in which to fight back, they
found themselves entirely surrounded, a bayonet point jabbing the
stomach and back of each of them.
There was absolutely nothing they could do but surrender, and this
they did at the command of the officer in charge,—a lieutenant of
cavalry, as the lads noted from his uniform and insignia.
“A fine mess we’re in now,” Tom ejaculated, as their guns were
taken from them and they were instructed to march ahead of their
captors.
“Wonder where we’re bound for?” Ollie whispered in reply.
“Some place where they’ve got some eats, I hope,” George Harper
summed up, and as the first shadows of night began to fall they were
herded into the Germans’ hiding place, where they found a dozen
more Huns.
 Preparations of some sort were going forward, but to the extreme
disappointment of the famished youths it was apparent that it was
not for the serving of food. And it was not long before they became
aware that they were in for what looked like a long and fatiguing
march, although they had not eaten for many hours.
“Well,” said Ollie, when that matter seemed settled beyond all hope
or doubt, “we ought to be glad they didn’t shoot us, anyway.”
The sharp glance of a German near them was sufficient to warn
them against any further conversation.
 CHAPTER XIV

John Big Bear—Scout

B Y short stretches the Germans and their three American prisoners

had been pushing forward now for nearly two hours. The Huns
were not in ignorance of their own danger of capture, and their
progress was made with the utmost caution, the major number, with
Tom, Ollie and George, forming a central party, ahead of, behind and
on either side of which scouts reconnoitered constantly to avoid
contact with American outposts.
Even in the silence and secrecy that was necessary in that cautious
advance, the American youths had more than a taste of Hun
treachery and brutality. Apparently the Germans knew that their
prisoners were hungry, from having overheard their remarks
immediately after their capture. They were made aware of their
parched thirst when the lads asked for water.
And to aggravate their misery so far as possible, although the lads
were too proud to let it be seen that the acts even annoyed them,
the Germans, singly and in pairs, would walk directly in front of or
beside them, munching thick slices of their own brutal-looking
brown, or rather black, bread, or thrust the opening of a water bottle
to the lips of one of them, only to withdraw it quickly with a low
laugh when the youths thus sorely tempted would try to get at least
a swallow of the craved water.
“They’re barbarians; they are without human instincts or feelings,”
Tom hissed into the ear of Ollie, who walked in the middle of the trio,
“so try not to mind anything they do. Our best course is to ignore
what they do in their efforts to punish us, and to avoid aggravating
them any further.”
At that moment Harper stumbled over a fallen tree branch and fell
to the ground, splintering and crashing the dead wood.
A gutteral oath just behind him was accompanied by a sharp
bayonet jab in the ribs. Harper was about to let out an involuntary
cry of mingled pain and anger when Tom, who well enough knew the
result would be more punishment, cautioned him, “Say nothing.” The
Boche, who did not understand English, peered at the sergeant
inquiringly through the darkness, but as Harper got up he did
nothing worse than give him a vigorous shove forward.
They were now closely skirting a long fringe of wood that seemed
to run almost directly northeast and southwest, and even the men
who were stretched out ahead and on either side as “feelers” for the
American forces kept well within its shadows, for the rising moon
was bathing the whole countryside in its light, and objects,
particularly if they were moving, could be discerned at a considerable
distance. Occasionally they came upon the body of a dead soldier,
the stark and staring eyes acquiring an added touch of ghastliness in
the pale lunar light.
Occasionally the dull hum of an aeroplane motor would be heard
in the distance, its sound rising to a roar as it approached and
passed, but practically all the time it was within hearing the small
band of Germans remained in hiding among the trees, and although
sometimes the lads could see the machines so plainly that it seemed
they might attract attention to themselves with a shout, they never
were discovered by the pilots or their observers.
As this continued, and the distance covered made it seem as
though they must now be paralleling, if not actually already by, the
American lines, the youths became more and more depressed. The
aeroplanes passed above them without knowing they were there,
and thus far not a single American patrol had been encountered. The
outlook was not encouraging. It began to look as though Tom
Walton, George Harper and Ollie Ogden were to be ushered out of
hostilities and into a German prison camp for the duration of the war.
Without a spoken word, but in glances as eloquent as any speech,
the young men questioned one another as to the possibilities of
escape; but though each cast about desperately in quest of what
might look like the slightest promise or the smallest opportunity,
none presented, and the three tramped on, striving to go along so
quietly and unobtrusively as to allay all suspicion upon the part of
their captors that they might even be contemplating escape. Each
felt that if they could succeed in this, then the Germans might
become less watchful, and perhaps, later on, when the Huns were
more weary with their tramp and constant caution of attracting
attention to themselves, they might drop behind and not be missed
until they had made good their escape.
Optimism is an American characteristic, but particularly it prevails
in the happy, care-free, sturdy American youth, and these three lads
were of the sturdiest stock and could trace their forebears back to
Revolutionary times.
It is good, too, that invariably with optimism goes courage and
self-possession, or Sergeant Tom Walton might have gasped out his
astonishment, or cried out in involuntary consternation, when he
happened to glance upward just as a Boche in front of him struck a
match to light his pipe.
There in the branches of a tree just above him, almost near
enough for him to have touched it with a slight jump, a face peered
down at him!
It was all in the space of a few seconds, but as the man there in
the branches stared back at him, not a muscle of his countenance
moving, his eyes blinking ever so slightly from the sudden flare of
light from the match, Tom recognized in that swarthy personage one
whom he knew—a man of iron strength, of indomitable will, of
almost uncanny ability in following a trail—John Big Bear, Indian
scout for Uncle Sam, one time crack rider and dead shot with Buffalo
Bill’s Wild West!
 Tom Walton could have shouted then and there from sheer
happiness, for he recognized in John Big Bear the equal in strength,
courage and swiftness of action, of any six Germans who could be
picked from the Kaiser’s crack Prussian Guards. But instead of
shouting, or even by any other utterance or slightest sign, permitting
John Big Bear’s proximity to become known, Tom simply flashed back
a look of understanding, to which John Big Bear vouchsafed but the
slightest nod, and then the match went out, darkness again closed
them in, and the Indian scout was left to the rear, still perched in the
tree to which evidently he had climbed the better to observe the
numerical strength of the enemy he had heard approaching.
It was perhaps a hundred yards further on, and while they were
still hugging closely to the shadows of the wood, that Tom had an
opportunity, a few quickly whispered words at a time, to impart a
knowledge of what he had observed to Ollie. And a little later Ollie,
by the same guarded process, informed George Harper.
They were now prepared for any eventuality, for they felt
absolutely certain that John Big Bear, to whom all three had been
friendly on more than one occasion, never would permit them to be
taken prisoners to the German lines without some brave effort at
rescue.
The question agitating the minds of the three lads was whether he
would attempt this alone, or by assistance which he might procure
from the nearest detachment of Americans.
Knowledge of John Big Bear’s nature made it more than an even
supposition that he would try it without going far afield for other
assistance, and especially did the lads believe this to be true now
that he was certain that they knew of his proximity; for once he
launched his plan, whatever it might be, he could count upon their
assistance to carry it through.
Naturally, therefore, they were keenly on edge, and at the slightest
untoward sound, even so slight that the Germans themselves did not
seem to notice, they were ready either for a wild dash for liberty, a
running fight, or a man-to-man struggle right upon the spot.
 But the lads themselves, expectant as they were, hardly were
prepared for the wily Indian warfare of John Big Bear.
They were in a particularly shadowed spot when Tom thought he
heard the slightest grunt, or it might have been a suppressed
hiccough, from the German not two feet away from him and acting
as their guard upon the right. There wasn’t anything at all unusual
about the sound. Tom turned a merely casual glance in that
direction, and but for a slight nudge from a lithe form which had
carried the German speechless and motionless to the ground, he
would have come to a sudden halt.
John Big Bear was at work! And already he had disposed of one
Boche—or was at that instant disposing of him—and without a single
one of the other Germans realizing that anything had happened.
As Tom continued on he managed to cast one sidelong glance at
the two forms locked together upon the ground. With his powerful
left hand John Big Bear, trusty scout for Uncle Sam, had the German
in a throat stranglehold, and before the under man could begin to
writhe free, or so much as utter a groan, a knife which the Indian
held in his uplifted right hand descended with tremendous force and
unerring aim.
With His Powerful Left Hand John Big Bear had the German
in a Throat Stranglehold.
 Tom knew that the Hun had died instantly and with only a flash of
pain as the steel blade penetrated his heart!
Instinctively, rather than by any sound he heard, Tom knew that
John Big Bear, as silently as the wild animals he had stalked years
before in his native woods in the great northwest of the United
States, was approaching again. He gave Ollie the barest nudge, and
he in turn relayed the warning to Harper.
Tom felt a slight touch upon his arm. It was startling, even
uncanny, to know that a man could move so silently and stealthily
that he might be right beside one and his presence remain unknown
until he, himself, revealed it. In the darkness the Indian pressed a
finger against Tom’s lips, then put the automatic pistol which had
been the German’s into his hand.
“Wait!” was the one word he barely breathed into Tom’s ear, and
the latter knew he was only to use the firearm when John Big Bear
directed. And he was entirely content to trust to John Big Bear’s
judgment in such an emergency as this.
A moment later the German who had been stalking along beside
George Harper, as the guard on the left, went the way of the Hun
before him. Like a panther the Indian leapt upon him, strangling the
breath from him and swiftly bearing him to the ground at the same
time, and all so silently that no one else was the wiser.
Each of the lads realized what they had not before—that it was a
crafty determination to learn all that could be taught him about his
own work in life, and not any lack either of strength or agility, which
had caused the Indian time and again to go down to apparent defeat
in wrestling matches with a powerful and practiced Japanese athlete
who was a member of Company M in their same regiment.
This Jap, descendant of a race of men noted for their agility and
wrestling ability, their strength and suppleness and cat-like
quickness, was an acknowledged peer of that mat, even among men
of his own nationality, but more than once, after he had thrown John
Big Bear only with the most evident effort, the lads had seen him
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