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Smart Governance for Smart Cities and Nations

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DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2024.07.003

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Smart governance for smart cities and nations

Z.R.M. Abdullah Kaiser a,b,⁎,1
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a
Department of Public Policy & Administration, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
b
Department of Public Administration, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: There is an increasing emphasis on utilizing ICT to drive global governmental transformation to
Smart Bangladesh enhance efficiency and cost-effective service delivery. Smart governance represents a novel and
Smart Governance data-driven progressive approach, prioritizing intelligence in operations, upholding an excep­
Smart City tional standard of public administration, and contributing to the development of smart cities and
Smart Economy
nations. A smart city uses advanced technology and innovation to augment urban life and effi­
Digital Transformation
ciency to ensure sustainability and a smart nation extends these principles across regions.
Innovation
e-Government Although smart governance is a priority in building smart cities and nations, its challenges and
Stakeholder strategies are still not well-defined from the perspective of developing a smart nation and city.
Smart Government Smart Bangladesh is an inclusive digital transformation initiative and a grand vision of the
government, advancing towards becoming a developed, prosperous, and smart nation by focusing
on four key pillars: smart citizens, smart government, smart economy, and smart society. This
study involved interviews with multi-level stakeholders and served as a preliminary step toward
providing insights into and understanding the significant challenges and priorities in trans­
forming a smart country and building smart cities. The research identifies fourteen prime chal­
lenges of smart governance that are pivotal for transforming Bangladesh into a smart nation and
creating smart cities. Among these, stakeholders particularly emphasize the need for adminis­
trative reform, robust smart infrastructure, finance, uninterrupted electricity, strong data privacy
and security, and effective big data management as crucial to the success of the country's vision.
The analysis proposes a conceptual framework based on stakeholders' priorities that can serve as
a practical guideline for practitioners to develop a strategic roadmap for effective preparedness to
transition to a smart nation and build smart cities. The study fills a research gap in governance
theory concerning the evolution of transformative technology-based governance, particularly
emphasizing the significance of smart governance in the development of smart nations and cities.

1. Introduction

In the field of public administration, scholars have long pursued the concept of a "good society," a term rooted in the intellectual
heritage of notable figures from Machiavelli to Marx, characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and centralized planning,
devoid of poverty, corruption, and significant wealth disparities (Frederickson et al., 2015). This vision is reflected in the

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Public Policy & Administration, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link].
1
Orcid ID: [Link]

[Link]
Received 19 June 2024; Received in revised form 16 July 2024; Accepted 17 July 2024
Available online 23 July 2024
2949-9488/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license ([Link]
Z.R.M.A. Kaiser Journal of Economy and Technology 2 (2024) 216–234

contemporary concept of "smart governance," which seeks the pursuit of efficient governance and improved urban outcomes through
technological innovation (Jiang, 2021). The use of cutting-edge technologies, innovation, the Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial
intelligence (AI) is increasingly evident in the implementation of smart governance globally. Smart governance is employed to
enhance administrative services and promote the development of smart cities and nations. Smart governance focuses on citizen-
centric digital platforms, and innovative solutions prioritize resource distribution and social welfare, increase transparency, and
strengthen public engagement and services (Liang, Liu and Wang, 2023; Van Dinh et al., 2020; Dameri, 2017; Bifulco et al., 2016).
Moreover, this innovative governance system employs data-driven approaches to improve government processes and promote sus­
tainable development (Jiang, 2021; Palumbo et al., 2023; Kaiser, 2023a; Bibri, 2021; Valle-Cruz et al. 2020). Integration of smart
technologies in various public service domains hugely contributes to increasing efficiency, safety, security, and inclusivity in gov­
ernment services (Farmanbar et al., 2019; Kylili and Fokaides, 2015; Palumbo et al., 2023; Bibri, 2021; Ranchordás, 2020; Valle-Cruz
et al. 2020; Liu et al., 2017). Progress in smart governance within smart cities and nations has shown promise in promoting sus­
tainable development and improving societal outcomes in various domains. This advancement has also significantly improved public
services and made significant contributions to national progress and environmental stewardship through multifaceted strategies.
A smart city represents a contemporary urban landscape where technologies are harnessed to improve public services, improve
the living standards of residents, and promote sustainability. Toh (2022) and Bibri (2021) underscore that a smart city leverages
information and communication technologies, alongside other innovative methods, to optimize urban operations, enhance the
quality of life, and foster greater efficiency. By integrating these technologies, smart cities aim to create more sustainable, efficient,
and livable urban spaces for their residents. The smart city concept encompasses six key dimensions: "smart living, smart mobility,
smart environment, smart economy, smart governance, and smart people" (Albino et al., 2015). Among these components, smart
governance plays a key role in implementing and operating the smart city project. Smart governance in the smart city domain
contributes to benefiting citizens through the promotion of social cohesion (Ahvenniemi et al., 2017), improvement of quality of life
(Ahad et al., 2020), and stimulation of urban economies (Rosenzweig et al. 2018). As a result, integrating digital technology into
urban governance enhances city residents' quality of life while benefiting the economy, society, and the environment. Meanwhile, a
smart nation extends these principles across regions to boost national growth and maximize the quality of life.
A smart nation has an interconnected infrastructure optimized through communication and data collection from various entities
to build a nation where citizens benefit from smart technology, improving lifestyles and achieving sustainability, faster and smart
governance services, personal comfort, and security (Bhati et al., 2017). The smart nation initiative encompasses not only particular
areas or cities but also a comprehensive, nationwide effort focusing on smart infrastructure, governance, transportation, healthcare,
and economic development. A key aspect of the initiative is the open sharing of government data with the public to foster colla­
borative solution development (Hoe, 2016). Like a smart city, a smart country seeks to maximize its utilization of technology and
innovation to improve the well-being of its inhabitants and strengthen its competitiveness. Particularly, it concentrates on govern­
ance supported by robust cybersecurity measures and transformative technology. Therefore, this effort requires cooperation among
the government, industry, and individuals, facilitated by sophisticated infrastructure, open data policies, and the development of
novel skills and administrative capabilities (Ho, 2017; Hoe, 2016). Considering all the points, it can be inferred that the smart nation
or country initiative embodies a comprehensive strategy encompassing smart infrastructure development, technological innovation,
e-participation, and administrative reforms to foster a more interconnected, efficient, prosperous, resilient, and sustainable nation.
However, the smart nation concept is still evolving, and Singapore is working to accomplish this colossal task. It is challenging for any
country worldwide to attain smart nation status, especially when it is a large, developing economy with a huge population.
Bangladesh's vision to transform into "Smart Bangladesh," a smart nation, has made significant technological strides, particularly
in smart governance and digital service accessibility, showcasing a strong commitment to technological advancement (A2I 2024).
Notably, implementing a smart governance system has been a key step in attaining Smart Bangladesh's four pivotal pillars: smart
citizen, smart government, smart economy, and smart society, and transforming its cities and villages into smart cities and smart
villages (A2I 2024). Previously, the country has taken the "Digital Bangladesh," which emphasizes only technological adoption in
government services and digitalization (Bhuiyan, 2011; Kaiser, 2023a). Smart governance for Smart Bangladesh, beyond technology
adoption, involves optimal data use in decision-making, integration of government functions, and enhanced citizen empowerment
through advanced technology. Despite these advancements, challenges in realizing the smart nation vision remain, specifically the
lack of expert literature identifying core challenges and strategies for overcoming them. Addressing these challenges is vital for
providing a roadmap for policymakers and enriching governance theory, contributing to the global discourse on smart governance,
and ensuring an inclusive, sustainable transition for Smart Bangladesh. Therefore, this paper explores the potential of smart gov­
ernance as an enabler for building a smart nation, examining the challenges and identifying policy implications for truly transforming
into a smart nation and implementing smart cities and villages.
To address the knowledge gap in the literature on smart governance, particularly in the context of transforming a country into a
smart nation and building smart cities, this study poses two fundamental research questions: What do multi-level stakeholders from
the private sector, public sector, NGOs, and academia identify as the principal challenges of smart governance in a country's tran­
sition to a smart nation and the building of smart cities? What are the multi-sector stakeholders' priorities for overcoming these
challenges? To address these questions, this research employs a qualitative methodology, focusing on detailed descriptions of par­
ticipants' experiences, understandings, emotions, knowledge, and beliefs (Aspers and Corte, 2019; Lune and Berg, 2017). The study
conducted semi-structured interviews with stakeholders from several sectors, including government officials, ICT experts, academics,
and representatives of non-profit organizations. These interviews provide us insights into stakeholders' viewpoints on challenges and
solutions for the transformation to a Smart Bangladesh. In addition to conducting these interviews, the study also extensively re­
viewed secondary sources such as journal articles, books, strategic plans, reports, and policy documents, as mentioned by Denney and

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Tewksbury (2013) regarding secondary literature. The analysis aims to identify and articulate the challenges and explore differences
in perceptions among different stakeholder groups. This study emphasizes the essential need to address varying priorities and po­
tential conflicts that might arise when implementing smart governance strategies in a smart nation and city.
This research makes a unique contribution to the development of smart governance in building smart cities and nations. It fills a
substantial gap in the current literature by providing a comprehensive analysis of the application and relevance of smart governance.
The study leads to insightful findings and well-reasoned conclusions, including a strategic blueprint for establishing a smart city and
nation. Emphasizing the integration of smart and transformative technologies into governance processes, this research underlines the
importance of transparency, technological sophistication, citizen engagement, improving quality of life, and enhancing public ser­
vices. By offering a technology-based citizen-centric model and strategies to enhance public involvement in governance, the study
provides a template for other developing countries. It contributes significantly to scholarly discourse, underlining the indispensability
of technology-enriched governance for a progressive, sustainable, and smart country.
This article has eight main sections. Following this introduction, the next section presents the theoretical framework, discussing
smart governance and its components and model. Then, a brief overview of Smart Bangladesh and its four pillars. This is followed by
a detailed explanation of the study's methodology, including data collection and analysis techniques. Subsequently, the article
presents its findings, focusing on the challenges of implementing smart governance to become a smart country and build smart cities
and comparing stakeholder challenges. After the findings, there is a comprehensive discussion section that delves deeper into the
implications of these findings and the priorities of stakeholders regarding smart governance. The article concludes with a final section
outlining the study's unique contribution, limitations, and suggestions for future research.

2. Theoretical frameworks and model

2.1. Smart governance and its components

ICTs are essential to modern administration and serve as the backbone for the evolution of e-government and e-governance (Estevez
and Janowski, 2013). The advanced technologies facilitate the transition from traditional government operations to more integrated,
efficient, and participatory models, known as smart governance. A robust smart governance framework incorporates several components,
such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, data analytics, blockchain, and the Internet of Things (IoT) in its governance system.
By utilizing these technologies, governments can process large volumes of data swiftly, thereby improving decision-making processes and
delivering better citizen services. Jiang (2021) argues that smart governance can improve the efficiency and responsiveness of govern­
ments. By leveraging advanced technologies and data analytics, governments can promote the development of smart cities and nations that
are better equipped to meet the needs of their populations in a transparent and efficient manner. These benefits can be significant and act
as catalysts for growth. Fig. 1 delineates the fundamental elements constituting smart governance, emphasizing smart government and
other components as a critical aspect. These components underscore the adoption of ICT for administrative efficacy (Kim et al., 2022), the
importance of meeting citizen demands (MacLean and Titah, 2022), and the need for effective operational management to foster tech­
nology-empowered governance (Charalabidis and Koussouris, 2012). In addition, smart governance integrates different functionalities
with ethical, legal, and normative standards, ensuring practices align with principles such as transparency, accountability, inclusivity, and
public engagement (Tay et al., 2018). The integration of technology is critical for governments to establish a better connection with their
citizens and promote democratic engagement. Scholl and AlAwadhi (2016) suggest the use of agile and perceptive approaches in policy-
making to efficiently respond to technological advancements. These approaches involve utilizing ICTs to enhance effectiveness and create
platforms that encourage citizen participation, data-driven decision-making, and democratic engagement.
Smart governance has numerous benefits, but it also has potential drawbacks. For instance, it is crucial to ensure the privacy and
security of government data to protect individual privacy and prevent any infringements. Citizen participation is essential, but it is
often limited due to the digital divide, which marginalizes certain demographics, and a general lack of interest in civic engagement
(Pansera et al., 2022; Przeybilovicz et al., 2022). Furthermore, as we know, using technology effectively in smart governance is
essential. This involves using digital tools to enable one-way and two-way communication, e-participation, policy support, data
collection and management, and collaboration. However, an excessive reliance on complex technological projects can reduce un­
derstanding and participation, highlighting the importance of maintaining face-to-face interactions for effective collaboration be­
tween citizens and the government. Data security and privacy are of utmost importance in today's technologically advanced society.
Decentralized e-government systems that use blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI) are recommended to improve privacy and
maintain data integrity (Yang et al., 2019). Conversely, an excessive reliance on technology-driven solutions is often considered to
hinder the provision of services to the broader public (Jiang, 2021). This presents challenges such as cyberattack security risks, the
need for initial funding and ongoing maintenance, and dependence on foreign expertise and technology to operate governmental
services (Popova and Popovs, 2023). To address these challenges, future endeavors should prioritize improving security protocols and
incorporating AI capabilities, such as automated registration, to strengthen system security and privacy. Collaborative efforts in smart
governance aim to establish partnerships and alliances that utilize shared expertise to promote innovation and enhance service
delivery, resulting in a strong and flexible governance model. Therefore, participatory governance theories emphasize direct citizen
inclusion in decision-making processes rather than relying predominantly on technological solutions. With the advancement of
urbanization and the growing participation of citizens in governance, technology has become a crucial element in contemporary
cities and nations. To achieve efficient smart governance, it is crucial to establish comprehensive frameworks and protocols that
seamlessly incorporate technology, citizens, and governments while surpassing existing limitations. The subsequent subsection will
present an elaborate overview of the smart governance model.

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Fig. 1. Components of smart governance.

2.2. Smart governance model

In this study, a smart governance model has been developed to evaluate the preparedness and challenges of smart governance (See
Fig. 2). This model is based on the findings of Bolívar and Meijer (2016), Mergel et al. (2019), and Meijer and Bolívar (2016), and it
utilizes a comprehensive framework that includes inputs, outputs, and outcomes. The model encompasses a range of tangible ac­
complishments, results, and impacts. "Inputs" refer to essential modifications and strategies for implementation, such as adjustments
to policies, reforms in legislation, and the reallocation of resources. "Outputs" refer to tangible accomplishments, such as open data,
use of ICT, innovation, collaboration, finance, and citizen engagement. "Outcomes" refers to the results or effects of these im­
plementations, which can result in enhancements in services, procedures, relationships, and policies. This study will also investigate
Bangladesh's progress in becoming a smart nation and building smart cities using this model.

3. Smart Bangladesh: building a developed, prosperous and smart nation

Under the auspices of the "Smart Bangladesh Vision 2041," the government of Bangladesh is spearheading a transformative
agenda aimed at remolding the nation into a beacon of technological advancement by 2041. A "smart Bangladesh" is characterized by
leveraging cutting-edge technologies, networks, and data to develop technological solutions that support and enhance national
development. This ambitious initiative revolves around four pivotal pillars: smart citizens, smart government, smart economy, and
smart society (See detailed in Fig. 3). According to Aspire to Innovate, Smart Bangladesh aims to become a high-income nation with a
GDP per capita of over $12,500, achieving zero extreme poverty with less than 3 % overall poverty. It targets macroeconomic
stability with 4–5 % inflation, budget deficits capped at 5 % of GDP, and boosts in investment and tax revenues to 40 % and 20 % of
GDP, respectively. To leverage its demographic dividend, the country plans to ensure that 100 % of high school students achieve
digital literacy and implement universal health financing. With 80 % urbanization and complete electrification, mostly from re­
newable sources, it also intends to offer 100 % paperless and cashless public services, accessible instantly in the preferred manner of

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-Public trust and citizen

satisfaction

-Fastest and efficient services

Fig. 2. Smart governance model.

all citizens (Chowdhury, 2023; A2I 2024). The Bangladesh government has undertaken several projects to advance the vision of
Smart Bangladesh and its four pillars. Below are the core matters, strategies, projects, and outcomes for each pillar.

3.1. Smart citizens

The "Smart Citizens" entails nurturing individuals who are equipped with digital literacy, quality education, entrepreneurship
skills, and a smart apps-based lifestyle, all of which improve quality of life. The government of Bangladesh envisions its smart citizens
leveraging technological advancements to solve local issues and actively participate in civic decision-making, improving their lives,
communities, and nation (A2I 2024). Consequently, the country focuses on education, updating its curriculum to include techno­
logical knowledge and enhancing technical and vocational education and IT skill development programs for its smart citizens.

3.2. Smart government

"Smart Government" initiatives aim to augment services through technological integration within governmental domains.
Bangladesh is advancing toward creating paperless offices, implementing smart grids, and enhancing data security, alongside in­
troducing the Internet of Things (IoT) and artificial intelligence (AI) to improve transparency, efficiency, and effectiveness in service
delivery. Moreover, smart government employs advanced information and communication technologies to enhance governance at all
levels, offering a unified platform for multiple solutions (A2I 2024). These improvements can be realized through smart technology,
collaboration, and strategic management, which optimize public service delivery and enable data-driven decision-making. The
adoption of smart tools by government agencies in Bangladesh, such as e-passport distribution, various smart apps for public services,
several hotline numbers for public services and emergencies, such as 999 for emergency helpline, digital land mutations, e-Nothi (a
digital filing system), and the Integrated Budget and Accounting System (iBAS++) for managing government salaries, have been
significantly contributing to the progress toward achieving Smart Bangladesh.

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Smart city and

Fig. 3. Four main pillars of vision Smart Bangladesh.

3.3. Smart Economy

Developing a "Smart Economy" that underpins competitiveness and sustainability. Bangladesh has set a goal for Vision 2041 to
create a smart economy that melds technological advancements with innovative entrepreneurial initiatives and sustainable practices
to enhance social well-being, productivity, and competitiveness. Bangladesh is presently developing the Ninth Five-Year Plan with
the primary focus on achieving Smart Bangladesh status, attaining the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and
reaching high-income country status by 2041. The primary vision encompasses establishing a cashless economy, modernization of
infrastructure, and advancements in financial technology. To achieve this economic objective, it is necessary to encourage innovation
and adaptability in the job market, enhance the business environment, and support the community and economic stability through
deliberate growth and the cultivation of a skilled workforce. Various mega projects such as the Padma Bridge 6.15 km (3.82 mi),
Dhaka Metro Rail, double-lane rail across the country, and expansion of four and six-lane highways nationwide have been con­
tributing significantly to achieving its economic vision.

3.4. Smart society

The development of a "Smart Society" centers around tackling urgent social challenges, such as poverty and gender inequality, in
accordance with SDG 1, which focuses on ending poverty, and SDG 5, which focuses on gender equality. Bangladesh government's
Ashrayan Project has effectively rehabilitated 5,55,617 families without land or homes. Its objective is to promote inclusive devel­
opment by providing shelter for every landless or homeless family. The smart society's vision is to utilize sophisticated digital
technologies to merge data from various sectors and provide innovative resolutions to challenges such as urbanization, transpor­
tation, and public health, thus promoting inclusiveness and fairness. The objective of this data-centric approach is to establish a
society devoid of poverty, narrow the gap in access to digital resources, and enhance the overall standard of living. The government
has commenced initiatives to convert villages into smart villages and cities into smart cities, utilizing artificial intelligence and big
data to dismantle barriers between sectors and improve overall societal well-being and quality of life.
Despite challenges such as constrained resources and a scarcity of skilled professionals, the initiative holds the potential for
significant enhancements. The blueprint for success rests on a fourfold foundation: smart government, smart citizens, smart economy,
and smart society. With a spotlight on digital literacy and ethical tech use, the vision for a smart society is to harness technology to

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Research Questions:
RQ1: What do multi-level stakeholders from the private sector, public sector, NGOs, and
academia identify as the principal challenges of smart governance in a country's transition
to a smart nation and the building of smart cities?
RQ2: What are the multi-sector stakeholder priorities for overcoming these challenges?

1) Literature review and choosing 2) Select the respondents based on the

the method literature review and the chosen method

4) Data cleaning, transcribed and 3) Conduct the interview and collect

analysis qualitative data

Identifying key challenges for Smart Bangladesh is essential for the vision's success

Stakeholders prioritizing the transformation to a smart nation and building smart cities
and overcoming challenges

Development of a conceptual framework based on stakeholders’ priorities for Smart

Bangladesh

Fig. 4. Research process flow.

improve living conditions. An ICT-driven smart economy is deemed essential for economic proliferation. Smart Bangladesh is on a
quest to forge a developed, enlightened, and tech-savvy populace, thereby stimulating innovation and entrepreneurship for a
flourishing and secure society. Particularly, the government requires involving multi-level stakeholders in their vision for earlier
recognition of the challenges and overcoming strategies.

4. Method and materials

A qualitative approach employing an in-depth interview methodology is used to answer the selected research questions. The study
employed a qualitative methodology because enabling the collection of rich and contextual data from research participants. This
included thorough and detailed descriptions of their experiences, insights, emotions, and convictions (Aspers and Corte, 2019).
Additionally, this approach facilitated the elucidation of implicit information, making it more explicit (Lune and Berg, 2017). The
research process flow is provided in Fig. 4. To initiate the process, a thorough examination of existing literature is conducted to
gather relevant information and insights on the chosen topic (Van Wee and Banister, 2023). This search helps to establish a foun­
dation of knowledge and identify gaps in current research, informing subsequent steps in the study. The findings are then described as
a conceptual framework for smart governance issues and their associated solutions. This qualitative research approach incorporates
systematic interviews at an individual level with a limited number of respondents to determine their opinions on a given scenario. In-
depth interviews are deemed worthwhile when full information on the ideas and views of the subject is necessary, or there is a wish to
study unique problems in detail (Leech, 2002). Respondents included stakeholders, public sector officials and representatives, aca­
demics like university professors, smart governance researchers, private sectors such as ICT specialists, businessmen, journalists, and
non-profit sectors such as policy analysts and civil society members. Stakeholders were defined as those related to or interested in

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Table 1
Demographic information of the interviewees.

Stakeholder Group Number Percentage Cumulative percentage

Private sector stakeholder 12 32

ICT Expert 6 16 16
Businessman 3 8 24
Journalist 3 8 32
Public sector stakeholder 10 26
Elected representatives 3 8 39
Government officials 7 18 58
Academic stakeholder 10 26
Smart city researchers 2 5 63
University professor (Policy, Science and Engineering depts) 8 21 84
Nonprofit stakeholder 6 16
Policy activists 3 8 92
Civil society organization 3 8 100
Education
Doctoral degree 8 21 21
Graduate degree 15 39 61
Bachelor's degree 7 18 79
Other 6 16 95
Preferred not to answer 2 5 100
Work Experience
1–4 years 8 21 21
5–9 years 10 26 47
10 years or more 16 42 89
Preferred not to answer 4 11 100

smart governance and Smart Bangladesh. Initial interviewees were identified through researcher contacts and a review of organi­
zational websites and documents. The snowball sampling method was then employed to recruit additional participants from the
networks of initial interviewees. This method continued until theoretical saturation was achieved, meaning no new information was
gained from further interviews. This technique, known for its relatively efficient and cost-effective, is widely used in various qua­
litative research studies. The study included a total of thirty-eight interviewees. Table 1 provides a summary of the demographic
information of these interviewees.

4.1. In-depth interviews

Purposive and snowball sampling were used to choose respondents to interview. The interview was conducted with the help of the
researcher's vast network of government officials, university academics, IT professionals, civil society groups, and politicians, as well
as from the review of existing literature. To identify respondents, forty-six stakeholders from the fields specified above were con­
tacted; however, only thirty-eight were ready to participate. According to Bryman (2016), the ideal number of interviewees for an in-
depth study is between ten and forty. After getting the interviewee's permission, the reason for the interview is restated, and the
consent form is collected. In-depth interviews with thirty-eight respondents were performed between February 2023 and June 2023
to collect extensive primary data on smart governance for transforming the country into a Smart Bangladesh. The study carried out
the interviews in settings that were comfortable for the participants, which included their offices, places of employment, homes, or
remotely through phone calls or Zoom sessions. The interviews were carried out using a semi-structured methodology. The interview
instrument was formulated using the semi-structured interview guidelines proposed by Adams (2015) and Kallio et al. (2016). These
guidelines effectively capture stakeholders' explicit and implicit perceptions through inquiries about their desires, aspirations, pre­
ferences, and concerns toward others. To tailor the instrument for this study, the definition of smart governance was expanded
beyond the physical infrastructure to also include the broader social, economic, and environmental aspects that are related to the idea
of a Smart Bangladesh. The interview instrument consisted of five sections, each addressing distinct facets of smart governance and
the development of a Smart Bangladesh. These sections include background information such as profession, education, and work
experience and their role in smart governance and Smart Bangladesh; general perception regarding Smart Bangladesh; perception
regarding success and failure of Vision 2021 digital Bangladesh; concerns or key challenges about smart governance and Smart
Bangladesh implementation, suggestions for overcoming smart governance limitations. Respondents' identities were withheld to
protect their privacy. Their comments are cited when applicable, and their thoughts are utilized for thematic analysis. During data
collection and analysis, the study adhered to all the ethical guidelines for research (Van Thiel, 2014). Multiple rigorous methodol­
ogies were utilized to address bias in this qualitative study. Every interviewer received extensive training to ensure consistent
delivery of questions and impartial handling of responses, promoting uniformity throughout the interviews. Before each interview,
the objectives of the study were explained, and the anonymity of all interviewees was guaranteed. Researchers practiced reflexivity
by consciously examining their biases and assessing their potential impact on the research process. To enhance reliability, data were
coded independently by multiple researchers, and the consistency of the coding was evaluated to measure inter-coder reliability.
These steps collectively enhance the integrity and reliability of the research findings.

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4.2. Data analysis

The data collected in the field was cleaned, edited, and organized before being analyzed. Field notes and data were rigorously
edited, proofread, and simplified, and interviews were recorded and transcribed in the respondents' original language. After the data
was translated into English, NVivo 14 qualitative data analysis software was used to organize the transcripts into a taxonomy of coded
categories and their subcategories. NVivo 14 is a software designed to analyze various data types such as text, audio, video, and
images, encompassing interviews, focus groups, surveys, and literature (Phillips and Lu, 2018). The research aimed to find a con­
nection between the respondents' feelings and the wider socioeconomic context in which they were expressed by studying the
transcripts. The study's aim was explained clearly and lucidly using thematic analysis to discover recurring themes, patterns, and
trends in improving and deteriorating the nation's governance. Finally, the research examined the qualitative data's recurrent themes,
insights, and interpretations. There have been thirty-eight interviews, each utilizing the same five-key question format relevant to the
smart governance component. 1) Setting: What were the most important challenges of implementing Smart Bangladesh? 2) Diffi­
culties—What are the most significant limitations of Bangladesh's existing governance? 3) Determining which important adjustments
must be made to implement the vision; 4) Evaluation and assessment of previous Vision 2021 Digital Bangladesh; 5) What are the key
solutions to overcome the current limitation and challenge of smart governance in Bangladesh for Smart Bangladesh? The utilization
of NVivo's robust features, such as query functions and visualizations, played a crucial role in analyzing the connections between
themes and visually representing data relationships. Additionally, to understand the stakeholders' identification of smart governance
challenges for smart nations and cities, the study conducted a quantitative analysis of qualitative interview data. This involved
converting the qualitative data into numerical values or percentages (Halevi Hochwald et al. (2023)). However, the study faced
challenges in obtaining a diverse sample and was limited by the inherent constraints of qualitative research, which restricted the
ability to generalize findings. Additionally, translating from the native language to English presented further difficulties.

5. Findings and analysis

The analysis rigorously evaluates the challenges hindering Bangladesh's ambition of evolving into a smarter nation and building
smart cities. By scrutinizing the current governmental landscape and potential future capabilities, it delves into the dynamics of smart
governance and its models. The study strategically aligns these challenges with the vision of a Smart Bangladesh, accentuating the
nexus between existing hurdles and the smart governance paradigm. In response to these intricacies, it proposes a meticulously
crafted policy framework tailored to the priorities of key stakeholders. This framework aims to pave the way for smart governance,
which is integral to realizing the aspirations of a Smart Bangladesh.

5.1. Challenges of smart governance in the development of smart cities and nations

This section thoroughly analyzes the challenges of implementing smart governance for a 'Smart Bangladesh' and building smart
cities, utilizing insights obtained from in-depth interviews. The research identifies fourteen major challenges to achieving the vision
of a Smart Bangladesh and developing smart cities. Fig. 5 displays a percentage table that effectively demonstrates the frequency of
each challenge, providing a clear comprehension of these issues from the perspective of the stakeholders.

5.2. Technical and infrastructural challenges

5.2.1. Deficiencies in smart infrastructure development

Fig. 5 illustrates that 95 % of stakeholders acknowledge the significant obstacle of creating smart infrastructure in Bangladesh's
pursuit of becoming a smart nation. Optimizing resource utilization through advanced ICT is crucial for smart infrastructure to meet
the demands of citizens. The main obstacles include restricted technology availability, inadequate network infrastructure, insufficient
ICT assistance, and unreliable internet connectivity. Stakeholders highlight that in Bangladesh, akin to many developing nations,
challenges such as scarce smart device availability, restricted bandwidth, slow internet speeds, insufficient digital literacy, and high
access costs are major impediments to progress. Moreover, the country's e-government index ranking is poor compared to other
countries. Therefore, a robust, comprehensive ICT infrastructure, seamlessly integrating smart devices, is indispensable for the
functionality of a smart country. An IT expert astutely notes, "The dearth of infrastructure and resources is a formidable barrier to smart
governance in Bangladesh, especially in rural areas devoid of modern amenities like electricity and high-speed internet. This exacerbates the
digital divide and complicates the implementation of technology-driven governance and service delivery."

5.2.2. Challenges in ensuring uninterrupted electricity and smart grid implementation

The consensus among stakeholders is that a consistent electricity supply is pivotal for Bangladesh's ambition to evolve into a smart
country and build smart cities, a goal currently hampered by frequent power outages due to limited capacity, fuel scarcity, and
outdated equipment (Fig. 5). An academic respondent stresses, "Load shedding, resulting from inadequate power capacity and antiquated
machinery, critically impedes progress. Addressing these issues is crucial for Bangladesh's transformation into a smart nation; the vision is
unattainable without stable power." Additionally, respondents stress that developing a smart grid and integrating advanced circuit
technology is essential for meeting community demands and optimizing power distribution. This grid, facilitating bidirectional
communication and energy flow, would enable real-time monitoring and the integration of renewable energy sources. However, an IT
expert highlights, "An advanced, smart energy grid is imperative for realizing the country's smart nation vision, as the absence of an

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Fig. 5. The stakeholders identified challenges of smart governance.

uninterrupted power supply and a smart grid makes transformation unfeasible." Implementing such a grid in Bangladesh, grappling with
basic electricity provision, presents a formidable, almost utopian challenge. While a smart grid system offers benefits to power
companies and consumers, the transition faces significant hurdles in a nation still striving to provide an uninterrupted electricity
supply. Hence, stakeholders unanimously agree that a reliable electricity supply is essential to effectively implement smart gov­
ernance in Bangladesh.

5.2.3. Insufficient smart mobility solutions

Fig. 5 reveals that about two-thirds of stakeholders acknowledge the challenges in developing smart urban transportation, a vital
component of smart city-based nations. Stakeholders stress that this entails crafting advanced transportation technologies to enhance
road safety, streamline parking, and manage traffic efficiently. The consensus is that Bangladesh ensures the seamless integration of
technology into urban mobility. This approach addresses present challenges and anticipates future needs, fostering a more efficient,
safe, and sustainable urban governance and management essential for a smart nation and city. Consequently, smart mobility emerges
as a crucial facet of smart governance, instrumental in alleviating severe traffic congestion in various cities and bolstering the
economy.

5.2.4. Shortfall in research and innovation

Technological innovation, a continuous and integral process for Smart Bangladesh and smart cities, is currently hindered by the
government's minimal funding and logistic support, resulting in subpar research and innovation capabilities. In Fig. 5, over 60 % of
stakeholders identify enhancing research and innovation as a crucial challenge in Bangladesh's journey towards becoming a smart
nation and developing smart cities. As many respondents from the academic and non-profit sectors indicate, the existing infra­
structure for research and innovation is insufficient to support this ambitious transformation. Bangladesh's heavy reliance on foreign
technical support and devices underscores this gap. For instance, most of the technology and software used in government sectors are
developed by foreign-based companies. To address this, it is imperative that the government significantly increase investment and
allocate a dedicated budget for these sectors, promoting the development of technological institutions and human capital. A politician

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asserts, "The government should extend its funding to research universities and research institutions for innovation. These strategic steps are
vital for steering Bangladesh towards its goal of becoming a smart country, anchored in technological advancement and innovative thinking
using ICT, the Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial intelligence (AI)."

5.2.5. Digital divide

Fig. 5 shows that nearly three-quarters of respondents are concerned about the digital divide. Smart governance involves e-
governance systems, investment in digital infrastructure, promotion of computer literacy, and encouraging public participation
through digital platforms. Given that a large segment of Bangladesh's population is illiterate and lacks proficiency with smart devices,
bridging the digital divide and transforming them into smart citizens within the expected timeframe is challenging. As noted by most
respondents, "The general public's limited computer literacy impedes the transition to a smart nation, mirroring the widespread digital divide
experienced during the Digital Bangladesh initiative." Additionally, the digital unfamiliarity among the elderly and the struggles of public
servants in facilitating digital adoption are noteworthy. The influx of citizens in offices seeking online services further underscores the
need for comprehensive digital literacy and access initiatives.

5.3. Data management and security challenges

5.3.1. Insufficient data privacy and security

An overwhelming 95 % of stakeholders consider data privacy and security crucial challenges in developing smart cities in
Bangladesh, as highlighted in Fig. 5. Respondent mentioned that while efficient, the centralization of technology platforms increases
vulnerability to cyber threats, emphasizing the need for robust cybersecurity measures to protect individual privacy and safety. In the
realm of a smart nation, it is imperative to understand cyber threats and implement strategies for mitigating attacks, protecting
privacy, and enhancing security. One of the stakeholders emphasizes that, "Despite progress towards a Smart Bangladesh, significant gaps
remain in cybersecurity, lacking comprehensive policies, architectures, and technical solutions." Stakeholders also expressed concerns over
the increasing integration of ICTs, which amplifies the risk of cyberattacks, as highlighted by a recent major security breach in a
government website, compromising millions of personal data records. This incident underscores the urgent need for effective cy­
bersecurity measures and government action to address these vulnerabilities. Continuous training and heightened awareness are key
to combating emerging threats, maintaining citizen trust, and safeguarding the nation's digital security and reputation.

5.3.2. Insufficient big data management capacity

Effective big data management in Bangladesh demands a mix of contractual and relational governance, enhanced analytics,
knowledge exchange, collaboration, integrated processes, flexible infrastructure, and quality data sources. Fig. 5 shows that nearly
80 % of stakeholders recognize the challenge of inadequate big data management capacity in Bangladesh's pursuit of the Smart
Bangladesh vision. Moreover, stakeholders emphasized the need for synergy between big data providers, analysts, and decision-
makers to address fragmentation in data-driven decision-making. Additionally, decision-makers need to interpret big data analytics
effectively and comprehend their implications. Overcoming managerial challenges, such as leadership focus, talent development,
technology management, and organizational culture, is critical and often more pivotal than technical challenges. The Bangladeshi
government must undertake a comprehensive effort, focusing on human and technological resources and cultural adaptation, to
harness the full benefits of big data.

5.3.3. Scarcity of smart record management

Fig. 5 reveals that 84 % of respondents in this study identified digital record management as a significant challenge in Bangladesh.
Stakeholders highlight that effective and efficient smart record management, crucial for ensuring transparency, is plagued by sub­
stantial issues. There is an urgent need to update the country's outdated and flawed records and archive administration laws to
improve information accessibility, openness, and accountability. A notable deficiency in many public administrations is the lack of
professional records managers, who are essential for devising policies that guarantee public access to and accountability for gov­
ernment information. A university professor points out, "Public administrations in Bangladesh are inadequately pushing for enhanced
records management regulations, resulting in limited openness and heightened corruption risk." A non-profit stakeholder stresses that "The
current legal framework inadequately addresses key aspects of digital records management. Legislators urgently need to update the archives
and records management law to reflect modern values of openness, accountability, and public access, thus aligning record management
practices with contemporary governance and public service demands." Another stakeholder emphasized, "The government must prioritize the
safety and privacy of record management, especially in smart nation policies, to protect national and citizen records."

5.4. Politics, policy, regulation, and governance challenges

5.4.1. Policy and regulations challenges

84 % of stakeholders view adherence to policy and regulations as a key challenge in Bangladesh's ambitious journey to become a
smart country (Fig. 5). This aspiration demands a comprehensive and realistic master plan, not merely a declaration. The country's
current lack of robust regulatory frameworks and specific policies for smart nation development, especially optimally utilizing limited
resources, is a major concern. Additionally, the privacy and security of digital services require a strong legal framework to protect
personal data and prevent hacking and data breaches. The controversial Digital Security Act, introduced during the Digital Ban­
gladesh vision, underscored the need for policies that balance citizens' rights and security. Effective smart governance hinges on a

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solid policy framework, but historical trends reveal the government's past shortcomings in developing comprehensive policies. Thus,
crafting a timely, feasible, and forward-looking digital transformation policy represents a formidable challenge for Bangladesh. One
government sector stakeholder highlighted the necessity for a detailed year-wise plan and an evaluation system to track progress,
suggesting that "The Bangladesh government needs to modify its Smart Bangladesh policy based on evaluation reports, ensuring that the
country reaches its destination within the estimated time."

5.4.2. Political challenge

As highlighted in Fig. 5, nearly 80 % of stakeholders in Bangladesh identify political challenges as a significant impediment to
digital transformation. The interviewee stated that success in this arena hinges on political leaders' commitment, necessitating a
visionary approach and substantial investment in high-quality infrastructure to enhance public services and reduce costs. However,
political unrest and a tendency to disregard opposition parties' beneficial plans present major obstacles. The continuity of government
projects like Smart Bangladesh is threatened by changes in administration, which is compounded by a lack of trust between the
government and citizens, which critically hinders smart city developments. A private sector stakeholder notes, "The development of
'Smart Bangladesh' cannot prosper amidst political instability and distrust among political parties in Bangladesh. A smarter approach in
politics, including continuing the works of previous governments and mutual appreciation, is essential." Moreover, the interviewee highlights
that the volatile political environment intensifies the difficulty, as new leaders have the potential to modify project objectives,
policies, or staff, thereby disrupting the essential consistency required for long-term projects. The tumultuous political history,
characterized by frequent shifts in leadership and intense disagreements, contributes to the intricacy of government initiatives and
poses a monumental obstacle in the transition towards a technologically advanced Bangladesh.

5.4.3. Bureaucratic limitations

Fig. 5 indicates that more than two-thirds of stakeholders acknowledge bureaucratic procedures as a substantial obstacle to the
transformation of Bangladesh's traditional government into a smart government system. Non-profit and academic stakeholders focus
on the fact that the inflexibility of the current bureaucracy poses a significant obstacle, particularly due to the insufficient expertise of
government officials in smart technology, which is essential for the development of a smart country. In addition, the bureaucracy's
reluctance to release government documents publicly hinders progress toward a more transparent, accountable, and efficient gov­
ernance system. A journalist stated that, Modernizing the current service delivery in Bangladesh's conservative bureaucratic context is a
complex undertaking, with the goal of making it simpler, accountable, and transparent. This highlights the need for significant reforms in the
bureaucratic system to align with smart governance, ensuring efficient, transparent, and technologically advanced public administration.

5.4.4. Budgetary constraint

The study illustrated in Fig. 5 demonstrates that an impressive 95 % of participants recognize budgetary limitations as a crucial
hindrance to Bangladesh's transformation into a smart nation. Respondents indicate that significant investments in ICT in the fi­
nancial sector are required to transition towards a smart economy, technologically advanced transaction systems, and a cashless
smart society. This involves setting up and maintaining advanced technological infrastructure across all economic sectors. However,
Bangladesh faces financial challenges due to existing budget deficits, hindering the acquisition of state-of-the-art technology and
tools. Unlike developed countries that often use public-private partnerships, Bangladesh relies predominantly on government funding
to finance large-scale projects. This reliance poses challenges in obtaining the necessary resources for ambitious initiatives. Therefore,
transformative technology-based innovative financing strategies are crucial to facilitate the nation's transition into a smart economy
and technologically advanced cash-less prosperous society.

5.5. Socio-cultural and sustainability challenges

5.5.1. Socio-cultural constraints

Based on Fig. 5, most respondents, precisely 74 %, believe that sociocultural constraints pose a significant challenge in Bangla­
desh's journey toward building a smart society. The digital transformation, particularly in public administration, is complex and far-
reaching, unlike traditional practices. One of the respondents stated that, "The transition in Bangladesh encompasses a vast number of
individuals and local government bodies, adding to the complexity of the country's democratic structure, which is influenced by varied political
alliances, cultural customs, and historical legacies. The implementation of digital government initiatives has highlighted divisions among
citizens, influenced by socio-cultural and political factors." Stakeholders utter that the public administration system, which is influenced
by an intricate network of viewpoints and convictions stemming from historical, socio-political, and cultural disparities, experiences
diverse effects from digital transformation in different geographical areas, cultural contexts, sectors, and individuals. This situation is
delicate and has the potential to cause disagreements. Hence, it is imperative for all regions and communities in Bangladesh to
collectively adopt this digital transition, surmounting socio-cultural obstacles in order to navigate the transformation effectively.

5.5.2. Missing sustainability principles

Respondents explicitly criticize the current approach for its insufficient emphasis on sustainability, particularly UN sustainable
development agenda, highlighting the government's inadequate attention to SDGs. They also highlight that failure to address this
issue could result in significant sustainability problems, negatively affecting both the environment and public health and potentially
canceling out the advantages of smart initiatives. According to Fig. 5, a significant majority of stakeholders, specifically 68 %,
consider sustainability a crucial challenge in the Smart Bangladesh initiative. Moreover, they contend that the absence of

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Fig. 6. Comparison of stakeholders-identified challenges of Smart Governance.

sustainability-focused strategies poses a threat to both the environment and public health and undermines the overall efficacy of the
program. It emphasizes the importance of integrating sustainability-oriented strategies into the fundamental structure of Smart
Bangladesh to build a sustainable smart society and communities in the future.

5.6. A comparison of smart governance challenges identified by different stakeholder groups

Fig. 6 shows the comparison of stakeholders from four distinct groups—academia, the private sector, nonprofit organizations, and
the public sector—who have identified smart governance challenges for Smart Bangladesh and the development of smart cities.
Academia stakeholders prioritize addressing challenges related to smart infrastructure, uninterrupted electricity supply, data privacy,
policy changes, and political affairs. Private sector stakeholders prioritize providing uninterrupted electricity, ensuring data privacy,
managing records, and adhering to budgetary limitations. Nonprofit organizations primarily focus on promoting smart infrastructure,
ensuring uninterrupted electricity supply, data privacy and security, record management, financial limitations, and environmental
sustainability. Meanwhile, stakeholders in the public sector emphasize the importance of power supply, socio-cultural limitations,
policy difficulties, and big data management.

6. Discussion

This study conducted comprehensive stakeholder interviews to identify obstacles in the implementation of 'Smart Bangladesh' and
building smart cities. It also highlights the complex stumbling blocks that arise in the transition towards a 'Smart Nation,' especially in
focusing on smart governance. The findings of the study are pivotal for contributing to governance theory and the practical im­
plementation of smart cities and nation vision. The research identifies multiple challenges, including political, policy, and governance
issues, infrastructural barriers, data management, security concerns, and socio-cultural limitations. It also utilizes a strong smart
governance framework to provide practical policy implications for smart cities and nations.
The findings emphasize the significance of viewing smart nation transformation as a holistic organizational approach that extends
beyond merely digitizing public service delivery. This transformation is characterized by its ongoing and evolving nature, and it is
influenced by external factors such as the implementation of advanced technology, management of big data, the efficient allocation of
substantial financial resources, and public administration reform. The study is supported by literature (Van Dinh et al., 2020;
Farmanbar et al., 2019; Tay et al., 2018; Kaiser, 2020; Kim et al., 2022) and identifies political mutualization as crucial, especially in
developing countries context. Stakeholders recognize the potential of smart transformation but often struggle to articulate its

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transformative impact. Contrasting traditional e-government initiatives, smart transformation necessitates continuous adaptation to
meet external demands, enhancing public administration-stakeholder relationships and citizen satisfaction and fostering a shift in
bureaucratic and organizational culture. Moreover, the study reveals the underrepresentation of sustainability in the 'Smart Ban­
gladesh' concept, a significant concern for Bangladesh (Kaiser, 2023b), indicating the need for a comprehensive strategic plan to
address these multifaceted challenges effectively.
In line with global scholarly perspectives (Lee and Trimi, 2018; Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, 2013), the study reaffirms smart
governance's critical role in smart nation development. Additionally, the findings correspond with research on cybersecurity (Ma,
2021), big data management (Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, 2013), artificial intelligence (Mehr, 2017), smart grids (Kourgiozou
et al., 2021), and smart policing (Hassan et al., 2021), reflecting these study findings. This study identifies fiscal limitations as a key
challenge for attaining a Smart Bangladesh, particularly a smart economy, aligning with the findings of Momen and Kaiser (2019) and
Vu and Hartley (2018). It also echoes Hashem et al. (2016) focus on the necessity of prudent fiscal management for deploying ICT
infrastructure.
Several case studies and empirical research also corroborate and support the viewpoints, expanding on the interpretation of this
study's findings, particularly in relation to the challenges identified by the multi-stakeholders. For instance, Kamal and Kaiser (2015)
demonstrated that Bangladesh's hostile political environment deviates from the principles of stable government, which are essential
for smart governance. As the local government has significantly contributed to building smart cities and nations, empirical research
has found that socio-cultural political divisions, political participation discrimination, and inequality are prevalent in Bangladesh's
local government (Kaiser and Nabila, 2024). The implications of smart governance require substantial contributions from bureau­
cratic efficiency; however, research by Zafarullah and Siddiquee (2023) and Kaiser (2015) found that conservative bureaucracy and
flawed civil service requirements align with the findings of this study on bureaucratic constraints for implementing smart govern­
ment. Bhuiyan's (2011) case studies of e-governance in Bangladesh's public administration found similar results to those of this study,
indicating that the country faces several challenges in implementing e-governance initiatives. Regarding the international context of
the smart nation, research by Ho (2017) and Bhati et al. (2017) discussed the Singapore Smart Nation vision, highlighting several
challenges and opportunities. Many challenges identified by the stakeholders in this research are echoed in their findings.
This research provides comprehensive and novel guidelines for the transformation into a smart country, emphasizing the pivotal
role of smart governance. Innovations and research, echoing Lee and Trimi (2018), are identified as critical components for the
development of a smart nation. Moreover, the expansion of citizen engagement channels, as noted by Algebri et al. (2017) and
Chourabi et al. (2012), along with the technological challenges in emerging smart cities highlighted by Javed et al. (2022), are
corroborated by this study findings. By evaluating Smart Bangladesh based on the smart governance model discussed in Fig. 2, it is
evident that Bangladesh is still in the very initial stages of the model. Therefore, the country needs to focus on and work through the
tasks outlined in the smart governance model step by step to address the challenges identified by stakeholders, along with the several
priorities mentioned in the study. These aspects underscore the necessity of strategic approaches in the evolution of a smart nation
and city. Significantly, the study contributes to governance theory, enriches smart city and urban management literature, and de­
lineates the pathway for a country's transformation into a smart nation.

7. Policy implications and framework for smart governance in the development of smart cities and nations

Based on stakeholders' priorities and policy implications, conceptual frameworks have been developed to address the challenges
identified in implementing Smart Bangladesh, particularly focusing on smart governance. Fig. 7 presents a framework that serves as a
strategic roadmap for overcoming the obstacles to developing a smart nation and smart cities.

7.1. Enabling smart administration and timely reform

Eighty-four percent of stakeholders recognize the crucial role of modernizing administrative processes with smart technologies for
the country's transformation into a smart nation and building smart cities. This significant overhaul necessitates a well-defined policy
vision, comprehensive digital infrastructure—including high-speed internet, data centers, cloud computing, and inter­
operability—and improved public officials' digital literacy. Stakeholders noted that notable components of efficient governance
include public involvement via digital platforms, strong data security measures, effective big data management, compliance with data
protection standards, and strong cybersecurity. To achieve these, the government requires significant administrative reform, frequent
policy updates to incorporate advancements and societal transformation, and ongoing involvement of stakeholders in the governance
process. The interviewees also emphasize that smart administration seeks to improve the quality and efficiency of government
services by utilizing technologies like cloud computing, big data analytics, the Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial intelligence (AI).
Its core focus is on delivering services, promoting transparency, and engaging citizens. This approach aims to rectify inefficiencies
and combat corruption, with a specific focus on meeting the needs of marginalized groups while simultaneously enhancing user
experiences. By embracing digital adoption in governance, Bangladesh can streamline transactions and position itself as a smart
nation ready for progress and prosperity in the digital era.

7.2. Public-private partnership ventures

79 % of stakeholders emphasize the crucial role of strong public-private partnerships (PPPs) in developing Bangladesh as a smart
and prosperous country and building smart cities, highlighting it as a fundamental aspect of smart governance. They also suggest that

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Fig. 7. A framework for smart governance for smart cities and nations.

to address budget constraints and improve urban efficiency and intelligence, it is recommended that the government prioritize
collaboration with private entities in the pursuit of smart transformation. The government can offer a range of incentives, including
tax advantages, policy modifications, and land allocation, to encourage private sectors to invest in Smart Bangladesh projects. This
will attract finance and bring momentum to the projects. One private sector stakeholder emphasizes that, "The PPP authority can
include multiple Smart Bangladesh and smart cities projects to support the government in accomplishing its vision through significant

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investments from the private sector, locally and internationally." Stakeholders also highlight that the scale of smart village and city
projects demands joint efforts and diverse financial support. This includes adept and transparent management of financial resources,
prioritizing impactful projects, and innovatively exploring PPPs for funding. While the government allocates funds for infrastructure,
private sector contributions through technology funding schemes are pivotal. This synergy of government initiatives and private
sector support is key to surmounting financial challenges and advancing Bangladesh towards a smarter, sustainable future.

7.3. Big data management

In Bangladesh's quest to become a "Smart Bangladesh," big data management is pivotal, especially in smart governance and
decision-making, as recognized by approximately 84 % of stakeholders. The effective management of big data, velocity, and variety is
key to enabling data-driven policymaking and enhancing government services. This undertaking necessitates the presence of tech­
nological infrastructure and a significant emphasis on training and developing the skills of individuals within the public adminis­
tration. Interviewee emphasizes that proficiency in analyzing and utilizing big data is crucial for leadership in the public sector. This
skill enables informed decision-making, which is essential for ensuring efficient, transparent, and responsive governance. The key to
transforming into a smart country lies in the optimization of government operations using big data management. This helps align
government operations more closely with the needs of citizens and broader developmental objectives.

7.4. Smart policing

Respondents prioritize smart policing measures such as using police body cameras, utilizing advanced technology to track
criminals and crime hotspots, upgrading emergency services to minimize response times, implementing smart case filing, and pro­
viding updates on case statuses. Particularly, emulating practices in developed countries, where communication with the police in
emergencies is streamlined, could offer cost-effective alternatives to expensive video-based surveillance systems. Such advancements
are crucial for bolstering security and fostering a more efficient and trustworthy policing system. One non-profit stakeholder states
that, "Given the current challenges of an outdated policing model and a lack of public trust, integrating advanced technologies into the policing
system is essential for aligning with the Smart Bangladesh concept and rebuilding confidence in law enforcement." A total of 79 % of
stakeholders acknowledge the necessity of implementing a smart policing system, a key element in Smart Bangladesh enhancing
security, safety, and transparency.

7.5. Ensuring smart and mutually respectful politics

Bangladesh has had a turbulent political past, marked by a long period of military governance spanning sixteen years. Therefore,
it is crucial to prioritize mutual respect and trust within the political sphere to achieve progress. Stakeholders believe that smart and
respectful politics are essential for Bangladesh's smart transformation, with 89 % of them emphasizing this importance. They also
contend that for effective governance, it is necessary to have a responsive and mutually respectful democracy. Civil society, pressure
groups, and the media also have a crucial role in ensuring that parties are held responsible and promoting responsible governance.
One government stakeholder stated that, "To overcome challenges, progress towards more smart governance, and implement administrative
reforms for a Smart Bangladesh, a collaborative and respectful political environment is necessary."

7.6. Planning and building smart cities and villages

Seventy-four percent of stakeholders emphasize the importance of planning and implementing smart technologies in both urban
and rural areas, underscoring the need for comprehensive strategies for transforming a developing country into a prosperous smart
country. A city is considered "smart" when it effectively uses ICT to enhance attractiveness, livability, sustainability, and competi­
tiveness. Recent research combining innovation studies and e-government focuses on both urban and rural governance, developing
new methods to advance the nation's smart capabilities. This approach is geared towards meeting the needs of citizens and com­
munities, thereby contributing to the overarching objective of creating a smart, inclusive, and efficiently managed environment
across urban and rural settings.

7.7. Prioritizing equity and sustainability

The current Smart Bangladesh vision proposes greener, healthier, and more equitable communities. However, stakeholders have
pointed out that there is insufficient implementation of projects regarding sustainability and equity in the policy. According to 68 %
of the stakeholders, equity and sustainability are critical factors in Bangladesh's smart initiatives. These stakeholders emphasize the
importance of long-term planning and resource management to achieve these goals. Non-profit stakeholders emphasize that "To
address Bangladesh's vulnerability to climate change, it is essential to update educational curricula for sustainable smart governance. This will
ensure that technology benefits both people and the environment, not just for the present but also for future generations." Additionally,
ensuring equality in government services is crucial, as its absence can reduce public participation in smart initiatives. Therefore, the
government must develop policies that promote economic and social equity to ensure the country's long-term prosperity and
alignment with sustainable development goals (SDGs).

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7.8. Ensure cybersecurity and bridge the digital divide

91 % of stakeholders agree that it is crucial to prioritize cybersecurity and bridge the digital divide to transform Bangladesh into a
technologically advanced and prosperous smart nation. One academic stated that, "In today's innovative world, where smart technology is
prevalent, it is essential to focus on cybersecurity to safeguard personal privacy and protect government data." Interviewees suggest that
along with cybersecurity, bridging the digital divide requires comprehensive strategies encompassing technological, societal, eco­
nomic, and cultural dimensions. These strategies aim to ensure fair and equal access to technology, enhance proficiency in digital
tools, and leverage digital platforms to promote socio-economic progress. Implementing inclusive strategies is essential for in­
tegrating diverse societal segments into the digital realm, promoting national development, and harnessing transformative tech­
nology for societal empowerment and cohesion.

7.9. Co-creation in public service and stakeholder engagement

This paper emphasizes that over sixty percent of stakeholders highlight the importance of enhancing public services through smart
solutions, focusing on the implications for public management and the potential for co-creating value by integrating big data and
moving towards smarter governments. The study explores the opportunities and challenges presented by smart technologies in public
management, contributing to the discourse on generating public value through these innovations. It underscores the significance of
contextual conditions and the application of emerging technologies such as blockchain, IoT, advanced computing, and AI.
Furthermore, the respondents highlight the growing collaboration between government and stakeholders, which is vital for fostering
smarter governments and augmenting public value in an increasingly complex global context. This collaboration is essential as
different stakeholders' knowledge, experience, values, and expertise are crucial for the government to understand its challenges and
identify the best alternative solutions.

7.10. Research, innovation, and the use of artificial intelligence

All stakeholder groups emphasize that innovation, essential for survival and prosperity, seeks to create a future that improves the
quality of life and tackles societal challenges. This objective requires a comprehensive investigation encompassing concrete and
abstract aspects, such as social and cultural factors. 68 % of stakeholders acknowledge the significance of promoting innovation and
implementing artificial intelligence (AI) in smart initiatives, particularly in the current swiftly evolving global and technological
environment. They added that although AI is not a panacea for governmental challenges, its implementation in citizen services can
serve as a model for embracing transformative technologies in the public sector. Governments can foster public acceptance by
initially implementing low-risk AI applications and integrating citizen feedback. This gradual process allows for the alignment of
public services with the advanced technology already utilized in individuals' personal lives, ultimately leading to a more efficient and
technologically sophisticated society.

7.11. Citizens' understanding and public trust in the smart concept

Enhancing public understanding and building public trust in smart as well as "Smart Bangladesh" concepts is a top priority for
63 % of stakeholders, as it plays a crucial role in promoting informed and participatory citizen engagement. They also added that the
efficacy of smart governance relies on citizens' understanding and trust in its function amidst apprehensions regarding the escalating
geographical disparities propelled by the smart city and village phenomenon. In metropolitan areas, where no single organization can
handle all administrative aspects, collaborative governance is essential due to challenges such as disputes over institutional own­
ership. Ensuring that smart city governments are accountable to residents, who are the primary beneficiaries of technological ad­
vancements, is of utmost importance. Stakeholders stressed that as the e-government infrastructure progresses to match the rapid
advancements in mobile and digital technologies, it is crucial for citizens to gain a comprehensive understanding of smart govern­
ance. This will allow them to effectively utilize emerging communication tools like mobile apps, social media, and big data analytics.
By doing so, citizens will be able to adapt to new systems and regulations, which contribute to building public trust in government.

8. Conclusion

This paper greatly enhances the understanding of smart governance by providing a thorough and meticulous analysis of the
challenges encountered in building a smart nation and cities. Particularly, this text explores the concerns and priorities of stake­
holders from various sectors in achieving the status of Smart Bangladesh and developing smart cities. The study has identified
fourteen primary obstacles to smart governance that hinder progress toward becoming a smart country. These obstacles include
technological and infrastructural problems, political policy and regulatory frameworks, security concerns, data management issues,
and socio-cultural constraints. The challenges were identified through interviews with multi-stakeholders representing the public and
private sectors, non-profit sector, and academia. Assessing these challenges utilizes a systematic approach that combines quantitative
analysis with qualitative data. Stakeholders have identified the most significant challenges as being an uninterrupted power supply,
comprehensive policy and regulation, robust cybersecurity, efficient record management, a mutually respectful democratic en­
vironment, and sustainability. To overcome these obstacles, the study proposed a comprehensive framework. Important strategies
involve smart administration, maximizing public and private collaboration, bridging the digital divide, and an ICT-skilled workforce.

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This research contributes substantially to the theoretical comprehension of smart governance and the advancement of sustainable
smart cities. It provides valuable insights for Bangladesh and other developing countries that share similar characteristics and as­
pirations of becoming smart nations. Specifically, the research's unique findings significantly enhance the body of knowledge on
smart governance, open government, and the development of smart cities. Moreover, the research findings stress the importance of
considering social and cultural constraints in the implementation of smart governance. Emphasizing PPP involvement for expertise,
knowledge, and finance, prioritizing sustainable development, stakeholder involvement, citizens' understanding of smart governance,
value and co-creation in public service, and stakeholder engagement are unique contributions of this research. The significance of this
paper lies in three main points: (1) it takes a multi-stakeholder perspective on smart governance for smart cities and nations, (2) it
identifies several key challenges that hinder implementing smart governance, and (3) its priorities for smart governance and links it
with building smart cities and nations, thereby contributing to the literature on both smart city and nation, and governance.
The paper puts forward a range of policy recommendations and practical guidance, backed by empirical research, to assist in
becoming a smart nation and developing smart cities. First, it is pivotal for the government to address the challenges identified in this
study to achieve its vision of a Smart Bangladesh and build smart cities nationwide, with a focus on smart governance. The study of
multiple stakeholders has also provided several sector-wise recommendations based on these challenges. Furthermore, the execution
of this immense undertaking necessitates cooperation with multiple stakeholders. By carefully considering experts' guidance and then
taking action based on it, the best approaches to achieve the objective can be effectively determined. Moreover, to convert cities into
smart cities, the government must carry out pilot initiatives in various areas, evaluate the results, and apply successful policies to
more cities. India and Indonesia, developing nations with similar economic conditions to Bangladesh, have already successfully
implemented several smart city initiatives that the government can carefully consider. A comprehensive plan and measurement
criteria are crucial for the government to evaluate its progress. Political willingness and prioritization by all parties are essential.
Preparing citizens for smart cities is also foremost, as Bangladesh's current e-government index is very poor, indicating a need for
more focus on digital literacy and e-participation. The government should emphasize cybersecurity and big data management, reduce
the digital divide, and recognize the significant opportunities ahead. Singapore's successful smart nation initiatives can also be
considered for achieving smart nation status.
This study has several limitations that warrant further research. First, although interviews are effective for gaining a comprehensive
and in-depth understanding of the challenges and priorities in Smart Bangladesh, the quality of the data depends on the interviewer's skill.
Interviewers' abilities to gather accurate data can vary. Additionally, the distribution of respondents across four major fields with unequal
representation of themes could influence the findings. Notably, the highest number of responses came from the private sector and the
fewest from the non-profit sector. However, the researchers have attempted to mitigate this limitation by rigorously adhering to the
interview protocol. Second, the study's sample size is confined to a select number of qualified respondents within the field of smart nation
development in Bangladesh, which may limit the generalizability of the results. Additionally, potential biases are minimized as the study
carefully selects responses and establishes clear objectives. Third, the study relies on purposive and snowball sampling methods, which can
impact the generalizability of the results and introduce potential biases. These limitations suggest opportunities for further work. A future
survey using questionnaires is recommended to collect public opinion on the development of Smart Bangladesh. Treating Bangladesh as a
focal case study and expanding the scope of this research to include other nations could enhance the consistency of the findings and yield
more broadly applicable results. Finally, the research findings revealed that smart governance is still in its early stages and faces several
challenges in Bangladesh. However, visionary initiatives like Smart Bangladesh could lead to future improvements in technology and
services if they overcome the challenges identified by the study.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The author declares that no known competing financial interests or personal relationships could have influenced the work re­
ported in this paper and that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this study.

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