Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) is a process technology used to create tiny

integrated devices or systems that combine mechanical and electrical components. They are
fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) batch processing techniques and can range in size
from a few micrometers to millimeters. These devices (or systems) have the ability to sense,
control and actuate on the micro scale, and generate effects on the macro scale. In the most
general form, MEMS consist of mechanical microstructures, microsensors, microactuators
and microelectronics, all integrated onto the same silicon chip. This is shown schematically
in Figure 1.

Miniaturization
 The scale of MEMS usually in the range of few microns to cm. (Though, a huge array of
MEMS devices may occupy much bigger volume.)
 The small footprint of the MEMS devices is with the operational advantages, such as
smooth spring action, high resonance, super sensitivity and low thermal reach. For
example, the hard disk drives in the computers has the writing/reading speeds in few
micro seconds.
 In practical, smaller device sizes helps more devices per wafer and greater economy.
Hence the miniaturization of devices generally scales favourably with cost of MEMS.
 Scaling rules are reflection about how physics work at dissimilar sizes. A well known
example that a flea can jump several times yet the elephant has the same structure and has
more muscle cannot jump that much.

Microsystems versus MEMS

Microfabrication

The process of fabrication is sequential. Wafer preparation, film growth, doping, lithography,
etching, dicing, and packaging are crucial steps in the fabrication process. A wafer known as
a substrate is used for all of these procedures. A mass of semiconducting material is called a
substrate. The substrate is frequently a polished silicon crystal. Multiple identical chips can
be fabricated on a single, lengthy substrate. As a result, the IC production process uses a
batch processing approach. A thin film is grown on a substrate, and its properties are
modified by introducing doped materials in a controlled manner. Two common doping
techniques are thermal diffusion and ion implantation. After doping, lithography is performed
to create and transform a masking pattern. A pre-prepared mask, typically a glass plate coated
with a patterned chromium film, is used in this process. The mask is created using a
computer-controlled electron beam, which exposes the photographic mask material according
to a specified configuration. The computer receives and processes the configuration data to
ensure precision. The mask represents the various elements and layers required for chip
manufacturing. Once prepared, the pattern on the mask is transferred onto the film, enabling
the fabrication of intricate semiconductor structures. A photoresist, a chemical and light-
sensitive material, is coated onto the thin film grown on the substrate. The mask features are
transferred onto the film by exposing the photoresist through the transparent areas of the
mask. This results in a patterned layer on the surface. Once the pattern is transferred, the
unprotected substrate areas are removed using etching, a process that eliminates material
either chemically or physically. This patterning process is called lithography. When UV light
is used, it is referred to as photolithography, while X-ray and electron beam lithography are
also employed.

Etching is performed using either wet or dry methods. Wet etching involves immersing the
material in chemical solutions (etchants), whereas dry etching uses reactive ions or vapor-
phase etchants. These techniques are defined by their selectivity and anisotropy. After
etching, a thin layer of aluminum or gold is deposited using chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) to form electrical connections. This metal layer interconnects elements within the chip
and provides external connections. The wafer is then diced into individual chips, followed by
packaging, which involves physically securing, connecting, and protecting the device to
ensure reliability and functionality
Bulk micromachining involves etching both the front and back sides of a bulk material to
create desired structures. These structures are typically formed using wet chemical etching or
reactive ion etching (RIE). Suspended microstructures are commonly fabricated through wet
chemical etching. One of the key advantages of bulk micromachining is the availability of
suitable substrate materials like quartz and single-crystal silicon, which allow for the
fabrication of high aspect-ratio structures. Additionally, it is compatible with IC technologies,
making it easier to integrate passive electronic systems (PES). However, bulk
micromachining has some limitations. The process is highly sensitive to patterns and
structures, and pattern distortion can occur due to variations in etch rates across different
crystallographic planes. Moreover, since both the front and back sides of the material are
used in processing, there are strict constraints on minimum feature size and spacing, which
can limit design flexibility.

Surface micromachining is a method used in MEMS fabrication that involves creating

mechanical structures from deposited thin films on a wafer’s surface. Unlike bulk
micromachining, which etches through the substrate, surface micromachining builds
structures layer by layer. The process typically involves three key layers:
Isolation Layer: When a silicon substrate is used, an isolation layer is first deposited. This
layer, typically made of silicon oxide (SiO ) followed by a thin silicon nitride coating, acts
as an etch stop for many etchants, protecting the underlying material.
Sacrificial Layer: Also called the spacer layer, this temporary layer is etched away to create
freestanding 3D structures. Phosphosilicate glass (PSG) is commonly used as the sacrificial
material.
Structural Material: This layer forms the actual mechanical structure. Polysilicon (poly-Si) is
widely used due to its strong mechanical properties and compatibility with microfabrication
processes.
Polysilicon-based surface micromachining is fundamental to the development of
microsensors and actuators, providing a reliable and scalable approach for MEMS
fabrication.

PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY
The goal of photolithography is to produce fine features on wafer surfaces. A most common
lithography process involves depositing photo-sensitive chemicals (called photoresists, or
simply resists) on a silicon wafer, exposing it with light through a mask and removing
(develop) photoresist material that has been modified by light.
.

Smart Materials

As mentioned earlier, smart structures involve sensors, actuators and a control system. Apart
from the use of better functional materials as sensors and actuators, an important part of a
‘smarter’ structure is to develop an optimized control algorithm that could guide the actuators
to perform required functions after sensing changes.

a. Shape Memory Alloys

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) are smart materials that return to their original, pre-deformed
shape when heated. They serve as lightweight, solid-state alternatives to traditional actuators
like hydraulic, pneumatic, and motor-based systems, with applications in industries such as
medical and aerospace. SMAs operate via a phase change between martensite (low-
temperature, easily deformed phase) and austenite (high-temperature, stronger phase). A
temperature change of about 10°C can trigger this transformation. Known for their high
power-to-weight ratio, SMAs are used in actuator applications but face challenges like
nonlinear behavior, hysteresis, and slow cooling cycles. Notable uses include hand
exoskeletons and rehabilitation devices.
 b. Piezoelectric
The piezoelectric effect is the phenomenon of polarization in certain crystals and ceramics,
like ZnO, GaN, and SiO , when stressed mechanically, resulting in electromechanical
interaction. This effect includes the direct piezoelectric effect, where mechanical stress
generates electricity, and the converse effect, where an applied voltage deforms the material.
Originating from the Greek word "piezein" (to press), it occurs due to ion displacement in
nonsymmetrical unit cells under forces like compression or shear, creating measurable
electric potential. Reversible and observed in materials like GaPO , PbTiO , and LiNbO ,
this effect is key in sensors, actuators, and transducers.

c. Magneto-strictive
Magnetostriction is the ability of a material to undergo mechanical strain when exposed to a
magnetic field, observed in all ferromagnetic materials. It couples elastic, electric, magnetic,
and sometimes thermal fields, making it essential in sensors, actuators, robotics, transducers,
and MEMS. The phenomenon includes spontaneous magnetostriction and field-induced
magnetostriction, involving lattice deformation during magnetization. The magnetovolume
effect, an isotropic component, is significant in itinerant magnetic materials, where magnetic
and chemical bonding electrons interact. This coupling of magnetic and elastic forces is
crucial for energy conversion between magnetic and elastic domains, highlighting its
technological importance.
Integrated Microsystems
Integrated microsystems can be classified into three major groups as follows:

1. Micromechanical structures: These are non-moving structures, such as microbe-ams and

microchannels.

2. Microsensors: These respond to physical and chemical signals (such as pressure,

acceleration, pH, glucose level, etc.) and convert them to electrical signals

3. Microactuators: These convert electrical or magnetic input to mechanical forms of energy

(e.g. resonating beams, switches, and micropumps)

Micromechanical structures
This microsystem is based on a surface micro-machining technology with sensing electronics
integrated on the same chip as the accelerometer. Here, the accelerometer is a sensor that
responds to the acceleration or deceleration and gives an output voltage to the control circuit,
which in turn triggers an actuator to deploy the airbag during a crash, so that the persons
seated in the front seat are protected from crashing into the front windshield or the dashboard
Micromechanical Structures Micromachining is used commercially to produce channels for
microfluidic devices and also to fabricate systems referred to as ‘‘labs on a chip’’ for chemial
analysis and analysis of biomedical materials.

Microsensors
Several micro machined sensors have evolved over the last two decades. Among them the
pressure sensors occupy almost 60% of the market. A schematic isometric cut-away view of a
piezoresistive pressure sensor die is shown in Fig. 1.10 (a). Here, we can see the four
pressure-sensitive resistors (piezoresistors) integrated on a micromachined silicon diaphragm.
The seismic mass responds to acceleration and deflects, thus bringing about a change in the
capacitance between the mass and the fixed electrodes. The change in capacitance is a
measure of the displacement, which in turn depends upon the acceleration.
Microactuators

A microactuator is a microscopic device that converts energy into kinetic energy, generating
mechanical motion for system operations. Designed to meet high precision, fast switching,
and low power consumption standards, microactuators range in size from micrometers to
millimeters, with packaged systems reaching centimeter dimensions. They enable
displacements from nanometers to millimeters and flow rates from picoLiters/minute to
microLiters/minute.

Applications of MEMS

1. Cantilevers bend when pressure is applied and oscillate in a way similar to a spring.
Cantilever sensors can be used for the detection of physical, chemical and biological
analytes with relatively good sensitivity and selectivity
2. A microphone is an electro-mechanical-acoustic transducer that converts sound into
electrical signals. It uses vibrating micro-membranes or diaphragms, forming a capacitor
with the ground plane. Sound-induced vibrations change capacitance, enabling sound
detection, vibration sensing, and turbulence measurement. These ultrasonic microsensors
offer miniaturization, low power consumption, and diverse applications.
3. Pyroelectric materials are highly sensitive, generating measurable voltage from human
thermal radiation, making them useful for motion detectors. Shape Memory Alloys
(SMA) can recover their original shape when heated after being pre-strained at low
temperatures. SMA has two phases: soft, deformable martensite (low temperature) and
strong austenite (high temperature).
4. A Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) is a Micro Opto Electromechanical System (MOEMS)
that modulates light based on a spatial pixel pattern. It uses electrostatic actuators coupled
with tiltable silicon mirror pixels to control optical wavefronts. SLMs are widely used in
imaging, beamforming, and optical communication systems, utilizing Coulomb force for
mirror tilting.
BIO AND CHEMO-DEVICES : Forensics, Bio-warfare agents detection, Genetic screening,
Bacteria detection, Stress-response analysis, Drug discovery, analysis and synthesis

Healthcare: Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs): Used in stents, orthodontic wires, and surgical
[Link] Materials: Ultrasound imaging, drug delivery systems, and biosensors.
Thermochromic Materials: Responsive wound dressings and thermal indicators.

Aerospace and Automotive:Magnetostrictive Materials: Actuators for noise and vibration

control. Electroactive Polymers (EAPs): Adaptive wing structures and haptic feedback
systems. Smart Coatings: Self-healing and anti-icing applications.

Consumer Electronics:Piezoelectric Actuators: Used in touchscreens and speakers.

Thermochromic Displays: Smart windows and temperature-sensitive devices.

Infrastructure: Self-healing Concrete: Extends structural lifespan. Shape Memory Polymers:

Deployable structures and adaptive facades. Applications of Microsystems

Medical Devices: Microsensors: Detect physiological parameters like glucose levels and
heart rates. Microfluidics: Lab-on-a-chip devices for diagnostics and drug testing.

Robotics: Microactuators: Enable precise motion in micro-robotics.

MEMS Sensors: Enhance robot balance and environmental interaction.

Aerospace and Defense: MEMS Accelerometers and Gyroscopes: Navigation and guidance
systems. Microthrusters: Fine control of satellite positioning.

Environmental Monitoring: Microsensors: Detect pollutants and monitor weather conditions.

Smart Systems: Automated water and air quality monitoring.

Industrial Automation: Microactuators: Enable precision control in manufacturing.

Microfluidic Systems: Manage fluid handling in chemical processing.