Special Section Papeles del Psicólogo, 2009. Vol. 30(3), pp.

184-194
[Link]

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY

Geoff Lindsay
University of Warwick. Standing Committee on Ethics of the European Federation of Psychologists Associations

This paper explores the basis for promoting ethics within psychology. An ethical code is one of the characteristics of mature
professions and the necessity for ethical practice applies to all psychologists whether researchers or practitioners; consequently
ethical codes must address the full range of practice. There is also a potential benefit in commonality across countries and
cultures but this raises the question: are ethical codes generalisable? This is explored through an examination of the European
Federation of Psychologists Associations’ Meta-code of ethics, devised by a group of psychologists from across Europe. Based
on the four ethical principles of Respect, Competence, Responsibility, and Integrity the Meta-code was originally designed to
guide associations in constructing or revising their codes. However, experience has shown that individual psychologists have
also found the Meta-code useful for their own practice. Finally I consider the development of ethical issues to guide practice
for the future
Key words: Ethics, Meta-code of ethics, Ethical principles

Este artículo explora las bases para el fomento de la ética dentro de la psicología. Un código ético es una característica de
profesiones consolidadas y la necesidad de una práctica ética es aplicable a todos psicólogos, sean investigadores o clínicos;
por consiguiente, los códigos éticos deben contemplar toda la extensión de la práctica profesional. Existe también un beneficio
potencial si se adopta un criterio común (commonality) a través de países y culturas, pero esto nos lleva a preguntarnos: ¿son
los códigos éticos generalizables? Este aspecto se explora a través del análisis del Meta-código de Ética de la Federación
Europea de Asociaciones de Psicólogos (EFPA) elaborado por un grupo de psicólogos de distintos países de Europa. Basado
en los cuatro principios éticos: Respeto, Competencia, Responsabilidad e Integridad, el Meta-código fue originalmente
diseñado para guiar a las asociaciones profesionales de los países miembros en la elaboración o revisión de sus códigos. Sin
embargo, la experiencia nos ha mostrado que lospsicólogos también encuentran el Meta-código útil para su propia práctica
profesional. Finalmente, considero el desarrollo de cuestiones éticas que guíen la práctica en el futuro.
Palabras clave: Ética, Meta-código de Ética, Principios éticos

he practice of psychology, whether as a scientific In this paper I focus on the ethical basis of psychology.
T discipline or as a service to the public, is based
upon two main foundations. The first foundation
The paper is based on the introductory chapter of a book
Ethics for European Psychologists (Lindsay, Koene,
comprises a body of knowledge and skills which have Ovreeide and Lang, 2008 published by Hogrefe). We
been built up from research and from the practice of intended this to be a practical book that will help
psychology. The second comprises the ethics of individual psychologists, at different stages of their
developing that knowledge and skills base, and of the careers, from the undergraduate starting out on a
actions taken when applying it to meet demands for scientific subject at university, to the trainee professional
services to be delivered to the public. Professions have psychologist or new researcher, to the experienced
these elements in common, but there are variations in psychologist. In short, I would argue that ethical practice
each. For example, psychology is firmly grounded in is not something that is only learned at the start of a
scientific enquiry, with a strong basis in certain professional career. Rather, it develops as experience
approaches such as experimentation, and in attempts to grows and new challenges arise.
enhance objectivity and replicability of findings. At the Although this paper is primarily aimed at supporting
same time meticulous observation, description and individual psychologists, there is also a need to provide
reflection of unique and naturally occurring events are support those engaged in the development of the
important for scientific development in psychology. profession such as the Colegio in Spain. As psychology
becomes a more popular and influential scientific
discipline at universities across the world so new
Correspondence: Geoff Lindsay. Centre for Educational Develop-
ment, Appraisal and Research (CEDAR). University of Warwick, associations of psychologists are formed. Furthermore, as
Coventry CV4 7AL, UK. E-mail: [Link]@[Link] those countries develop their psychological science they

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also lay the foundation for professional practice. This concerns for researching humans differ from those when
development will require the further elaboration of researching earthworms or rats? If so, on what basis will
thinking about ethics at the level of the national this be justified; is there a scale from lower to higher
psychological association. animals (including humans)? If so, where does each
But what should be the basis or the organising principle species sit, and what is appropriate or inappropriate for
for thinking about ethics for European psychologists? Is it each?
not the case that the rich diversity of cultures across This issue has led to differing positions which highlight
Europe (and indeed across the world) effectively renders two aspects. First, ethics and hence the determination of
any attempt for commonality an impossible dream? My appropriate behaviour by psychologist researchers’ is
answer is a resounding NO! I base this response not on grounded in values. Second, values are themselves linked
prejudice or a ‘feel good’ factor of pro-Europeanism. to and determined by factors including religion, beliefs
Rather, my opinions and my commitment is born out of and culturally influenced expectations. This being so, it is
the practical experience of having worked together with necessary to undertake research within a framework
colleagues in the European Federation of Psychologists which has acceptability within the host society. Such
Associations (EFPA), and especially my co-authors of the acceptability may change over time and differ between
book mentioned above, over many years developing cultures.
ethical guidelines for European psychologists and their As a discipline psychology cannot be viewed as ‘value
professional associations. This work has been in the EFPA free’ (Lindsay, 1995). While some research may raise
Standing Committee on Ethics, in conferences and relatively few and fairly minor ethical issues other
through the delivery of invited workshops in various research may concern substantial and contentious ethical
countries. questions. An example of the former might be conducting
In this paper I ‘set the scene’ for a discussion of ethics in reading tests with 11 year old students, while the latter
two ways. Firstly I examine the nature of psychology and might comprise the investigation of religious beliefs,
the impact that has on the development of an ethical code. sexual behaviour or patterns of voting in elections: these
In particular I consider that psychologists may be are all essentially personal and private matters. With
primarily professional applied practitioners (e.g. clinical respect to research, the ethical issues concern the topic,
psychologists, educational psychologists, forensic the arrangements for conducting the research, publication
psychologists) but many are also researchers not directly and dissemination of results, and interaction effects.
engaged in providing services to the public. However,
each group comprises psychologists. Should an ethical The topic
code apply to both or only the applied practitioners? Psychology as the study of behaviour and the mind covers
Secondly I briefly describe the development of the EFPA a vast range. Consequently, the context of each
Meta-code of Ethics. This has become very influential as particular research study will raise different ethical
all member psychological associations of EFPA are questions. It is not easy to categorise which topics are
required to ensure that their ethical codes are compliant likely to pose fewer or more ethical problems, and these
with and certainly not in conflict with the Meta-code. judgements might change over time. For example,
In the next two sections the nature of psychology as both research has been conducted which has examined basic
a science and as an applied profession will be discussed: cognitive processes, how these relate to each other and
are there common or different ethical issues for those who how they are applied in natural settings. While
psychologists who practise the science (researchers) laboratory studies of reasoning may pose little ethical
compared with applied practitioners? concern, the results of studies collectively may pose
serious challenges. This is exemplified by findings which
PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE indicate mean differences between racial or ethnic groups
Psychology has much in common with other sciences. in cognitive abilities. The scientific issues concern the
Research in psychology may include either human or non- rigour of the studies, and validity and usefulness of the
human participants. This raises questions about the findings (Phinney, 1996). In this example, the concept of
generalisability of models of species and their location in race is now seen as contentious, affecting the scientific
an ethical hierarchy. Put simply, should our ethical validity of findings. This in turn raises ethical questions

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regarding dissemination of findings from such studies. But Christian country. However, other conditions included
there is a further ethical concern: should such research be deception, e.g. sniffing ammonia rather than the ‘syrup of
undertaken at all? The work of Jensen and Eysenck, for lemons’ as indicated by the experimenter. Other tasks
example, was attacked not so much for the pure science involved asking the person to cut off a rat's head; and
but for the implications that might be drawn and requesting the participant to put their hand into a covered
consequent impact on, in this case, relations between bucket, without looking, and feel around. The bucket
different groups (e.g. Eysenck, 1971). This raises the contained several inches of water and live frogs, and a
sensitive issue – are certain topics for research to be strong electric shock was delivered.
avoided not on scientific grounds but because they are A third dimension implicit here is the vulnerability of the
socially sensitive? participant, with respect to their developmental status,
both age and intellectual ability, and their physical and
Conduct of the research psychological health and resilience – in this case boy and
Research methods in psychology cover a very broad field. a hospital patient.
At one end of the continuum there are invasive surgical Ethical consideration of the conduct of research
procedures, e.g. planting electrodes in the brains of therefore requires attention to several different dimensions
animals in order to examine the relationship between concerning the participants, and indeed the
behaviour, thought or perception with brain activity. Here experimenters. In addition there are ethical concerns
the technique is invasive and undertaken for the purpose regarding the practicability of research, including
of the experiment. This may be compared with research consent, verification of the participant and the validity
into brain activity in patients undergoing surgery for and reliability of measures. While these may often be
therapeutic purposes. seen as technical matters, they have an ethical dimension:
At the other end of the continuum may be placed invalid data pose potential problems for the competence
interpersonal experimental techniques. One with a low and integrity of the research findings and reputation of
degree of invasiveness is the completion of the researcher.
questionnaires, particularly in a large group. Compare
this with a study by individual interview where the Publication and dissemination
researcher asks probing and challenging questions about Dissemination of research findings takes various forms;
the participant’s personal behaviour and views. e.g. reports to sponsors, journal articles for other
These examples imply at least two dimensions: physical– researchers or professionals, and presentations in the
interpersonal and low–high intrusiveness (Lindsay, 2000). media. There are ethical considerations which apply to
Hence, intrusion may be conceptualised as either all of these, but there are also variations. In each case
physical, e.g. surgery, or by questioning. Each of these there is a requirement of integrity, characterised here by
has implications for the well being of the participant, accurate, truthful and comprehensible presentation. At its
which may also be considered with respect to physical most basic, data should not be fabricated or ignored if
and psychological health. That is, not only does physical they confound the researcher’s preferred outcomes. An
intrusion pose potential ethical questions, so also does example of where this was open to question concerned Sir
questioning. Cyril Burt, an eminent British psychologist who was the
An example, which also suggests how attitudes to what country’s first educational psychologist. After his death it
is permissible in experiments change, concerns an was alleged that his influential work on IQ, using data
experiment by Landis in 1924 in the US (described in from twins, was suspect: it was suggested that he had
Crafts et al, 1938). Twenty five ‘subjects’ mainly adults fabricated findings, and even made up at least one
but including a 13 year old boy, and a hospital patient researcher worker, in order to bolster his views on the
with high blood pressure, were exposed to various heritability of intelligence (Kamin, 1974). For a fuller
conditions to produce emotional responses, the purpose discussion of this cause celebre see Mackintosh (1995)
being to assess facial expression of emotions. The 17 While blatant fabrication may be unequivocally
situations included the playing of jazz, reading from the unethical, other examples may be less straightforward.
Bible – probably regarded as fairly benign depending on Psychologists may legitimately report the findings of a
one’s views of jazz or the Bible in a predominantly study which lends support to their theories: however, not

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GEOFF LINDSAY Special Section

to consider opposing findings, or not to conduct studies phenomenon. A similar example is the famous Stanford
which might challenge the findings would not be ethical. Prison Experiment carried out by Zimbardo and now
Consequently, in reporting one study, not to contextualise reported in detail for the first time in his book The Lucifer
its worth with reference to the findings of other studies Effect (Zimbardo, 2007).
would represent a lack of integrity. A different issue concerns the potential biases which
The nature of the medium represents a further ethical may impact on any or all three of the elements above and
challenge. Different expectations are required if the consequently lead to a cumulative disposition to bias of
recipient is a researcher or member of the public. These the discipline. For example, it has been argued that
relate both to the medium of publication, and also the psychology lacks socio-political diversity and that most
style of representation. While journal articles are psychologists are politically liberal, with conservatives
generally carefully written in measured prose, a television being underrepresented in the discipline and profession.
programme or tabloid newspaper may accentuate, Research topics are chosen which, it is argued, are salient
possibly distort, meanings. The responsibility ultimately is to the values of psychologists: these may be interpreted
always with the psychologist, even if the with a liberal bias; the findings may be reported within
(mis)representation is by another person or agency. This the values domains of the researcher. In such a case,
applies not only to deliberately questionable there is a potential bias from start to end of the research
representation, but also to ensuring the avoidance of process. This may not be intentional, but is rather a subtle
misunderstanding by the audience. Hence, ethical manifestation of the psychologists’ individual value
consideration includes not only honesty but clarity. The systems. The problem is confounded if, as is argued for
issues raised here apply also to the other main method of psychology, the members of the profession have a high
dissemination: teaching. There is the dimension of level of homogeneity of values.
audience, e.g. the expert postgraduate seminar through
to the invited presentation to a community group. In each PSYCHOLOGY AS A PROFESSION
case there is an ethical requirement to seek to Need for Psychological Associations
communicate effectively not only on grounds of good Organised psychology has only been around for a
science but also on the ethical basis of seeking to avoid hundred years or so. It was towards the end of the 19th
misinformation being acquired. Century that laboratories for the study of psychology were
established, but these did not necessarily represent
Interaction psychology as an independent discipline. For example, in
Finally it is necessary to consider the interaction of these the university in the UK where I took my Bachelors degree
three elements and of these with psychologists’ personal it was well after the 2nd World War before a department
values. For example, it may be argued that some of psychology was established. Before then there were
research is unethical in itself, but its effects are beneficial lecturers in psychology in the department of philosophy.
– the ‘end justifies the means’ argument. One example is Such developments occurred at different rates within as
the work of Milgram on conformity (e.g. Milgram, 1963). well as between countries. Indeed, even now it is of little
In a classic experiment he required people to give shocks if any interest to some psychologists whether or not they
to a ‘subject’, positioned out of sight, if wrong answers practise within an organisation which is ‘psychological’,
were given to questions. The intensity of shocks delivered whether a university department, a public service,
increased. Hesitation or reluctance led to a white-coated industry, commerce or private practice. Others are most
supervisor insisting the person continued. Despite concerned to be recognised personally as psychologists,
increasingly apparent signs of distress, it was found that and to operate within organisations or sub-sections of
the participants did deliver these increasingly severe psychology.
shocks, a finding which was interpreted as conformity in Of more relevance to the present discussion therefore, is
the setting and in the presence of an authority figure the development of formal organisations of psychology.
giving commands. It is difficult to imagine such an The oldest are the American Psychological Association
experiment being allowed now, yet it could also be (APA), and the British Psychological Society (BPS), both
argued that this experiment was a significant contribution over 100 years old. These have always been
to our understanding of an important social psychological organisations of psychologists. That is, membership is

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open to those who meet certain requirements with respect their ethical codes following the initiative of EFPA which
to training in psychology. set up a task force to develop an ethical code in 1990
These organisations have been central to the (after the Meta-code was approved in 1995 the Task
development of ethical codes as it is within these bodies Force became the Standing Committee on Ethics). Even
that discussions have occurred, and ultimately where now, there are psychological associations which do not
decisions have been made on the nature and substance of have disciplinary procedures as one element of a
any codes which have been developed. Also, being regulatory system, a limitation recently addressed by the
typically democratic bodies, such organisations have EFPA Standing Committee on Ethics.
needed the support of members to approve policies and The definition of professions, therefore, is complex.
regulatory procedures including ethical codes. There are historical and cultural factors which challenge
Consequently, the development of ethical codes is the generally agreed criteria. Furthermore, there are
dependent upon the existence, strength and organisation other factors to consider including.
of psychological associations as well as universities and ✔ Specificity of knowledge and skills
groupings of practitioners, on the procedures to inform ✔ Level of skill application
and gain the support of members, and on the views of ✔ Self and societal interest
members on ethical matters. These factors will be Psychology par excellence is a discipline which has
influenced by various elements, not least the general contributed to a range of professions, including
societal context. For example, the development of healthcare, teaching, social work, personnel and human
psychological associations since the fall of the old relations and advertising, among others. Many, but not
communist regimes in Eastern Europe has allowed all, will have their own ethical code. For example, until
previously restricted associations to develop their practice, recently there was no ethical code for school teachers in
and to develop new ethical codes. England and Wales, a limitation addressed by the newly
The importance for psychological associations of the instituted General Teaching Council.
development of ethical codes is probably most clear in The level of skill required may distinguish between or
those countries which have been later in instituting the within professions. Again complexity is increased with
professional bodies. However, their role can also be seen overlapping sets of competencies. For example, a school
when tracing the development of ethical codes within well teacher may train in educational measurement to a high
established associations. In doing this it is necessary to level, but not have the breadth of experience of psycho-
consider: what is a profession? And why have an ethical educational assessment of a school or educational
code? psychologist. Hence psychology is applied by others as
well as by psychologists – we must draw lines to define
What is a profession? the psychologist in order to define who is competent and
✔ Pryzwansky and Wendt (1999) argue that a profession who is subject to an ethical code for psychologists.
may be characterised by the following: The third issue concerns the nature of the work
✔ Existence of a formal professional member organisa- undertaken and the society in which it occurs. This is also
tion problematic with the variation in private and state
✔ Systematic training provided practice and this varies across countries. Some
✔ Body of knowledge ‘to profess’ argue that a primary orientation to community interest
✔ Code of ethics rather than individual self-interest is a characteristic of
✔ Regulation of the members who provide a service professional behaviour, but this is difficult to unpick.
However, these are not simple issues. For example, in Traditional commitment to society characterised by low
many countries psychologists have practised with limited wages and poor working conditions has been challenged
organisation. Also, until relatively recently, psychologists by organised labour and changes in society’s views of
had no specific code of ethics. That of the APA, generally what is appropriate. Also, those in private practice
argued to be the first, was not approved until 1953, well essentially have a degree of self interest inherent in their
over half a century after the APA was set up, and when practice – they need clients to survive. But more subtle
large numbers of psychologists had practised for many pressures may be present for others, including those
years. Within Europe, many countries have developed employed by the state or a voluntary agency. For

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GEOFF LINDSAY Special Section

example, critiques of special education have argued that complaints had been received and 29 new cases opened
professionals may maintain the system out of self interest (see the British Psychological Society’s Annual Report
as their livelihoods are implicated. Interestingly, such [Link] and the special issue of the American
critics tend not to apply the same allegation to themselves, Psychologist published each August).
whose professional careers may be based on A further issue concerns the range and
promulgating such critiques. comprehensiveness of any code, and its impact on the
In summary, the question of what is a profession is members of a profession. Ethical codes are typically
problematic and contentious. However, for present designed to apply to practitioners. Psychology is unusual
purposes the primary focus will be on the development of in its large number of psychologists who do not offer
an ethical code, and the regulation of professionals’ services to the public, namely researchers and educators.
behaviour. In typical professions the overwhelming majority of
members will be practitioners, (e.g. medical practitioners,
WHY HAVE AN ETHICAL CODE? nurses). Ethical codes therefore are directed towards
Ethical codes are characterised, implicitly or explicitly, by practice with clients. Psychology, however, has a
two elements: a set of ethical principles and statements of substantial proportion of those who develop the discipline
practice typically written as enforceable standards. through research and disseminate through education.
Ethical codes, therefore, are means of translating beliefs One approach could be to limit ethical codes only to
regarding necessary behaviour into statements which those members who offer services to the public. This was
specify how the professional may act appropriately. not the line taken by the major national societies in
These principles are derived from general moral positions Europe or the APA. While there are practical factors,
including values. But why have an ethical code at all? separating out members into distinct groups, there is also
This question may now seem absurd, but in the a tradition of bringing science and practice together. This
development of the first APA code there was an active can be exemplified by the situation in the APA at the end
debate in which the argument for not having a code was of the 1940s, early 1950s. At that time practitioners in
put forcefully by Hall (1952). This was not an argument psychology developed from researchers in that the
against ethical behaviour, but Hall argued that there was doctorate was seen as the key qualification. This position
no need to have a formal code. Rather, he argued, was debated and challenged, and the Boulder conference
ethical behaviour should be assumed of psychologists of 1949 was an important event which firmed up the
and, he argued, the institution of a formal code was a notion that clinical psychologists should be trained with a
retrograde step as “I think it plays into the hands of crooks grounding in basic research and that clinical applications
on the one hand and because it makes those who are should follow from and be built upon this foundation. This
covered by the code feel smug and sanctimonious on the approach often called the ‘scientist-practitioner’ model
other hand” (p430). has been followed in other fields of applied psychology
This view did not prevail but the point made is important. (Lindsay, 1998) but continues to be a matter of contention
Firstly, it distinguishes ethical behaviour from a formal (Rice, 1997). These debates took place at the same time
ethical code, but implicitly it raises the issue of training. as those about the first APA code of ethics and
Hall‘s position was based upon a belief in the goodness researchers, some of whom would have been in practice
of right thinking psychologists, but was silent on how they with clients, were important contributors. This policy of
achieved their right thinking behaviour: ’decent mature inclusiveness by psychological associations may not be
people do not need to be told how to conduct themselves’ matched by licensing authorities which may typically not
(p430) – experience shows this view to be naïve. For require researchers or teachers of psychology to have a
example, each year both the BPS and APA publish license to practice. These psychologists will therefore fall
statistics regarding complaints made about their outside the remit of licensing authorities, and hence the
members. Although in percentage terms these are not psychological association must provide the necessary
high rates, the numbers are not insignificant. In 2006 the investigatory and disciplinary procedures, as well as
BPS received 109 complaints appointed 20 Panels to ethical guidance.
investigate complaints and seven complaints went to a full This issue of coverage is important as there are different
Conduct Committee hearing, the APA reported that 82 implications for ethical codes. When considering practice

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 Special Section PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY

(e.g. as a clinical psychologist) an ethical code must within the European Union (which covers much but not all
address the behaviour of the psychologist with a client, an of Europe) there are benefits in common procedures.
individual. On the other hand, research requires There was concern that a psychologist disciplined in, say,
consideration of individuals who are not clients in the Portugal could move to UK without this being known. This
same sense (e.g. research participants) but also there is a is not the case in the US and Canada where the
need to address a more abstract concept, namely the Association of State Psychology Boards facilitates
body of knowledge of the science. This is not to argue for communication.
a simple dichotomy, the concept of client, for example, is It was evident at the first meeting of the Task Force in
complex (see Oveelde y Lindsay, 2008). Researchers Copenhagen 1990, however, that this aspiration was
may have clients in the form of organisations that provide unrealistic. A number of associations had their own
finance, while those providing services may have multiple codes, but not all. These codes had much similarity
clients, or different orders of clients as with a child within (Lindsay, 1992) but there were also a number of
a family, or workers within a company. Nevertheless, significant differences, mainly with detail rather than
there is a legal position in many countries which principle (see Figure 1, since this analysis there have been
acknowledges the particular relationship, and hence developments of the ethical codes of these national
obligations, between a professional and identified client. associations). Nevertheless, each had been devised by
This may be considered as a special duty of care for the the association in question to meet their specific
welfare of one’s clients or patients. However, such a duty requirements, and a common code might not ensure this
of care may also be attributed to the researcher, with occurred. Furthermore, in many cases (e.g. BPS) a vote
respect to research participants in particular. Hence, of members was needed to change the code. Hence, it
ethical behaviour should be expected of all psychologists, was decided that a common code was too difficult to
and systems to ensure this occurs must address this full achieve.
range, including researchers and educators. The alternative model was to devise a Meta-code.
Rather than a code for psychologists, the Task Force
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EFPA META-CODE devised a Meta-code for the national associations. This
The European Federation of Psychologists Association set out what the code of each member association should
(EFPA) was founded in 1981 as the European Federation address, but left it to the associations to produce specific
of Professional Psychologists Associations (EFPPA), and codes and elements within codes. This approach was
changed its name in 2001. EFPA is a federation and successful and the Meta-code of Ethics was approved by
hence has limited power over member associations which the General Assembly of EFPPA in 1995. It is the EFPA
comprise a single body from each member country. It is Meta-code (as revised in 2005; see [Link] and
the national associations that exercise direct power over Appendix 1) that sets the framework for Ethics for
individual members. The position of psychology in European Psychologists (Lindsay et al, 2008).
Europe is highly varied and this is matched by the nature The development of the Meta-code is of interest as it
of the associations. While some bodies are represents a specific inclusive strategy designed
fundamentally scientific and/or professional associations, deliberately to attain maximum generalisability and
others are trades unions/syndicates. Also, while some acceptance. An early analysis, mentioned above, had
countries (e.g. UK) have one predominant association for indicated similarities but also differences between the
all psychologists, others (e.g. France) have many codes of different national associations of psychologists.
associations. Consequently, while the UK is represented Furthermore across Europe at that time it was known that
by the British Psychological Society (BPS), France is some associations had no code or were in the process of
represented by ANOP, a federation of associations. developing their code. Consequently there were
These political realities are important when considering variations in stage of development; in content, to varying
the development of a common ethical code. This was degrees, when codes existed; in the size and status of
identified as a key aim in the very early stages of EFPA’s different national associations; and differences in
existence. A Task Force on Ethics was set up in 1990 with language with the possibility of conceptual and linguistic
the aim of producing a common ethical code for challenges in producing one Meta-code. Furthermore, it
psychologists in Europe. Given freedom of movement was also important to recognise the variations between

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GEOFF LINDSAY Special Section

nations (at the socio-political rather than psychologist educative orientation with an accompanying extended
association level) including culture, history and politics as manual with vignettes (Sinclair & Pettitfor, 1991).
well as language(s). The Task Force drew on a range of material but from the
The success of the Meta-code can be attested to by two start was committed not simply to replicate another code,
main sources of evidence. Firstly, it was approved by the however positively that was viewed. The structure of ethical
1995 EFPA General Assembly. Secondly, associations principles followed by more specific standards was agreed
without codes or developing their code used the Meta- to be appropriate but the Task Force decided, after much
code as their template, as intended. Thirdly, the 2005 debate, to structure around four principles rather than, for
revision was successfully achieved with few amendments. example, the five that characterised the then current version
The process that led to this success was straightforward. of the APA code. That decision was partly influenced by a
Member associations were invited to send one member wish not simply to follow the APA – a determination that this
each to the Task Force on Ethics. From its beginning, should be European – but more importantly there was
membership consistently comprised at least 10 countries disagreement with the APA’s 5-principle structure (the
from the full range of Europe from the Nordic north to the current APA code has four principles).
Latin south, and including post-Communist Eastern The exact specification of the principles and of the
Europe. The Task Force considered different models that different standards took place over several years, with the
existed in their own countries as well as those from non- Task Force meeting twice a year. An early decision by the
European associations, particularly the APA code and the group was crucial in simplifying the process: the code
Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) code. The should be written in English. By this decision the Task
latter was particularly attractive because of its strong Force was able to focus on a single version. However,

FIGURE 1
CONTENTS OF ETHICAL CODES OF SIX EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND THE UNITED STATES

Nordic Germany Spain Hungary Austria UK US

1. Responsibility, general principles ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

2. Competence ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
3. Relationships with clients ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
4. Confidentiality ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
5. Psychological methods, investigations ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
and statements, including research
reports
6. Public statements, advertising ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
7. Professional relationships ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
7a. Relationships with employers ✔
8. Research, teaching ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
9. Professional designation, title,
qualifications ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
10. Training ✔
11. Fees and remuneration ✔ ✔
12. Working conditions ✔ ✔ ✔
13. Personal conduct ✔ ✔
14. Obtaining consent ✔ ✔

From Lindsay, G. (1992) Educational psychologists in Europe

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 Special Section PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY

this also allowed a relatively straightforward approach to association might deal with complaints of alleged
deal with linguistic variations. At each point the English unethical conduct by a psychologist (see Koene, 2008).
text would be considered by Task Force members to Consequently, the revised Meta-code was able to make
identify potential problems for the different national reference to the need for procedures to deal with such
languages. The policy was for each association to complaints. Note that the approach is not simply punitive.
translate the English version into their language(s) so a Complaints need to be evaluated but, there are various
straightforward route that prevented ambiguity following approaches. One – mediation – seeks to avoid the formal
translation was required. This process demanded much dealing with complaints, replacing what is essentially a
discussion but this was productive. quasi-legal or even legal process by a lower key
There were very few major concerns about the English approach to settling disagreements - where appropriate
text. The most important was a discussion of the English (see koene, 2008). In some cases disciplinary sanctions
word confidentiality. In South European countries the are necessary as the alleged unethical conduct is so
common term would be translated into the English serious but often – perhaps even always? – what is also of
equivalent of professional secret and there was much importance is to seek to ensure that the psychologist
discussion as to whether these terms were of equivalent improves their behaviour in the future whether or not any
power. Otherwise, the development of the Meta-code disciplinary action for the past unethical behaviour is
was challenging but ultimately successful with the Task deemed appropriate.
Force’s proposal being accepted by the 1995 General
Assembly of EFPA. CONCLUSIONS
Subsequently, the Task Force on Ethics was replaced by In this paper I have introduced the EFPA Meta-code of
a Standing Committee on Ethics (SCE). The SCE spent the Ethics, contextualised within a discussion of the nature of
next few years developing other guidance including the psychology and the range of psychological practice. The
evaluation of complaints. It was then decided that a 10th Meta-code was designed to apply to psychological
anniversary of the Meta-code in 2005 would be an associations and is written as such – see Lindsay et al.
appropriate time for the EFPA General Assembly to (2008) Appendix 1. However, my experience over a
receive a revision. The basis for this decision was that number of years has been that many individual
revisions tend to be necessary over time. Certainly the psychologists have found the Meta-code helpful also in
APA code had undergone a series of revision over its 50 guiding their own practice. In the accompanying papers
years of existence, some being substantial. my co-authors of Ethics for European Psychologists give a
The SCE initiated the review as a committee but also flavour of how the Meta-code can be used in this way.
sought comments from national associations. Two The Meta-code also includes issues that cut across
symposia were organised in Prague in 2004 and 2005 specific content. These include the definition of the client
attended by representatives of national associations as and the nature of the relationship between psychologist
well as the SCE. A rigorous review of the content of the and client or others. Fundamental to the Meta-code is an
Meta-code was supplemented by consideration of current explication of the four ethical principles that form its
ethical issues and dilemmas, such as the use of the internet framework: Respect, Competence, Responsibility, and
(for which the SCE had also provided separate guidance). Integrity. Note that the framework comprises principles
As a result of this work the revised Meta-code2 was rather than areas of practice, for example testing and
approved by the 2005 EFPA General Assembly. assessment, therapy, research. His is an important
Interestingly, this intensive interrogation of its content led distinction between different codes and the Meta-code is
to very few changes being required, suggesting that the deliberately principle-driven. The basis for this is that
original structure and content was sound, fit for purpose, principles can be applied across a number of areas of
and likely to remain so for some time. practice but fundamentally it is these principles that should
guide our work. The conceptualisation of the Meta-code
Other ethical guidance follows from this. Each is explored with respect both to
In the period up to the 2005 revision the SCE developed the principle itself and the specifications that provide
other ethical guidance as well as the Meta-code. For exemplifications of the elements of practice to which each
example, the SCE developed guidance on how a national principle applies.

192
GEOFF LINDSAY Special Section

One danger of a code is that a psychologist uses it simply Eysenck, H.J. (1971). Race, intelligence and education.
as a cook book and expects to find ‘an answer’ to every London: Temple-Smith.
question simply by looking up the appropriate ‘recipe’. That Hall, C.S. (1952). Crooks, codes and cant. American
is not my view, and was not the basis of the Meta-code. Psychologist, 7, 430-431.
Rather, the Meta-code provides a framework, a stimulus to Koene, C. (2008). When things go wrong: On mediation,
thinking. More is needed than simply following slavishly a arbitration, corrective action and disciplinary sanction.
set of guidance as though this were set in tablets of stone. In G. Lindsay, C. Koene, H. Ovreeide, H., & F. Lang
Ultimately, as psychologists, I invite you all to think about (Eds.), Ethics for European psychologists (pp. 167-
ethical practice, using codes and papers such as this to assist 180). Gottingen, Germany and Cambridge, MA:
but certainly not to provide definitive ‘rules’. Hogrefe.
With this in mind it is worth looking into the future. Landis, C. (1924). Studies of emotional reactions:
Experience has shown that ethical codes are changed – General behaviour and facial expressions. Journal of
the APA has produced a number of revisions to its code Comparative Psychology, 4, 447-450.
over the past 50 or more years. These are not typically Lindsay, G. (1992). Educational psychologists and
chance or casual amendments, although sometimes Europe. In S. Wolfendale, T. Bryans, M. Fox, A.
changes are rather limited, but rather these reflect Labram, & A. Sigstone (Eds). The profession and
developments in thinking driven by new factors in our practice of educational psychology. London: Cassell.
environment. At present these include the development of Lindsay, G. (1995). Values, ethics and psychology. The
delivering psychological services at a distance, including Psychologist, 8, 493-498.
assessment and therapy, and also the growing influence Lindsay, G. (2000). ‘Researching children’s perspectives:
of the notion of ‘national security’. Originating as an ethical issues.’ In A. Lewis & G. Lindsay (Eds.),
apparently benign development increasingly problematic Researching Children’s Perspectives (pp. 3-20)
and ethically challenging aspect have become evident Buckingham: Milton Keynes.
Probably the most well known are the issues arising for Lindsay, G. (2008). Ethical challenges for the future. In G.
psychologists in the military and the nature of involvement Lindsay, C. Koene, H. Ovreeide, & F. Lang (Eds.),
in establishments such as Guantanamo Bay and places of Ethics for European psychologists (pp. 177-185).
detention of questionable legality under international law Gottingen, Germany and Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe.
(Lindsay, 2008), The Meta-code has been very useful for Lindsay, G., Koene, C., Ovreeide, H., & Lang, F. (2008).
European psychologists so far but will we need to Ethics for European psychologists. Gottingen,
consider new ethical challenges in the future? For Germany and Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe.
example, does the internet pose particular challenges? Lindsay, G. & Colley, A. (1995). Ethical dilemmas of
Does the so-called ‘War on Terror’ and the focus on members of the Society. The Psychologist, 8, 448-451.
‘national security’ in European countries lead to different Mackintosh, N.J. (Ed.), (1995). Cyril Burt: Fraud or
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Meta-code discussed briefly here but in a changing world 378
we must all continue to reflect on and learn from the Ovreeide, H. & Lindsey, G. (2008). Introduction to the
challenges posed by developments, whether within ethical principles- content of the codes. In G. Lindsay,
psychology as a science, psychology as an applied C. Koene, H. Ovreeide, & F. Lang (Eds.), Ethics for
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