Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids

Design and numerical simulation of MASnBr3 (CH3NH3SnBr3) based solar cell using
SCAPS-1D simulation software
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: PCS-D-25-02089

Article Type: Full Length Article

Keywords: Perovskite; Photovoltaics; lead free; PCE; SCAPS-1D

Abstract: Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a leading research focus in the field of
photovoltaic (PV) technology due to their remarkable power conversion efficiency
(PCE) and low- fabrication cost. However, the commercialization of PSCs has been
hindered by critical challenges such as lead (Pb) toxicity, long-term stability issues, and
environmental concerns. In this study, a lead-free perovskite material (CH3NH3SnBr3)
was employed as an alternative and a novel device structure was simulated using
SCAPS-1D to achieve high PCE. The implementation of Cu2O as the hole transport
layer (HTL), Sulfur-doped tin oxide (STO) as the electron transport layer (ETL),
Fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) as the front contact, and Au as back contact defines the
proposed device structure as follows: FTO/STO/CH3NH3SnBr3/Cu2O/Au. Various
device parameters, including layer thickness, defect density, doping concentration, and
series–shunt resistance, were optimized to achieve the best performance. The
optimized structure exhibits an impressive PCE of 35.19%, a high fill factor (FF) of
89.46%, an open circuit voltage (Voc) of 1.1676V, and a short-circuit current density
(Jsc) of 33.689mA/[Link] device exhibits its peak quantum efficiency (QE) of 98.8%
within the wavelength range of 390–400nm. This study, therefore, proposes an eco-
friendly model with remarkable power conversion efficiency, offering valuable insights
for the advancement of clean and sustainable energy technologies.

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Design and numerical simulation of MASnBr3 (CH3NH3SnBr3) based solar cell using

SCAPS-1D simulation software

*Corresponding Author

Md. Habibur Rahman Aslam

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)

Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology (CUET), Chittagong-4349, Bangladesh

Email: 06habib05@[Link]
Abstract:

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a leading research focus in the field of photovoltaic

(PV) technology due to their remarkable power conversion efficiency (PCE) and low- fabrication

cost. However, the commercialization of PSCs has been hindered by critical challenges such as

lead (Pb) toxicity, long-term stability issues, and environmental concerns. In this study, a lead-free

perovskite material (CH3NH3SnBr3) was employed as an alternative and a novel device structure

was simulated using SCAPS-1D to achieve high PCE. The implementation of Cu2O as the hole

transport layer (HTL), Sulfur-doped tin oxide (STO) as the electron transport layer (ETL),

Fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) as the front contact, and Au as back contact defines the proposed

device structure as follows: FTO/STO/CH3NH3SnBr3/Cu2O/Au. Various device parameters,

including layer thickness, defect density, doping concentration, and series–shunt resistance, were

optimized to achieve the best performance. The optimized structure exhibits an impressive PCE of

35.19%, a high fill factor (FF) of 89.46%, an open circuit voltage (Voc) of 1.1676 V, and a short-

circuit current density (Jsc) of 33.689 mA/[Link] device exhibits its peak quantum efficiency

(QE) of 98.8% within the wavelength range of 390–400 nm. This study, therefore, proposes an

eco-friendly model with remarkable power conversion efficiency, offering valuable insights for

the advancement of clean and sustainable energy technologies.

Keywords: Perovskite; Photovoltaics; lead free; PCE; SCAPS-1D

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 1. Introduction:

Perovskite-structured solar cells continue to attract significant interest in the solar energy

community due to their high-power conversion efficiency (PCE) and excellent electrical and

optical properties [1]. Moreover, perovskite solar cells (PSC) offer several advantages, including

low production cost, a simple fabrication process, tunable bandgap, high charge carrier mobility,

and compatibility with flexible substrates [2]. These devices operate based on the photovoltaic

(PV) effect, where absorbed sunlight generates electron-hole pairs that are separated and collected

to produce electrical power. The device employs an absorber layer sandwiched between a hole

transport layer (HTL) and an electron transport layer (ETL) on either side. Additionally, the front

and back contacts serve as electrical terminals that extract and deliver the photogenerated charge

carriers, enabling current flow through the external load. The impressive values of open circuit

voltage (Voc), short circuit current density (Jsc), fill factor (FF) and PCE in PSCs make them highly

attractive for future commercial deployment [9,12]. PSC derive their name from the ABX3 crystal

lattice of the light-absorbing layer, where 'A' and 'B' represent cations and 'X' denotes an anion,

typically a halide. Perovskite formation generally occurs when the A-site cation has an ionic radius

between 1.60 Å and 2.50 Å. Among the various compositions explored, methylammonium lead

halides (CH3NH3PbX3, with X = I⁻, Br⁻, or Cl⁻) have been extensively studied due to their tunable

bandgap ranging from approximately 1.55 to 2.3 eV, depending on the specific halide used.

Another promising candidate is formamidinium lead halide (HC(NH2)2PbX3), which exhibits a

narrower bandgap spectrum of 1.48–2.2 eV. Its lower minimum bandgap is closer to the theoretical

optimum for single-junction solar cells, making it a strong contender for achieving superior power

conversion efficiencies [7,8]. However, the presence of toxic lead compounds remains a significant

challenge for the widespread adoption of PSCs [10,13]. This concern calls for the development of

2|Page
lead-free perovskite alternatives that maintain high efficiency while ensuring environmental safety

and sustainability [11,14]. Among the promising candidates, tin-based perovskites such as

methylammonium tin halide (MASnX3) have attracted considerable attention as a viable solution,

offering reduced toxicity without compromising PV performance [13]. The photoelectric

properties of perovskites are strongly influenced by their anionic composition. In tin-based

perovskites, mixing different halide ions can significantly enhance their optoelectronic

performance. Hao and colleagues pioneered the partial substitution of iodide (I) with bromide (Br)

to synthesize MASnI3-xBrx perovskites. This substitution leads to a noticeable contraction in lattice

parameters from MASnI3 to MASnBr3, which in turn increases the material’s bandgap [15]. S.

Mushtaq et. al., optimizes a lead-free MASnBr3 perovskite solar cell using numerical simulations,

achieving a high PCE of 34.52%, along with Voc of 1.1214 V, Jsc of 34.8654 mA/cm2, and f of

88.30%. It highlights the potential of MASnBr3 as a stable, efficient, and environmentally friendly

alternative to lead-based PSC [3]. Similarly, A. S. Dungani et. al., optimizes a tin-based MASnBr3

perovskite solar cell using SCAPS-1D simulations, achieving a PCE of 24.98% [4]. M. Shah et.

al., analyzed MASnBr3-based lead-free PSCs, achieving a 22.71% PCE. Results highlight its

strong optoelectronic properties and emphasize the impact of temperature, resistances, and defect

density on device performance and optimization [5]. Additionally, S. Mushtaq et. al., designed a

lead-free, HTL-free MASnBr3-based perovskite solar cell using SCAPS-1D, achieving a PCE of

27.37%. It investigates the effects of thickness, doping, and defect densities, highlighting

MASnBr3/CdS interface properties on overall device performance [6]. Though extensive research

has been conducted on MASnBr3 (CH3NH3SnBr3)-based perovskite solar cells, there remains

significant potential to further enhance their performance through continued optimization and

innovation.

3|Page
This study presents a novel design of a CH3NH3SnBr3-based perovskite solar cell, utilizing

CH3NH3SnBr3 as the primary absorber layer. The choice of CH3NH3SnBr3 as the absorber layer is

motivated by its non-toxic nature, suitable bandgap, excellent optical absorption, and promising

charge transport properties, making it an eco-friendly alternative to lead-based perovskites [16,17].

Cu2O was employed as the HTL in this work. The selection of Cu2O over other materials is due to

its relatively low cost, high absorption coefficient, and intrinsic high hole mobility. Additionally,

its energy levels align well with the absorber layer (MASnI3), and it exhibits excellent

photochemical and thermal stability, as well as long-term stability in air [18]. Sulfur-doped tin

oxide (STO) was used as ETL that offers improved electrical conductivity and enhanced charge

extraction, leading to better overall device performance [19]. The proposed device structure is

defined by using FTO as the front contact and gold (Au) as the back contact, arranged as follows:

FTO/STO/ CH3NH3SnBr3/Cu2O/Au. The optimization involved adjusting the thickness and

doping concentration of HTL and ETL, as well as the absorber layer thickness, acceptor and donor

doping concentrations in the absorption layer, defect density of the perovskite layer, interface

defect densities at the HTL/perovskite, perovskite/ETL interfaces, and the series and shunt

resistances. The optimized structure achieved an outstanding PCE of 35.19%, FF of 89.46%, Voc

of 1.1676 V, and Jsc of 33.689 mA/cm2. This comprehensive optimization highlights the potential

of CH3NH3SnBr3-based lead-free PSC as a highly efficient and environmentally sustainable

alternative for next-generation PV applications.

2. Methodology and Device structure:

The Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator—1D (SCAPS-1D), version 3.3.12, is a widely recognized

simulation tool within the PV research community, and it is utilized in this study to analyze the

4|Page
performance of the proposed solar cell model. The simulation is governed by Poisson’s equation

along with the electron and hole continuity equations, under standard test conditions (STC) with

AM 1.5G solar irradiation in steady state. SCAPS-1D employs an iterative computational

approach, allowing simulations to be performed repeatedly over a wide range of material and

physical parameters. This capability enhances the reliability and efficiency of the optimization

process. Key factors such as doping concentration profiles, interfacial energy alignments, and

defect densities—which significantly influence device efficiency and long-term stability—have

been incorporated to evaluate the overall performance of the designed solar cell.

2.1. Numerical analysis:

SCAPS-1D determines key output parameters—such as Voc, Jsc, FF, and PCE—by numerically

solving a set of fundamental differential equations, including Poisson’s equation and the continuity

equations for electrons and holes. Poisson’s equation describes the spatial distribution of

electrostatic potential within the device, which directly affects the internal electric field and charge

distribution. This field plays a crucial role in governing charge carrier transport, separation, and

recombination dynamics. Accurately modeling the potential profile is essential for optimizing

charge collection efficiency and enhancing the overall performance of the solar cell.

𝑑2 Ψ(𝑥) q
=ϵ [p(x) – n(x) + ND – NA + ρp – ρn ] (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 o ϵr

The continuity equations for holes (Eq. 2) and electrons (Eq. 3) govern the dynamic behavior of

charge carriers in semiconductors by expressing the balance between their generation, transport,

and recombination processes. These equations are crucial for simulating the internal physics of a

solar cell, as they track how carrier densities evolve over time and space under steady-state or

illuminated conditions. Accurate resolution of these continuity relations allows for precise

5|Page
estimation of photocurrent, voltage characteristics, and the influence of material properties on

device behavior. Incorporating these equations into numerical models, such as those used in

SCAPS-1D, is vital for predicting performance metrics like Voc, Jsc, FF, and PCE, and for guiding

the design of high-efficiency solar cells through material and structural optimization.

𝛿𝑝 1 𝛿𝐽𝑝
=𝑞 + Gp - Rp (2)
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑛 1 𝛿𝐽𝑛
= + Gn – Rn (3)
𝛿𝑡 𝑞 𝛿𝑥

Equations (4) and (5) represent the drift-diffusion model, which describes the transport

mechanisms of charge carriers—electrons and holes—within semiconductor materials. This model

accounts for two fundamental driving forces: drift, due to the influence of internal electric fields,

and diffusion, arising from spatial gradients in carrier concentration. It plays a pivotal role in

simulating the behavior of solar cells, as it directly impacts charge separation, recombination rates,

and the generation of photocurrent. By incorporating both electric field effects and carrier mobility,

the drift-diffusion framework provides a comprehensive basis for evaluating device performance,

predicting efficiency outcomes, and informing design strategies for improved PV operation.

𝑑𝑛(𝑥)
Jn(x) = qµnn(𝑥)𝜀(𝑥) + qDn (4)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
Jn(x) = qµpp(𝑥)𝜀(𝑥) + qDp (5)
𝑑𝑥

In addition, recombination through defect states—commonly referred to as trap-assisted or defect-

mediated recombination—plays a critical role in determining solar cell performance. SCAPS-1D

models this phenomenon using the Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination formalism, which

is integrated into the continuity equations alongside the drift-diffusion model. The SRH approach

provides a realistic representation of non-radiative carrier losses by accounting for trap states
6|Page
within the bandgap that capture and release charge carriers. This detailed treatment allows for in-

depth analysis of defect-related mechanisms, aiding in the identification of performance-limiting

factors. By accurately simulating these recombination processes, the SRH model supports the

targeted optimization of material quality and device structure to enhance overall efficiency.

PV performance is evaluated using key metrics including the Voc, Jsc, FF, and PCE. Together, these

parameters reflect the balance between charge generation, recombination losses, and the device’s

ability to convert sunlight into electrical energy. Analyzing these factors offers valuable insights

into the limitations and optimization potential of solar cells, guiding improvements in material

selection and device architecture.

Voc represents the highest voltage a solar cell can produce when no external current flows. It is

primarily influenced by the absorber layer’s bandgap energy and losses due to recombination at

interfaces. The magnitude of Voc can be calculated using the following equation.

mkB T Jsc
Voc = ln(1+ ) (6)
q Jo

A higher Voc value typically indicates reduced non-radiative recombination within the device.

Jsc represents the maximum photocurrent generated per unit area (mA/cm²) when the solar cell

terminals are shorted (zero applied voltage). It depends on the efficiency of light absorption and

the effectiveness of charge carrier collection. Jsc can be calculated using Equation (7).

Jsc = qG (Ln+Lp ) (7)

A higher Jsc value signifies better photon harvesting and more efficient extraction of charge

carriers.

7|Page
FF quantifies the squareness of the current-voltage (J-V) curve, reflecting the solar cell’s ability to

efficiently convert generated charge carriers into usable electrical power by balancing voltage and

current output. Physically, FF is constrained by factors such as series resistance and recombination

losses within the device. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum achievable power output to the

product of Voc and Jsc, serving as a key indicator of charge extraction efficiency.

Pmpp Vmpp × Jmpp

FF = V = (8)
oc × Jsc Voc × Jsc

A higher FF —typically above 80%—signals reduced resistive losses and well-optimized material

interfaces.

PCE measures the proportion of incident solar energy that a solar cell successfully converts into

usable electrical power, serving as the primary metric of the device’s energy conversion

effectiveness.

Pmpp Voc × Jsc × FF

PCE = = (9)
Pin Pin

The theoretical maximum efficiency is constrained by the Shockley-Queisser limit, which defines

the upper bound for a single-junction cell based on its bandgap energy. Achieving PCE values

close to this limit requires minimizing losses due to recombination, resistive effects, and

incomplete light absorption.

2.2. Device Structure:

The schematic layout of the proposed perovskite solar cell (PSC) is depicted in Fig. 1(a). To avoid

the toxicity concerns associated with lead-based materials, CH3NH3SnBr3 was chosen as a non-

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toxic, lead-free absorber layer. Upon exposure to sunlight, the perovskite layer absorbs incoming

photons, resulting in the generation of electron–hole pairs. These photogenerated carriers are then

separated and guided by adjacent transport layers—electrons move through the ETL, and holes

through the HTL—toward their respective electrodes, facilitating effective charge extraction. The

success of this charge transport process largely depends on the precise alignment of energy levels

among the absorber, ETL, and HTL, which helps reduce recombination losses. In this design,

sulfur-doped tin oxide (STO) functions as the ETL, and Cu2O serves as the HTL; both materials

exhibit energy band positions well-matched with CH3NH3SnBr3, as illustrated in Fig. 1(b). The

structure incorporates FTO coated on a glass substrate as the transparent front contact, while a gold

(Au) layer is used as the rear electrode.

Fig. 1. Solar cell (a)Schematic diagram, and (b) Energy band diagram

The performance of a PSC is largely determined by the physical dimensions and optoelectronic

characteristics of its individual layers—including the absorber, charge transport layers, and

electrodes. Key factors such as bandgap energy, absorption coefficient, charge carrier mobility,

exciton diffusion length, and defect density play a direct role in shaping the PCE, Voc, Jsc, and FF.

9|Page
Achieving optimal layer thickness is crucial; while a thicker absorber enhances photon absorption,

overly thick transport layers can lead to increased recombination losses. Conversely, layers that

are too thin may limit light absorption or hinder charge collection, thereby reducing J sc or Voc.

Among the optoelectronic parameters, the bandgap is particularly influential in determining the

spectral range of light absorption. A narrower bandgap (<1.7 eV) typically improves J sc due to

better infrared absorption but compromises Voc. In contrast, a wider bandgap (>1.7 eV) enhances

Voc but limits Jsc by reducing the amount of absorbed light. Therefore, fine-tuning the bandgap is

critical to maximizing overall device performance. Furthermore, appropriate alignment of electron

affinity between the perovskite absorber and the ETL reduces potential energy barriers, facilitating

smooth electron flow, lowering interfacial recombination, and improving both Voc and Jsc.

Additional optoelectronic properties also influence PSC operation. The relative dielectric constant

(𝜖r) affects exciton binding energy and charge screening; higher 𝜖r values help suppress

recombination. The effective densities of states in the conduction (Nc) and valence (Nv) bands

impact carrier concentration, which influences Fermi level positioning and charge extraction.

Electron and hole thermal velocities affect injection dynamics at interfaces, while charge carrier

mobilities are central to transport efficiency—higher mobilities reduce resistive losses and boost

FF. Donor (ND) and acceptor (NA) doping concentrations shape conductivity, whereas elevated

defect density (Nt) introduces trap-assisted recombination pathways, degrading both Voc and FF.

Proper tuning and optimization of these parameters are vital for enhancing charge collection and

minimizing performance losses. A summary of these influencing factors is provided in Table 1.

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Table 1. Input parameters of FTO, ETL, absorber, HTL

Material property FTO STO CH3NH3SnBr3 Cu2O

Thickness [μm] 0.04 0.2 0.9 0.05
Bandgap, Eg [eV] 3.2 3.2 1.3 2.17
Electron affinity, Χ [eV] 4.40 4.00 4.17 3.2
Relative dielectric permittivity, 𝜖r 9.00 8.70 10 7.5
Conduction band effective density of states, NC 2.2×1018 1×1018 1.8×1018 2×1018
(cm−3)
Valence band effective density of states, NV (cm−3) 1.8×1019 1×1019 2.2×1018 1.8×1018
Electron thermal velocity (cms−1) 107 107 107 107
Hole thermal velocity (cms−1) 107 107 107 107
Electron mobility, μn (cm2 Vs−1) 20 5300 1.6 20
Hole mobility, μh (cm2 Vs−1) 10 660 1.6 80
Donor density, ND (1 cm−3) 10
15
2×1018 - -
Acceptor density, NA (1 cm−3) - - 1019 2×1015
Density of the defect, Nt (cm−3) 10
15
1015 10
14
10
15

References [20] [21] [22] [23]

In multilayer PV devices, interfacial imperfections act as recombination hubs, hindering charge

carrier collection and leading to a drop in both Voc and FF. Accounting for these imperfections in

simulation models improves predictive reliability by capturing non-radiative recombination

effects. This approach also supports the development of effective passivation techniques and fine-

tunes interfacial design to boost device efficiency. The parameters used for simulating interface-

related defects are detailed in Table 2.

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Table 2. Input parameters of interface defect layers

Interface Cu2O / CH3NH3SnI3/STO STO/FTO

CH3NH3SnI3
Defect type Neutral Neutral Neutral
Capture Cross Section: 1.0 × 10−19 1.0 × 10−19 1.0 × 10−19
Electrons/holes [cm2]
Energetic Distribution Single Single Single
Reference for defect energy level Above the VB Above the VB Above the VB
maximum maximum maximum
The energy expressed in terms of 0.6 0.6 0.6
Reference (eV)
Total density [cm−2] (integrated 1.0 × 1010 1.0 × 1010 1.0 × 1010
over all energies)

3. Result and Discussion:

The PV performance of a solar cell is strongly influenced by the thickness and doping

concentration of its constituent layers, particularly the absorber, ETL, and HTL. In this study, the

proposed perovskite solar cell architecture was optimized by systematically adjusting these

parameters to achieve maximum efficiency. Extensive simulations were performed to assess the

individual and combined effects of layer thickness and doping density on device behavior. The

resulting optimized design achieves an effective balance between efficient charge carrier transport

and sufficient light absorption, thereby enhancing overall device performance.

3.1. Thickness-Dependent Performance Analysis of Perovskite Solar Cells

The thickness of the absorber layer plays a pivotal role in determining the PV performance of a

solar cell, as it directly impacts light absorption, charge carrier generation, and overall energy

conversion efficiency. Achieving an optimal thickness is essential to ensure sufficient photon

capture without compromising carrier extraction. Similarly, the thicknesses of the ETL and HTL

are equally critical. Properly optimized ETL and HTL dimensions facilitate efficient charge

12 | P a g e
separation and extraction, minimize recombination losses, and improve carrier mobility. In

contrast, suboptimal layer thickness can lead to increased series resistance, reduced carrier

collection efficiency, and performance degradation, adversely affecting key metrics such as PCE,

FF, Voc and Jsc. Thus, careful calibration of these layers is vital for achieving peak solar cell

performance.

3.1.1. Influence of Absorber and HTL Thickness:

The combined influence of absorber layer thickness (ranging from 0.7 μm to 1.1 μm) and HTL

thickness (ranging from 0.03 μm to 0.07 μm) on the performance of the proposed PSC is illustrated

in Fig. 2. The variation of Voc with absorber and HTL thickness is presented in Fig. 2(a). Voc

exhibits a gradual decline from 1.0104 V at 0.7 μm absorber thickness to 0.9951 V at 1.1 μm. This

reduction is primarily due to increased bulk recombination that outweighs the benefit of enhanced

light absorption. In contrast, changes in HTL thickness show no effect on Voc.

In terms of Jsc, shown in Fig. 2(b), a steady rise is observed with increasing absorber thickness—

from 33.8500 mA/cm² at 0.7 μm to 34.6540 mA/cm² at 1.1 μm—attributed to improved photon

absorption and carrier generation. Additionally, Jsc increases very slowly as HTL thickness grows

from 0.3 μm to 0.7 μm, owing to better hole extraction and reduced interface recombination.

However, beyond 0.5 μm, the improvement becomes marginal, as further increases contribute little

to charge transport and may introduce parasitic resistance.

The FF trends are depicted in Fig. 2(c). FF decreases gradually from 81.94% to 81.49% with

increasing absorber thickness, primarily due to elevated series resistance and recombination within

the bulk, which hinder efficient carrier extraction. On the other hand, FF improves with HTL

thickness up to 0.5 μm, driven by enhanced hole transport and lower interfacial recombination

13 | P a g e
losses. Beyond this point, FF stabilizes, as additional HTL thickness offers no substantial electrical

advantage and may instead elevate resistive losses.

Fig. 2. Effect of Absorber layer and HTL thickness on PV performance.

The PCE of the PSC is highly sensitive to variations in both absorber and HTL thicknesses, as

shown in Fig. 2(d). Initially, increasing the absorber thickness enhances PCE, reaching a peak of

28.17% at 0.9 μm. This improvement is attributed to greater photon absorption and increased

carrier generation. However, further increases beyond 0.9 μm lead to a decline in efficiency due to

intensified bulk recombination and diminished carrier extraction, which offset the optical gains.

Thus, the optimal absorber layer thickness is identified as 0.9 μm.

In contrast, the HTL thickness exhibits a more limited but still notable effect on PCE. A minimum

HTL thickness of 0.05 μm is necessary to maintain peak device performance. Below this threshold,

14 | P a g e
PCE drops sharply due to insufficient hole extraction and increased interface recombination.

Beyond 0.05 μm, PCE remains nearly constant, as further increases do not contribute meaningfully

to performance and may introduce resistive losses. Additional analysis reveals that above this

threshold, Voc, FF, and PCE stabilize, while Jsc gains become negligible—establishing 0.05 μm as

the optimal HTL thickness.

With these optimized values—0.9 μm for the absorber and 0.05 μm for the HTL—the simulated

PSC achieves a Voc of 1.0016 V, a Jsc of 34.4093 mA/cm², a FF of 81.73%, and a maximum PCE

of 28.17%.

3.1.2. Influence of ETL and FTO Thickness:

The combined influence of the ETL and front contact- FTO thicknesses on the PV performance of

the proposed device is analyzed in Fig. 3. During this investigation, the absorber and HTL

thicknesses were held constant at their optimized values of 0.9 μm and 0.05 μm, respectively. The

ETL thickness was systematically varied from 0.18 μm to 0.22 μm, while the FTO layer thickness

ranged from 0.03 μm to 0.06 μm to evaluate and optimize their combined effects.

Fig. 3(a) depicts the effect of ETL and FTO thickness on the Voc. Initially, Voc is 1.0002 V at an

ETL thickness of 0.18 μm but slightly increase with thickness, reaching a stable value beyond

0.2 μm. This trend results from initial changes in the internal electric field and carrier transport

efficiency, while further increases in thickness no longer impact charge dynamics significantly. In

contrast, the thickness of the FTO layer has no noticeable effect on Voc.

Jsc increases from 34.3825 mA/cm2 at 0.18 μm and increases with ETL thickness, shown in Fig.

3(b), due to enhanced electron extraction and reduced interfacial recombination, which improve

15 | P a g e
carrier collection efficiency. In contrast, Jsc initially increases with FTO thickness—from

34.4231 mA/cm² at 0.03 μm to a peak of 34.4058 mA/cm² at 0.04 μm. Beyond this, Jsc starts to

decrease due to increased optical absorption and resistive losses in the thicker FTO layer.

Fig. 3(c) illustrates the FF response. FF increases with ETL thickness, reaching a peak of 84.24%

at 0.2 μm due to reduced recombination and enhanced electron mobility. Beyond this thickness,

FF becomes saturated, indicating that further increases in ETL thickness offer no additional

improvement in charge extraction efficiency. In contrast, FF increases continuously with FTO

thickness, rising from 84.12% at 0.03 μm, due to enhanced electrical conductivity and improved

charge collection at the front contact.

Fig. 3. Effect of FTO and ETL thickness on PV performance.

16 | P a g e
Fig. 3(d) illustrates the variation of PCE as a function of ETL and FTO layer thicknesses. As the

ETL thickness increases, PCE shows a corresponding improvement, reaching a maximum of

28.98% at 0.2 μm. Beyond this point, the efficiency plateaus, suggesting that the charge transport

and recombination processes are optimized, and further thickness increases no longer contribute

to performance enhancement.

For the FTO front contact, the PCE also peaks at 28.98% when the thickness is set to 0.04 μm.

This thickness provides an effective compromise between sufficient electrical conductivity and

adequate optical transparency, ensuring optimal light transmission and minimal resistive losses.

Based on these findings, the optimal thicknesses are determined to be 0.2 μm for the ETL and

0.04 μm for the FTO layer, as these configurations yield the highest overall PCE for the proposed

device structure.

3.2. Impact of Doping Concentrations on PV Performance

The doping concentrations within each layer of CH3NH3SnBr3-based PSCs critically influence

their PV performance. These doping levels directly affect key processes such as charge carrier

generation, transport dynamics, and recombination rates. To further optimize device efficiency, a

comprehensive investigation was conducted to assess the impact of doping concentrations in

various functional layers.

Fig. 4 presents the effect of varying doping densities in both the perovskite absorber HTL on

essential PV output parameters, including Voc, Jsc, FF, and PCE. In parallel, Fig. 5 illustrates the

17 | P a g e
influence of doping concentration variations in the ETL and the FTO front contact on the same

performance metrics.

3.2.1. Impact of Acceptor Doping density of Absorber and HTL:

Variations in the doping concentration of the HTL exhibit minimal influence on Voc, as shown in

Fig. 4(a), indicating that the Voc is predominantly governed by the electronic properties of the

CH3NH3SnBr3 absorber layer in this device architecture. Similarly, changes in HTL doping levels

have a negligible effect on Jsc, suggesting that photocurrent generation is largely controlled by the

absorber’s optoelectronic characteristics rather than by the HTL.

In contrast, the FF improves with increasing HTL doping concentration, particularly up to

2×10¹⁵ cm-3, as depicted in Fig. 4(a). This enhancement is attributed to improved hole transport

and reduced interfacial recombination losses. However, beyond this threshold, FF becomes

saturated, indicating a limit to the HTL's impact on charge extraction efficiency.

Likewise, PCE increases with HTL doping up to 2×1015 cm-3 due to improved carrier extraction

and reduced recombination, but shows negligible change thereafter, reflecting a saturation effect.

Based on these observations, the optimal doping concentrations are identified as 1019 cm-3 for the

absorber and 2×1015 cm-3 for the HTL, which collectively deliver the highest device efficiency.

18 | P a g e
 Fig. 4. Effect acceptor density of HTL and Absorber on PV performance.

Fig. 4(b) shows that Voc exhibits a positive correlation with increasing acceptor doping

concentration in the CH3NH3SnBr3 absorber layer, reaching a peak value of 1.1685 V at 1019 cm-
3
. This enhancement is attributed to a stronger built-in electric field and improved separation of

photo-generated carriers, which collectively reduce recombination losses.

The same figure also illustrates the variation in Jsc with absorber doping. Jsc shows a non-

monotonic trend—initially peaking at 33.8601 mA/cm2 for 1017 cm-3 but slightly decreasing

thereafter to 33.5896 mA/cm2 at 1019 cm-3. This decline at higher doping levels is likely due to

19 | P a g e
increased recombination losses and reduced minority carrier diffusion length, which limits charge

collection efficiency.

FF increases progressively with the acceptor doping density in the CH3NH3SnBr3 absorber layer,

rising from 84.21% at 1016 cm-3 to a peak of 88.36% at 1019 cm-3. This improvement is attributed

to reduced series resistance and enhanced charge extraction efficiency, facilitated by stronger built-

in electric fields and lower recombination rates. Similarly, PCE exhibits a significant rise from

28.98% to 34.68% across the same doping range, as shown in Fig. 4(d). The concurrent

improvement in FF and PCE underscores the critical role of optimized absorber doping in

maximizing solar cell performance through improved charge transport and reduced non-radiative

losses.

3.2.2. Impact of Donor Doping density of ETL and FTO:

The PV performance parameters (Voc, Jsc, FF, and PCE) - exhibit significant sensitivity to

variations in the donor doping concentrations of ETL and front contact layer (FTO), underscoring

the importance of doping optimization in high-performance PSCs. To explore this impact, the

donor concentrations were systematically varied from 2×1016 cm-3 to 2×1019 cm-3 for the ETL and

from 1013 cm-3 to 1016 cm-3 for the FTO layer, with the resulting device characteristics presented

in Fig. 5(a) and 5(b).

As shown in Fig. 5(a), Voc shows a slight decline from 1.1685 V to 1.1665 V as the ETL donor

density increases from 2×1016 to 2×1019 cm-3, indicating that the Voc is relatively insensitive to

ETL doping. This minimal change occurs because Voc is predominantly determined by the

absorber layer’s energy levels rather than the transport layer properties. In contrast, J sc increases
20 | P a g e
steadily from 33.5896 mA/cm2 to 33.7118 mA/cm2 due to enhanced electron mobility and

improved conductivity in the ETL, which reduce series resistance and facilitate more efficient

charge transport. The FF rises from 88.36% to a peak of 89.46% at 2×1018 cm-3, reflecting reduced

energy losses and improved charge collection efficiency. However, a slight drop to 88.97% at

2×1019 cm-3 suggests that excessive doping may increase charge carrier scattering or promote

recombination. Consequently, PCE reaches a maximum of 35.19% at 2×1018 cm-3 before declining

slightly, highlighting that over-doping can negatively affect overall performance. Therefore, an

ETL donor density of 2×1018 cm-3 is identified as optimal for achieving the best balance between

conductivity and recombination, ensuring maximum device efficiency.

Fig. 5. Effect of donor density of FTO and STO on PV performance.

21 | P a g e
The effect of FTO donor doping on PSC performance is summarized in Fig. 5(b). As the donor

concentration increases from 2×1013 to 2×1016 cm-3, Voc remains relatively stable, showing only a

slight decrease from 1.1680 V to 1.1676 V. This indicates that the built-in electric field and junction

quality are not significantly affected within this doping range. Jsc shows a marginal yet consistent

increase, from 33.6878 mA/cm2 to 33.6911 mA/cm2, primarily due to enhanced electron transport

and reduced resistive losses with higher donor density in the ETL. FF also improves noticeably,

from 89.00% at 2×1013 cm-3 to a peak value of 89.46% at 2×1015 cm-3 and remains constant

afterward, reflecting improved charge extraction and reduced series resistance.

Consequently, PCE rises from 35.02% to a maximum of 35.19%, after which further doping offers

no significant gain. These results suggest that increasing ETL donor density enhances device

performance up to a saturation point, beyond which improvements plateau. Hence, a donor

concentration of ≥2×1015 cm-3 is identified as optimal for maximizing PCE without risking

performance degradation.

[Link] of Defect Densities on PV Performance

Defect densities in the absorber, HTL, ETL, FTO layers, and their interfaces critically impact PSC

performance. These defects serve as non-radiative recombination centers, reducing charge carrier

lifetime and mobility. In the absorber, high defect levels increase bulk recombination, lowering J sc.

They also reduce quasi-Fermi level splitting, decreasing Voc, and raise series resistance, which

degrades FF. Interface defects are particularly harmful, hindering charge extraction and enhancing

recombination at key junctions like ETL/absorber. Together, these effects significantly reduce

22 | P a g e
PCE. Minimizing both bulk and interfacial defects is essential for high performance and long-term

device stability.

3.3.1. Defect Density (Nt) Effects:

Defect states in different layers of PSCs significantly impact device performance by acting as

recombination centers that limit carrier lifetimes and extraction efficiency. To systematically

evaluate this influence, the defect density (Nt) was varied across a wide range (from 1013 to

1018 cm-3) in the absorber (CH3NH3SnBr3), HTL (Cu2O), ETL (STO), and front contact (FTO),

and the corresponding PV parameters were analyzed, as depicted in Fig. 6(a).

Among all layers, the CH3NH3SnBr3 absorber exhibited the most pronounced sensitivity to defect

density. As Nt increased from 1×1013 to 1×1018 cm-3, a substantial degradation was observed in all

key performance metrics. The Voc dropped from 1.2262 V to 0.9565 V, while the Jsc declined

sharply from 34.50 mA/cm2 to 5.22 mA/cm2. FF also decreased from 89.88% to 78.62%, leading

to a dramatic reduction in PCE from 38.02% to 3.93%. This deterioration is attributed to enhanced

Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) recombination within the absorber, which reduces carrier lifetimes

and increases non-radiative losses. Since the absorber is the primary region for light absorption

and charge generation, defect-induced recombination here has a disproportionately large impact

on overall device performance.

In contrast, the Cu2O-HTL showed exceptional tolerance to increased defect densities. Across the

entire Nt range from 1013to 1018 cm-3, there were no observable changes in Voc, Jsc, FF, or PCE, all

of which remained stable at 1.1676 V, 33.689 mA/cm2, 89.46%, and 35.19%, respectively. This

23 | P a g e
insensitivity suggests that the Cu2O HTL is less prone to defect-induced recombination or that

such defects do not significantly affect charge transport.

The STO, ETL exhibited a mild response to defect density variation. While Voc and FF remained

nearly constant, Jsc decreased slightly from 33.69 mA/cm2 to 33.51 mA/cm2, and the PCE dropped

marginally from 35.19% to 34.99% at 1018 cm-3. This trend indicates that although defects in the

ETL have a comparatively weaker influence than those in the absorber, they can still contribute to

recombination losses at higher densities.

Similarly, defect density variation in the FTO front contact had negligible effects. Across all tested

Nt values, the PV parameters remained nearly unchanged, highlighting the electrical robustness of

the FTO layer.

Overall, the simulation results strongly emphasize the critical role of the absorber layer’s quality

in determining PSC performance. Minimizing bulk and interfacial defects in the CH3NH3SnBr3

absorber is vital for suppressing recombination, enhancing charge collection, and achieving high

efficiency and long-term device stability.

24 | P a g e
Fig. 6. Impact of (a) defect density (Nt) and (b) interface defect density (Nint) on PV performance.

3.3.2. Interface Defect Density (Nint) Effects:

The impact of interface defect densities at the Cu2O/CH3NH3SnBr3, CH3NH3SnBr3/STO, and

STO/FTO junctions on device performance is shown in Fig. 6(b). The defect density variation

ranges from 1×1010 to 1×1018 cm-3, revealing distinct sensitivity levels across the interfaces.

At the Cu2O/CH3NH3SnBr3 interface, performance parameters degrade gradually with increasing

defect density. Voc decreases from 1.1676 V at 1010 cm-3 to 1.1182 V at 1018 cm-3, while Jsc drops

from 33.69 mA/cm2 to approximately 28.25 mA/cm2. FF declines slightly from 89.46% to 88.81%,

resulting in a PCE reduction from 35.19% to about 28.05%. This moderate degradation indicates

25 | P a g e
that the HTL (Cu2O) interface is somewhat tolerant to higher defect concentrations but still

contributes to increased recombination and charge extraction inefficiency at elevated defect

densities.

The CH3NH3SnBr3/STO interface shows more pronounced sensitivity to defects. Voc declines

sharply from 1.1676 V to 0.8130 V as defect density increases from 1010 to 1018 cm-3.

Correspondingly, Jsc exhibits a steep drop from 33.69 mA/cm2 to nearly zero (0.81 mA/cm2), while

FF decreases from 89.46% to 84.33%. These combined losses cause PCE to fall drastically from

35.19% to 0.55%. This severe performance deterioration highlights the critical role of the

ETL/absorber interface in maintaining efficient charge separation and transport. High defect

densities at this junction significantly increase interface recombination, severely limiting device

efficiency.

In contrast, the STO/FTO interface demonstrates remarkable stability even at elevated defect

densities. Voc remains nearly constant around 1.1675 V, Jsc only slightly decreases from 33.69

mA/cm2 to 33.51 mA/cm2, and FF maintains a stable value close to 89.43%, resulting in minimal

change in PCE (~35.19% to 34.99%). This stability suggests that the back-contact interface is less

sensitive to defect-induced recombination, possibly due to more efficient carrier collection or

reduced recombination pathways.

Overall, these results emphasize the need for stringent control of interface defects, especially at

the CH3NH3SnBr3/STO ETL/absorber interface, to achieve optimal solar cell performance. While

the Cu2O/absorber interface can tolerate moderate defects, passivation and interface engineering

remain essential. The STO/FTO interface is comparatively robust, but minimizing defects

throughout the device stack will collectively enhance PCE and device longevity.

26 | P a g e
 3.4. Series and Shunt Resistance and Operating Temperature Impacts

Analyzing series resistance (Rs), shunt resistance (Rsh), and operating temperature is essential for

optimizing solar cell efficiency, ensuring thermal stability, and maintaining long-term device

reliability. High series resistance reduces power output by limiting current flow, while low shunt

resistance causes leakage losses that degrade performance. Additionally, elevated operating

temperatures negatively impact the open-circuit voltage, accelerate material degradation, and

reduce overall efficiency.

3.4.1. Effect of Series Resistance:

The impact of series resistance (Rs) on the PV performance of the perovskite solar cell is shown

in Fig. 7(a). As Rs increases from 0 to 5 Ω·cm2, the Voc remains relatively stable, showing a slight

increase from 1.1676 V to 1.1693 V, indicating minimal sensitivity of Voc to Rs within this range.

However, FF decreases significantly from 89.46% to 75.75%, due to increased resistive losses that

impede current flow and reduce charge extraction efficiency. This reduction in FF directly leads

to a notable decline in PCE, which drops from 35.19% at zero series resistance to 29.84% at 5

Ω·cm². Jsc remains nearly unchanged, suggesting that Rs predominantly affects the device’s charge

transport rather than light absorption or charge generation. Overall, minimizing series resistance

is essential for maintaining high FF and maximizing device efficiency.

3.4.2. Effect of Shunt Resistance:

The effect of shunt resistance (Rsh) on the PV parameters of the PSC is presented shown in Fig.

7(b). As Rsh increases from 102 Ω·cm2 to 108 Ω·cm2, there is a substantial improvement in FF,

27 | P a g e
which rises sharply from 61.44% at low Rsh (102 Ω·cm2) to approximately 89.46% at high Rsh

values (≥107 Ω·cm2). This improvement in FF reflects the reduction of leakage currents and

recombination losses associated with higher shunt resistance. Correspondingly, the PCE increases

from 23.95% to about 35.19%, indicating that minimizing shunt pathways is critical for optimizing

device performance. Voc and Jsc remain relatively stable across the Rsh range, highlighting that

shunt resistance mainly affects charge extraction and recombination rather than carrier generation.

These results emphasize the importance of maintaining high shunt resistance to ensure maximum

efficiency and device stability.

3.4.3. Effect of Temperature:

The influence of operating temperature on the PV performance of the perovskite solar cell is

summarized in Fig. 7(b). As the temperature increases from 290 K to 350 K, a gradual decline in

Voc is observed, decreasing from 1.1751 V to 1.1294 V. This reduction is primarily due to enhanced

carrier recombination and increased intrinsic carrier concentration at elevated temperatures. In

contrast, Jsc exhibits a slight increase, rising from 33.66 mA/cm2 to 33.82 mA/cm2, which can be

attributed to improved carrier generation and transport at higher temperatures. FF decreases

moderately from 89.75% to 87.86%, reflecting increased resistive losses and reduced charge

extraction efficiency with temperature. Consequently, PCE declines from 35.50% to 33.56%.

These results indicate that while higher temperatures slightly boost current generation, the adverse

effects on voltage and FF dominate, leading to overall efficiency loss. Therefore, maintaining

lower operating temperatures is essential to preserve the optimal performance and longevity of

perovskite solar cells.

28 | P a g e
Fig. 7. Impact of (a) series resistance (Rs), (b) shunt resistance (Rsh) and (c) temperature on PV

performance.

The above analysis indicates that achieving higher PSC performance requires minimizing Rs while

optimizing shunt resistance Rsh to values of at least 107 Ω·cm2. Furthermore, maintaining the

device at lower environmental temperatures is beneficial, as it balances the trade-offs between

increased Jsc and decreased Voc and FF, ultimately maximizing the overall power conversion

efficiency.

3.5. J-V Profile and Quantum Efficiency:

Fig. 8(a) displays the AM 1.5G illuminated J–V characteristics, yielding a Voc of 1.1676 V, Jsc of

33.67 mA/cm2, FF of 89.46%, and an impressive PCE of 36.19%. These performance indicators

reflect enhanced charge separation and reduced carrier recombination, facilitated by optimized

energy band alignment and appropriate doping across the FTO/STO/CH3NH3SnBr3/Cu2O

29 | P a g e
interface. The favorable heterojunction design ensures strong built-in electric fields, improving

carrier mobility and minimizing resistive losses, which collectively contribute to the superior

efficiency of the device.

Fig. 8. (a) J-V characteristics curve, (b) Quantum efficiency curve

Fig. 8(b) shows the quantum efficiency (QE) spectrum over the 300-900 nm range, peaking at

98.8% around 390-400 nm. This high QE reflects efficient light absorption and charge collection,

particularly in the near-UV and visible regions. As the wavelength increases beyond 360 nm, QE

gradually decreases to about 85.1% at 900 nm, due to reduced absorption near the band edge of

CH3NH3SnBr3. The strong response at shorter wavelengths is attributed to the perovskite’s high

absorption coefficient, enhancing carrier generation and contributing to the elevated Jsc and overall

device efficiency.

30 | P a g e
 4. Conclusion

A lead-free and environmentally friendly CH3NH3SnBr3-based perovskite solar cell has been

designed and numerically simulated using SCAPS-1D. The proposed device structure—

FTO/STO/CH3NH3SnBr3/Cu2O/Au—was optimized by tuning the thickness and doping

concentrations of each layer to achieve maximum PCE. A comprehensive analysis of the absorber

layer's defect density was also conducted, highlighting its critical influence on key PV parameters

such as Voc, Jsc, FF, and overall PCE. The results suggest that minimizing bulk and interfacial

defects in the CH3NH3SnBr3 absorber is essential for enhancing the performance of lead-free

perovskite solar cells. Optimizing absorber, HTL, ETL, and FTO layer thicknesses is crucial for

peak PSC performance. The absorber at 0.9 μm, HTL at 0.05 μm, ETL at 0.2 μm, and FTO at

0.04 μm balance light absorption, charge extraction, and resistive losses, maximizing efficiency.

 Optimizing doping concentrations in absorber, HTL, ETL, and FTO layers is crucial for

PSC performance. Ideal doping improves charge transport, reduces recombination, and

enhances PCE, with optimal values of 1019 cm-3 (absorber), 2×1015 cm-3 (HTL), and

~2×1018 cm-3 (ETL).

 Defect densities in PSC layers and interfaces significantly affect performance by increasing

recombination. The absorber’s defects drastically reduce Voc, Jsc, FF, and PCE, while HTL

and FTO are more tolerant. The absorber/ETL interface is highly sensitive, requiring

careful defect minimization for optimal efficiency.

 Series resistance (Rs) reduces FF and efficiency by hindering charge transport, while shunt

resistance (Rsh) improves performance by minimizing leakage currents. Elevated

temperature lowers Voc and FF despite slight Jsc gain, causing overall efficiency loss.

Controlling Rs, Rsh, and temperature is vital for stable PSC operation.

31 | P a g e
  The quantum efficiency (QE) ranges from 300 to 900 nm, peaking at 98.8% near 390–400

nm, then gradually decreasing to 85.1% at 900 nm due to reduced absorption near the

CH3NH3SnBr3 band edge.

These findings offer a comprehensive roadmap for improving the efficiency and reliability of lead-

free perovskite solar cells. Ongoing advancements in material and interface engineering will be

crucial to bridging the gap between simulation results and experimental implementation.

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Highlights

 Lead free MASnBr3 based PSC has simulated by SCAPS-1D software.

 Optimized the effect of the different hole and ETLs on the cell performance.

35 | P a g e
 The thicknesses, doping density, defect density of HTL/ETL/absorber layer also

optimized.

 The solar cell structure FTO/STO/CH3NH3SnBr3/Cu2O/Au was proposed with maximum

efficiency 35.19%.

36 | P a g e