Institute of Engineering, Thapathali Campus
Department of Automobile and Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Fundamentals of Electrical and
Electronics
Chapter 2: Average and RMS
Value
Course Instructor
Debendra Bahadur Raut
Lecturer, Thapathali Campus
[email protected]
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Just as certain as death, Westinghouse will kill a customer
within six months after he puts in a system of any size…It
will never be free of danger.
-Thomas Edison
The electric charge was too weak and the miserable
work had to done again, becoming an awful spectacle,
far worse than hanging.
-New York Times, August 7, 1890
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AC Fundamentals
Previously you learned that DC sources have fixed polarities and constant
magnitudes and thus produce currents with constant value and unchanging
direction
In contrast, the voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in
magnitude and thus produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in
direction.
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AC Fundamentals
Sinusoidal ac Voltage
One complete variation is referred to as a cycle.
Starting at zero,
the voltage increases to a positive peak amplitude,
decreases to zero,
changes polarity,
increases to a negative peak amplitude,
then returns again to zero.
Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals, it is called a periodic signal.
Symbol for an ac Voltage Source
Lowercase letter e is used
to indicate that the voltage varies with time.
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Sinusoidal AC Current
During the first half-cycle, the During the second half-cycle, the
source voltage is positive voltage polarity reverses
Therefore, the current is in the Therefore, the current is in the
clockwise direction. counterclockwise direction.
Since current is proportional to voltage, its
shape is also sinusoidal
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Generating ac Voltages (Method A)
One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant
angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field
The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux
lines are cut
Its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field.
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Alternating-Voltage Generator
The voltage waveform
shown in is called a sine
wave, sinusoidal wave ,
or sinusoid because the
amount of induced
voltage is proportional to
the sine of the angle of
rotation in the circular
motion producing the
voltage.
Fig. One cycle of alternating
voltage generated by rotating loop
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Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Currents
Consider a rectangular coil, having N turns and rotating in a
uniform magnetic field, with an angular velocity of w radian/second
as shown.
Maximum flux m is linked with the coil, when its plane is
perpendicular to the direction of flux
In time t seconds, this coil rotates through an angle ϴ = wt -------(1)
According to Faraday’s Laws of EMI, the e.m.f. induced in the coil
at this instant ϴ = wt is
----------(2)
If ϴ=0, = m and If ϴ=90, = 0; Hence, in general, flux linkages of the coil at any time is
Φ= Φm cos ωt.
Then from e.q (1) and (2):
The max value of emf is:
Bm = maximum flux density in Wb/m2 ; A = area of the coil in m2
f = frequency of rotation of the coil in rev/second Therefore, e = E = Em sin wt
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Generating ac Voltages (Method B)
AC waveforms may also be created electronically using function (or signal)
generators.
With function generators, you are not limited to sinusoidal ac. gear.
The unit of Figure can produce a variety of variable-frequency waveforms,
including sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, and so on.
Waveforms such as these are commonly used to test electronic
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Waveforms and its Characteristics
Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless
of their wave shape, may be described by a group of attributes such as:
Frequency, Period, Amplitude, Peak value.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined
Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.
In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz, named in honor of pioneer researcher Heinrich
Hertz, 1857–1894).
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WAVEFORMS
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Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Period: The period, T, of a waveform, is the duration of one cycle.
It is the inverse of frequency.
Mathematically, any signal is periodic if x(t)=x (t+T) for all t
eg. Sin(t), Cos(t)
Any signal is non periodic or aperiodic if x(t)!=x (t+T) for all t
eg. exp(t)
Where, T is the fundamental period
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Time Period of Different Waveforms:
Class Test
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Phase Difference and Phasor Diagram
Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different
waveforms of the same frequency.
The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe
phasors rotating as in Figure, the one that you see passing first is leading and
the other is lagging.
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Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.
Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):
It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.
Peak Value
The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum
value with respect to zero.
In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em
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Find Average and RMS Value of Periodic Waveform
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Root Mean Square Value (RMS Value) or Effective Value
It is equal to that steady state (DC) current or voltage which when
flows to a given circuit for a given time produce the same amount of
heat as produced by the alternating quantity when flowing through
same circuit in the same time.
Mathematically,
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Numericals
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Some Numerical: Find Average and Rms Value
Ans: V (rms)=Vm/√π and
V(average)= 0 V (for one complete cycle)
=2 Vm/π for half cycle
(Therefore, only half cycle is considered for SYMMETRICAL wave to calculate
average value)
Some Numerical: Find Average and Rms Value
Ans: V (avg)=Vm/π and V(rms)= Vm/2
Some Numerical: Find Average and Rms Value
Ans: V (rms)=25 V and
V(average)= 0 V (for one complete cycle)
=2.5 V (for half cycle)
(Therefore, only half cycle is considered for SYMMETRICAL wave to calculate
average value)
Some Numerical: Find Average and Rms Value
Ans: V (avg)=50 V and
Ans: V (rms)=28.86 V and V(rms)= 57.77 V
V(average)= 25 V
Some Numerical: Find Average and Rms Value
Ans: i (rms)=0.7745 Im A and i(average)= 7 Im/10 A
Ans: V (rms)=90.46V and V(average)= 81.83 A
Some Numerical: Find Average and Rms Value
Ans: V (rms)=3.266 V and
V(average)= 1 V
End of Chapter 2
