MODULE 5: JUSTICE: BIBLICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL, AND THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Justice is a central concept in law, philosophy, and theology, shaping legal systems, ethical
frameworks, and societal norms. For law students, understanding justice from multiple perspectives
is essential to developing a well-rounded approach to legal reasoning and moral judgment. This
discussion explores justice from three key viewpoints—biblical, philosophical, and theological—each
offering unique insights into its meaning and application.
The biblical perspective highlights justice as a divine attribute, emphasizing righteousness
and social responsibility. The philosophical approach examines justice through historical and modern
theories, including those of Plato, Aristotle, Rawls, and Mill. The theological perspective considers
justice in relation to divine law, moral order, and the human experience. By engaging with these
perspectives, law students can deepen their understanding of justice and apply its principles to
contemporary legal and ethical issues.
Learning Objectives: By engaging with this discussion on justice, law students should be able to:
1. Analyze the biblical foundations of justice, including key scriptural references and theological
interpretations.
2. Compare and contrast different philosophical perspectives on justice, including theories
from Plato, Aristotle, Rawls, and Mill.
3. Evaluate the theological implications of justice in relation to divine law, moral order, and
Christian ethics.
4. Understand the historical evolution of justice as a concept in legal, philosophical, and
religious contexts.
5. Apply insights from biblical, philosophical, and theological perspectives to contemporary
legal issues and ethical dilemmas.
6. Develop a critical approach to justice that integrates legal reasoning with moral and
theological principles.
BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVES ON JUSTICE
In the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), justice ( )משפטis a core attribute of God, rooted in
God’s character and law. The Old Testament frequently presents God as just and righteous, calling
His people to uphold justice (Deuteronomy 16:20; Micah 6:8). God is just and He is the ultimate
standard of justice. Biblical justice emphasizes care for the vulnerable and oppressed:
“Learn to do good; seek justice, correct oppression; bring justice to the fatherless,
plead the widow’s cause.” (Isaiah1:17)
"Defend the weak and the fatherless; uphold the cause of the poor and the
oppressed. Rescue the weak and the needy; deliver them from the hand of the
wicked." (Psalm 82:3-4)
The Mosaic Law established protections for the vulnerable, including;
- Provisions for the poor (Deuteronomy 15:7-11)
- Protection of strangers (Exodus 22:21)
- Concern for Widows and Orphans (Deuteronomy 10:18)
Justice is a fundamental requirement for human society. The prophetic literature particularly
emphasizes social justice. The prophet Micah famously declares: "He has shown you, O mortal, what
is good. And what does the LORD require of you? To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly
with your God." (Micah 6:8)
In the New Testament, Jesus affirms and radicalizes the Hebrew Bible's emphasis on justice,
particularly in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7). He proclaims:
"Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be
filled." (Matthew 5:6)
Jesus embodies justice through His ministry, advocating for the poor and oppressed. Paul
also reinforces the idea that justice is a divine mandate, fulfilled through Christ (Romans 3:26). The
biblical perspective emphasizes that justice is not only about punishment but also about restoration
and righteousness before God. The Greek word translated as "righteousness" (*dikaiosynē*) can
also mean "justice." Jesus expands on justice themes, emphasizing that true justice transcends mere
legal compliance and involves care for the marginalized, as seen in the parable of the Good
Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37) and his teachings about the Kingdom of God.
Biblical justice is not merely procedural but substantive, concerned with right relationship
and the flourishing of all members of the community. Justice (mishpat) is closely linked with
tzedakah ( )צדקהor tzedakah, which combines justice with righteousness and charity, suggesting that
justice involves active care for others, not merely abstention from harm.
The "Little Book of Biblical Justice" by Chris Marshall provides an insightful exploration of the
Bible's teachings on justice. It integrates biblical, philosophical, and theological perspectives to
present a comprehensive understanding of justice as outlined in scripture.
Key Biblical Principles of Justice
Fairness and Equity
The text emphasizes the importance of fairness in all dealings. Justice, according to
biblical principles, requires that individuals be treated equitably, regardless of their social
status or background.
Inherent Dignity of Individuals
A core principle highlighted is the inherent dignity of every person. The Bible teaches
that all individuals are created in the image of God, which necessitates respect and justice
for all.
Compassion for the Marginalized
The book underscores the biblical call to care for the marginalized and oppressed.
Justice is not merely a legal concept but a moral imperative to support those who are
vulnerable in society.
Restorative Justice
Marshall advocates for restorative justice over punitive measures. This approach
focuses on healing and reconciliation rather than punishment, aligning with the biblical
vision of restoring relationships and communities.
Community Responsibility
The text also highlights the communal aspect of justice. It is not solely the
responsibility of individuals but a collective duty to ensure justice is upheld within society.
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES ON JUSTICE
Classical Philosophy
Philosophically, justice is often seen as a fundamental moral principle, a concept that
humans have a natural inclination to pursue. However, The connection to h₂yew- (to exist) suggests
that justice is not an arbitrary human invention but rather an essential principle of being—
something that must be upheld for harmony in society. Ancient philosophers, such as Plato and
Aristotle, emphasized justice as a fundamental virtue necessary for a well-ordered state and
individual character.
Plato's "Republic" explores justice as harmony within the soul and society. For Plato, justice
emerges when each part of society fulfills its proper function, creating a harmonious whole. Plato, in
The Republic, argues that justice is the harmonious structure of society where each individual plays
their appropriate role (Plato, trans. 2004).
Aristotle distinguishes between distributive justice (fair allocation of goods) and corrective
justice (rectifying wrongs), emphasizing fairness and equity in social arrangements (Aristotle, trans.
1999). His concept of the "golden mean" suggests justice as a virtue that lies between excess and
deficiency.
Modern Philosophy
a. Utilitarianism and Consequentialism
Utilitarianism, pioneered by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, judges justice by
outcomes rather than principles. Justice is achieved when actions maximize overall happiness or
utility.
c. Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant's deontological ethics frames justice in terms of universal duties and
rights. His categorical imperative demands that we act according to maxims that could become
universal laws, respecting the inherent dignity of all persons.
c. John Rawls
John Rawls revolutionized justice theory with his "Justice as Fairness" concept. His "veil
of ignorance" thought experiment imagines people choosing principles of justice without
knowing their position in society, suggesting that truly fair principles would protect the least
advantaged. He advocated equality and the “veil of ignorance” to ensure impartiality. John
Rawls' influential theory proposes that justice emerges from a fair procedure. Justice principles
would be chosen behind a "veil of ignorance" where individuals don't know their place in society.
"Justice as fairness" contemplates equal basic liberties for all and the "difference principle"
where inequalities are justified only if they benefit the least advantaged.
THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON JUSTICE
Theologically, justice is closely linked to God’s nature and the moral order of the universe.
Justice is understood as a reflection of God's character and a way of participating in God's work of
creation and redemption. The theological perspective, therefore, sees justice not only as a legal
principle but as an essential part of God’s redemptive plan.
Christian Theology
Augustine asserts that true justice is found in aligning human will with God’s law (Augustine,
trans. 1998). Augustine views justice as giving each their due, but acknowledges that perfect justice
is unattainable in the temporal world. True justice, for Augustine, is found in the City of God.
Thomas Aquinas integrates Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, defining justice
as a "constant and perpetual will to render to each his due." Justice as giving each their due
according to divine law (Aquinas, trans. 2006). He distinguishes between commutative justice (fair
exchanges), distributive justice (fair allocation), and legal justice (common good).
Liberation theology, emerging in Latin America, as articulated by Gustavo Gutiérrez, frames
justice in terms of social liberation and the preferential option for the poor (Gutiérrez, 1988). He
emphasized God's "preferential option for the poor" and propelled justice as active solidarity with
the oppressed and marginalized.
a. Catholic Social Teaching
Catholic social teaching has developed a robust framework for understanding justice
and rights. Justice is grounded in human dignity derived from being created in God's image.
Rights emerge from the common good and natural law
Key principles include:
1. Solidarity with the poor and vulnerable.
2. Subsidiarity (addressing issues at the appropriate level)
3. The universal destination of goods (the world's resources are meant for all)
Pope John Paul II's encyclical *Centesimus Annus* (1991) emphasizes: "The Church's
social teaching is itself a valid instrument of evangelization... It proclaims God and his
mystery of salvation in Christ to every human being, and for that very reason reveals man to
himself."
b. Protestant Perspectives
Protestant theological traditions have emphasized various aspects of justice. Lutheran
approaches focus on the "two kingdoms" doctrine, distinguishing between spiritual and
temporal authority while affirming both. Reformed/Calvinist traditions emphasize God's
sovereignty over all aspects of life, including justice and rights
Other Theological Traditions
Islamic theology understands justice ('adl) as a divine attribute and human obligation. The
Quran states: "O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice, witnesses for Allah,
even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives" (4:135).
Jewish theological perspectives on justice emphasize tikkun olam (repairing the world) and
tzedakah (righteous giving), seeing justice as both individual virtue and communal responsibility.
SYNTHESIS AND CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE
These traditions share common threads: justice as right relationship, care for the vulnerable,
and the tension between ideal justice and practical implementation. Justice is a foundational
concept that permeates biblical, philosophical, and theological discourses, reflecting its profound
importance in human society. The biblical perspective portrays justice as an intrinsic attribute of
God, emphasizing righteousness, fairness, and restoration. Philosophical traditions provide diverse
interpretations, from Plato’s ideal society to Rawls’ principles of fairness and Mill’s utilitarianism,
illustrating the evolving understanding of justice across history. The theological viewpoint connects
justice to divine will and moral order, advocating for a justice that transcends human law and is
fulfilled in God’s redemptive plan. Collectively, these perspectives underscore that justice is not
merely a legal construct but a moral imperative that shapes ethical living, societal governance, and
spiritual fulfillment. A comprehensive understanding of justice requires integrating these
dimensions to foster a just society that aligns with divine principles, philosophical reasoning, and
moral duty.
Sources
Aristotle. (2009). Nicomachean ethics (W. D. Ross, Trans.). Oxford University Press. (Original work
published ca. 350 BCE)
Augustine. (1998). The city of God against the pagans (R. W. Dyson, Trans.). Cambridge University
Press. (Original work published 426 CE)
Aquinas, T. (1947). *Summa theologica* (Fathers of the English Dominican Province, Trans.).
Benziger Brothers. (Original work published 1274)
Brueggemann, W. (2018). *Justice: Personal, communal, and institutional*. Westminster John Knox
Press.
Gutiérrez, G. (1988). A theology of liberation: History, politics, and salvation (C. Inda & J. Eagleson,
Trans.). Orbis Books.
Kant, I. (1996). Practical philosophy (M. J. Gregor, Trans.). Cambridge University Press. (Original work
published 1785)
Locke, J. (1988). *Two treatises of government* (P. Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge University Press.
(Original work published 1689)
MacIntyre, A. (2007). *After virtue: A study in moral theory* (3rd ed.). University of Notre Dame
Press.
Marshall, C. (2005). Little Book of Biblical Justice: A Fresh Approach To The Bible's Teachings On
Justice. Simon and Schuster.
Niebuhr, R. (1932). *Moral man and immoral society: A study in ethics and politics*. Charles
Scribner's Sons.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2006). *Frontiers of justice: Disability, nationality, species membership*. Harvard
University Press.
Plato. (1992). Republic (G. M. A. Grube & C. D. C. Reeve, Trans.). Hackett Publishing Company.
(Original work published ca. 380 BCE)
Rawls, J. (1999). A theory of justice (Rev. ed.). Harvard University Press.
Wolterstorff, N. (2008). Justice: Rights and wrongs. Princeton University Press.
