Notes

Chapter 2
 Function of cell membrane
The cell membrane protects the cell's interior from the
outside environment.
The cell membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell,
and how much of a substance enters.
The cell membrane provides structural support for the cell
 Function of cell wall
The cell wall protects the cell from mechanical stress,
infection, and pathogens.

The cell wall helps form channels for the movement of

fluids, water, minerals, and other small nutrient molecules.
The cell wall allows cells to develop turgor pressure, which
keeps a plant from wilting.

The cell wall stores regulatory molecules that sense the

presence of pathogenic microbes and control the
development of tissue .
 Functions of cytoplasm
The cytoplasm maintains the cell's shape.
The cytoplasm protects the cell's components from damage.
It acts as a cushion for the cell's genetic material.
The cytoplasm stores molecules and chemicals needed for
cellular processes.
The cytoplasm acts as a medium for the movement of
molecules between organelles.
The cytoplasm hosts metabolic processes. It contains
enzymes that break down waste and aid in metabolic activity.
 Functions of nucleus
The nucleus stores the cell's DNA, which encodes the cell's
genetic material.
The nucleus controls gene expression, which helps
maintain the security of genes and the hereditary traits of
the organism
 Functions of chloroplast

Chloroplasts are organelles in plant and algae cells that

perform photosynthesis, which is the process of
converting sunlight into chemical energy
Chloroplasts use chlorophyll pigments to capture light
energy and convert it into chemical energy, which is then
used to create sugar and other organic molecules from
carbon dioxide.
 Functions of mitochondria

Mitochondria are organelles in cells that produce

energy, store calcium, and perform other functions

 Function of ribosomes
 Ribosomes link amino acids together in the order
specified by messenger RNA (mRNA) codons to form
polypeptide chains
 Bacterial cell
Bacteria don't have a nucleus, so they're classified as
prokaryotes. They're microbes with a very simple cell
structure. Bacteria have cell walls. Within the cell walls,
a bacteria diagram would show the structure of each
cell. Each bacterium contains cytoplasm, ribosomes and
DNA.
 Tissue
tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure and
function that work together as a unit.
 1mm=1000um
 Magnification =size of image
Size of actual object

Chapter 3
 Diffusion

Diffusion is defined as the net movement of molecules

from an area of greater concentration to an area of
lesser concentration. The molecules in a gas, a liquid or a
solid are in constant motion due to their kinetic energy.

 Osmosis
osmosis is the process by which water molecules move
through a semipermeable membrane from a less
concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution

 In animal cell water diffuses into the cell through the

partially permeable membrane. when there is more
concentrated solution inside the cell
 In animal cell water diffuses out of the cell through the
partially permeable membrane. when there is more
dilute solution inside the cell , concentrated solution
outside the cell
 In plant cell water diffuses into the cytoplasm and sap
vacuole through the partially permeable membrane.
when there is more concentrated solution inside the
cell
 In plant cell water diffuses out of the cytoplasm and sap
vacuole through the partially permeable membrane.
when there is less concentrated solution inside the cell
 Turgor pressure is the force that pushes a cell's plasma
membrane against its cell wall
 Turgid swollen and hard. The pressure inside the cell
rises, eventually the internal pressure of the cell is so
high that no more water can enter the cell. This liquid or
hydrostatic pressure works against
 Flaccid A cell is flaccid when it's not swollen and has lost
all its water. Flaccid cells are not tight, and don't
experience turgor pressure. This happens when a cell is
placed in a hypertonic solution.
 Active transport is the movement of molecules or ions
through a membrane from the region of lower
concentration to the place of lower concentration using
the energy from respiration, which is against a
concentration gradient
 Chapter 4
 Carbohydrates are made from 3 elements :-
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
 Glucose molecule is made with :-
1. 6 carbon atoms
2. 12 hydrogen atom
3. 6 oxygen atoms
 Glucose molecules are small and have hexagon shape ,
links together in long chains which coils into spiral
shape
 Glucose molecules can link together in chains to form
large molecules
In animal the large molecules that are formed are glycogen
In plants the large molecules that are formed are starch
 Test for carbohydrates
A test for simple carbohydrates in an analyte. The test
involves heating a sample with Benedict's reagent, and
the reagent will change color to indicate the presence of
carbohydrates. The color change can be green, yellow,
orange, or brick red, depending on the type of
carbohydrate.
 Test for starch
The iodine test is a biological test that can be used to
detect the presence of starch in food
To test for starch in food, you can add a few drops of
iodine solution to the food:
 If the food turns blue-black, it contains starch.
If the food turns a brownish yellow color, it contains no
starch.
 Test for reducing sugar
Benedict's test:-
Mix 1ml of the sample with 2 ml of Benedict's reagent in
a test tube Boil the solution for 3 to 5 minutes
Cool the solution and observe it
If a brick-red, green, yellow, or orange precipitate forms,
reducing sugars are present
 Lipids are substance containing carbon ,hydrogen and
oxygen ; they are insoluble in water and are used as
energy stores in organisms
 Fats lipids that are solid at room temperature
 Oils lipids that are liquid at room temperature
 Fats and oils contain 3 elements
1. Carbon
2. Oxygen
3. Hydrogen
 Fats are made up from glycerol and fatty acids
 Test for fats and oils
Crush the sample in a test tube
Add a few drops of ethanol to the sample
Let the test tube stand for a couple of minutes
Add the mixture to a test tube containing water
If the sample contains lipids, a white, milk-like emulsion
will form. This is because lipids dissolve in ethanol but
not in water, so when the ethanol is diluted.
 Protein molecules contain 4 element
 1. Hydrogen
2. Oxygen
3. Carbon
4. Nitrogen
5. Also small quantity of sulfur .
 A protein molecule is made of a long chain of smaller
molecules called amino acids
 Test for protein
Take some food cut it in to small pieces , put the pieces
in the test tube and add biuret solution after some time
if the colour changes from blue to violet then there is
presense of protein
 Test for vitamin c
add blue DCPIP into a conical flask.
Slowly add fruit juice to the DCPIP drop by drop while
swirling the contents of the flask. If the blue colour
turned colourless then it does not contain vitamin c
 The structure of DNA
is a double helix, with two strands of nucleotides that
wind around each other to form a twisted ladder shape
 DNA makes up our genes and chromosomes
 It is present in nucleus
 DNA is made up of smaller molecule called nucleotide ,
each nucleotide contains a base
 There are 4 bases
1. A
2. C
3. G
4. T
 A DNA molecule contains 2 chains of nucleotides coiled
around one another , This shape is called double helix
shape

Chapter 5
 Biological catalysts
A biological catalyst is a protein molecule that speeds up
chemical reactions in cells without being destroyed or
used up. Biological catalysts are also known as enzymes.

 Every metabolic reaction is controlled by catalysts called

enzymes .
 Starch is digested to a sugar called maltose by an
enzyme amylase
 Proteins are digested to amino acids by protease
 Catalase is an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen
peroxide into water and oxygen, protecting cells from
damage.
 Enzyme names often ends with -ase
 The catalase that breakdown of carbohydrates are called
carbohydrase
 Proteins – protease
 Fats and oils are lipids so its lipases
 Carbohydrates that break down maltose is maltase
 Carbohydrates that break down sucrose is sucrase
 The substance that the enzyme changes is called its
substrate for ex. The substrate of lipase is lipids