TESTING ADULTERATION IN DIFFERENT MILK

SAMPLES

ABSTRACT:

Milk and milk products are a good and easy source of nutrients for
individuals in most Nations. Milk is susceptible to adulteration and can easily
be contaminated by microbes because of its high nutritional value. Special
care should be taken so that any Inappropriate milk is not delivered for
human consumption. The quality of raw milk is a Key issue for social,
economical and health purposes. Hence, it is extremely important to analyze
the quality of milk by performing platform tests. These tests should be easy
to perform, give rapid and precise , and not require the use of special or
costly equipment. Milk testing and quality control is a vital part of any milk
processing industry. Whether small, medium or large scale. Milk consisting of
87% water is susceptible to Adulteration by dishonest middlemen and
disloyal farm hands. Furthermore, its high Nutritive value renders it a
suitable medium for the quick multiplication of bacteria, especially Under
unhygienic manufacturing and storage at room temperatures. We are aware
that, in order for any processor to produce good dairy products, good quality
raw material is of the essence. A milk Processor or handler would only be
certain about the quality of raw milk if some basic quality. Tests are
conducted at different stages of transport of milk from the producer to the
processor and ultimately to the consumer.

INTRODUCTION:

Milk is a nutrient-dense liquid food manufactured by the mammary glands of

mammals. It is the principal source of nutrients for young mammals (such as
breastfed human infants) until they can eat solid [Link] in early stages of
lactation, known as colostrum, contains antibodies that boost the immune
system, and thereby decreases the possibility of most diseases. Milk also has
numerous other nutrients, such as protein and lactose. The US CDC suggests
that children above the age of 12 months ought to receive two servings of
dairy milk products daily.
As an agricultural commodity, dairy milk is harvested from farm animals. In
2011, dairy farms have produced approximately 730 million tonnes (800
million short tons) of milk from 260 million dairy [Link] is the largest
producer of milk globally and the largest exporter of skimmed milk powder,
though it exports minimal other milk [Link] there is a continually
growing demand for dairy products in India, it may eventually become a net
importer of dairy products. The highest exporters of milk products are
Germany, Netherlands and New [Link] six billion people across the
world drink milk and milk products, and from 750 to 900 million reside in
milk-producing [Link] is a perishable product. If raw milk is stored
for an extended period at room temperature, its flavour and quality
decreases with time. The shelf life and quality of milk therefore need to be
Ascertained through sufficient tests so that the milk and milk products do not
spoil during the storage and distribution process. Shelf life of milk is crucial
for the dairy sector because It determines how rapidly the supply chain
needs to facilitate the shipment of the stock from the factory to the end-
users.

Those responsible for weakening the quality of milk and milk products are A
wide array such as particles of dust, antibiotics, off-flavours, pathogenic
microorganisms, lack of care in cleanness and dealing with milk in the
process of milk production, etc. At this point, the stage of platform tests or
milk reception tests by the individuals in charge of raw milk reception and/or
collection. Raw milk arrives in the facility’s area referred to as the Raw Milk
Receiving Dock (RMRD). The raw milk has to be tested prior to unloading it to
ascertain whether it is safe for consumption and what price it will fetch.
Quality control of milk refers to the application of approved tests to ascertain
the application of approved practices, standards and regulations relating to
the milk and milk products. The tests are intended to establish that milk
products are at acceptable standards for CHEMICAL.

Milk is that the lacteal secretion obtained by the entire milking of class
[Link] of them are directly available on the market to any or all
microorganisms, while others are square measure supplied after the
metabolism of main compo- nents by special populations in order to release
parts and metabolites that square measure used by others . It’s commonly
believed that the carboxylic acid microorganism (LAB), a group of
microorganism which ferment disaccharide to nurse, square are a Dominant
bovine, goat, sheep and buffalo milk population, prior to pasteurization. The
most prevalent common workplace genera in milk include Lactococcus,
eubacteria, Leucocyanobacteria, bacterium and Enterococcus.

Psychrotrophic populations, which play an important role in establishing

themselves during cold storage, are an important part and often include
bacteria genus and Acinetobacter spp. Various strains of non-LAB genera are
found in milk, in addition to diverse yeasts and moulds . Human milk on the
opposite hand is often domi- nated by Neumonovirulence, staph, eubacteria
and Bifidobacterium spp. Probiotics are living microorganisms that square
measure helpful to health once consumed. Milk and milk merchandise square
measure oftentimes related with probiotic microorganism, which provide
supplements for the beneficial maintenance of the viscus system .
There has been associate degree increasing focus within the use of various
strains of workplace as probiotics, in the main lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria
which are square are inhabitants of the commensal microorganism of the gut
in human exhibiting reasonable therapeutic activity .They will produce
antimicrobial compounds (e.g.: -organic acid, peroxide and bacteriocins)
which will affect the growth of the potential pathogenic microorganisms.

THE MICROBIAL COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS MILK SORT :

While the large production of commercially made milk worldwide comes from
cows,there area unit variety of alternative animal sources of milk that is used
for human Consumption. These include rather ordinary sources such as
goats, sheep, buffalo and alternative used in other particular areas such as
even-toed ungulate milk in African and Arab nations and yak milk.

Cow’s Milk :

Cow’s milk is produced on a large [Link] of alternative Microorganisms

will be present in significant proportions. These include psychrotrophs, such
as bacteria genus, Acinecobacter and Aeromonas spp. Which thrive during

cold storage .Recently used high-throughput within the microorganism

population of raw cow’s milk that was to be employed for cheese production
our analyses show that the northermoduric bacteriumthat area unit gift
among these population area unit doubtless to be in a very broken,
nonculturable kind.
Goat’s Milk:

Goat’s milk manufacturing represents regarding a pair of.1% of worldwide

milk manufacturing . It’s an incredibly important artefact that has acquired
compounded interest as a substitute for cow’s milk, owing to evidence that
it’s certainly not to cause allergies. Goats milk also differ from cow’s and
sheep’s milk by virtue be of increasing amounts of iron diversity still as
possessing smaller fat globules, containing the next content of fatty acids
and producing a softer curd during further fermentation, successively leading
to greater edibleness .

Goats milk is used principally for cheese creation usually at fain level or in
small dairies. It was depended upon the use of selective microbiological
media, spp analysis still as fragment length polymorphism(RFLP) typewriting
of isolates to examine the microbic diversity of 118 goats milk samples
drawn from goats milk samples drawn from one herds although one lactation
year to uncover the existence of a diverse population of microorganisms in
the [Link] addition to microorganisms unremarkably found in milk, such as
those enumerated at the top of some species were recognized not typically
associated with goats milk or that had previously only been associated with
goats milk or that had previously only been associated with cheeses, along
with diversity of a corynobacteria and brachybacteria. While these variation
will be credited to difference in feed, authors suggest that other factors such
as climate {and the|and therefore the|and additionally the} health of the

animal were equally crucial .

Sheep Milk:
Sheep milk is never ingested but still Accounts for c.1.3% of global milk
production because it is normally utilized across Europe in the creation of
cheese. Research on the effect of storing sheep milk at refrigeration
temperature emphasized will rise in psychrophiles, but also in mesophiles.
Not surprisingly, the Theromduric population did not rise. These overall
trends are rich in temperature and also in the duration of storage. Other
bacterium which is found sometimes will eliminate organism of interest from
milk safety point along with [Link], salmonella, coccus aureus, Bacilli and
eubacteria. In populations of streptococci and [Link] there was an
increase and reduction in quantities, separately in areas wherever the milk
was extra acidic and nutrient quantities were reduced .A little information
concerning the biology of sheep milk was further gained by a latest study of
the milk cheese, Oscypek which is factoryproduced whereas not a starter
culture . Since this naturally hard milk cheese it is certain that these cheese-
related bacterium were also gift within the corresponding milk. This method
also reveled variety of minor population along with fetragenococcus
halophilus, eubacteria,salivarius,[Link] and eubacteria vertibularis.
A high output sequencing-based method revalved the presence of forty
completely different genera along with six kind the order Lactobacillales that
grooved ninety seven of appointed sequences. The advantages of employing
this technology were once more highlighted once antecedently unmarked
populations of kocuria, saguibacter, Flavobacteria, Thryseobacterium,
exigouobacterium, staphylococcus and chromonalobacter were defected.
Importantly a considerable proporation 2 hundredth of sequence reads
couldn’t be appointed, and then the identity of those bacterium and also the
significance of the opposite sub populations can required futher attention.
Buffalo Milk:

Buffalo milk is eaten in diverse countries around the world with India and
Islamic Republic of Pakistan being the best consumers. It is less prevalent in
Europe,though it will have a significantly significant market in a number of
Mediterranean nations wherever It’s used in the formation of ancient cheese
cheese. Raw buffalo milk’s microbic content has been. Evaluated, by
culturing, and found to possess a large population of laboratory, along with
Lactococci and lactobacillus, as well as Coliforms. [Link], [Link] and
microorganism endospore, light that technologically significant bacterium
area unit gift, microorganisms of concern with relevancy quality and safety
also can be found .More recently, high output sequencing has been applied
to identify the microorganism populations gift in buffalo milk and throughout
the manufacture of cheese .
COMPOSITION AND PURITY AS WELL AS LEVELS OF DIFFERENT
MICROORGANISMS.

Analysing milk and milk products for quality and checking that MILK
PRODUCTS,PROCESSORS and MARKETING AGENCIES are following accepted
codes of practices cost Money. There should be valid reasons why we need a
quality control system for the dairy industry in Kenya.

The reasons are:

● To the Milk Producer

The milk producer anticipates a reasonable price as per the quality of milk
she/he produces

● The Milk Processor

The producer who is paid by the milk processor should ensure that the milk
received for processing is of standard composition and quality and is apt for
processing into different dairy products.

● The Consumer

The consumer hopes to pay a reasonable price for milk and milk products of
good to excellent quality.

● The Public and Government Agencies

These need to ensure that the health and nutritional status of the people are
not compromised by Consumption of sub-standard and contaminated
foodstuffs and that prices paid are equitable to the Milk producers, the milk
processor and the end consumer. All the above-is only achieved by
institution of an operational quality testing and assurance system that
satisfies national or international acceptable standards.

COMPOSITION
Butterfat is a triglyceride (fat) that is composed from fatty acids including
myristic, palmitic, and oleic Acids.

Milk is a colloid or emulsion of butterfat globules in a water-based liquid

containing dissolved carbohydrates and protein complexes with minerals.
Since it is secreted as a food item for the young, all of its components are
useful for growth. The major requirements are energy (lipids, lactose, and
protein), biosynthesis of non-essential amino acids provided by proteins
(essential amino acids and amino groups), essential fatty acids, Vitamins and
inorganic compounds, and water.

pH

pH of milk is between 6.7 and 6.9. Milk from other bovines and non-bovine
mammals has varying composition but the same ph.[citation needed].

Lipids

Main article: Butterfat.

Milk fat is secreted initially in the form of a globule covered with a

membrane. Each Fat globule is nearly all triacylglycerol and covered by a
membrane made up of Complex lipids like phospholipids, with proteins.
These function as emulsifiers which prevent the individual globules from
coalescing and also safeguard the contents of these globules by different
enzymes in the fluid component of the milk. While 97–98% of Lipids are
triacylglycerol, traces of di- and monoacylglycerols, free cholesterol and
Cholesterol esters, free fatty acids, and phospholipids are also found. In
contrast to protein and Carbohydrates, fat composition in milk is highly
variable because of genetic, locational, and Nutritional factor variation
between different species.

Similar to composition, fat globules also differ in size from less than 0.2 to
approximately 15 micrometres in diameter between species. Diameter can
also differ between animals of a species and at various times during a
milking of one animal. In unhomogenized milk of cows, the fat globules are of
an average diameter of two to four micrometres and with homogenization,
Average around 0.4 micrometres. The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
together with essential fatty acids linoleic and linoleic acid occur in the milk
fat fraction of the milk.

Proteins

The normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein per litre of which
approximately 80% is Organized in casein micelles. Milk proteins comprise
3.2% of the composition (nutrition table).

Caseins

Main article: Casein

The largest molecules in the fluid component of milk are “casein micelles”:
clusters of several thousand molecules of protein that have superficial
appearance like a surfactant micelle, held together with the assistance of
nanometre-sized particles of calcium phosphate. Each casein micelle is
approximately spherical and about one tenth of a micrometre in diameter.
There are four types of casein proteins: αs1-, αs2-, β-, and κ-caseins. The
majority of the casein proteins are bound into the micelles. There are a
number of rival theories about the exact structure of the micelles, but they
have one significant characteristic: the outermost layer is made up of
strands of one type of protein, k-casein, extending out from the body of the
micelle into the surrounding fluid. These kappa-casein molecules are all
negatively charged electrically and thus repel one another and maintain the
micelles dispersed under usual conditions and in colloidal suspension in the
water-containing surrounding fluid.

Milk includes dozens of other proteins in addition to caseins and including

enzymes. These other proteins are more soluble in water than caseins and
do not compose structures larger than themselves. Since the proteins stay
suspended in whey left after caseins coagulate into curds, they are
collectively referred to as whey proteins. Lacto globulin is the most frequent
whey protein by [Link] proportion of caseins to whey proteins is extremely
different across species; for instance, it is 82:18 in cows and approximately
32:68 in humans.
Salts ,minerals and vitamins

Minerals or milk salts, are old terms for a mixture of cations and anions
present in bovine Milk. Calcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
citrate, and chloride are all Covered and they occur generally at 5–40 mM
concentrations. The milk salts have strong interact with casein, particularly
calcium phosphate. It is in excess and frequently, considerably greater
excess of solubility of solid calcium phosphate. Milk is also a good source of
many other vitamins aside from calcium. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E,
thiamine, niacin, biotin, riboflavin, folates, and pantothenic acid are all found
in milk.

Calcium phosphate Structure

Most accepted for many years was that the structure of a micelle was made
up of spherical casein aggregates, referred to as submicelles, that were
stabilized through calcium phosphate linkages. Yet two current models of the
casein micelle contradict the clear micellular structures within the micelle.

The first theory, by de Kruif and Holt, suggests that nanoclusters of calcium
Phosphate and the phosphopeptide fraction of beta-casein are the focal point
to micellar structure. Particularly in this perspective unstructured proteins
assemble around the calcium phosphate, forming their structure, and hence
no definite structure is created.

According to the second theory, given by Horne, the development of calcium

phosphate nanoclusters initiates the process of micelle formation, but is
constrained by binding phosphopeptide loop Regions of the caseins. On
binding, protein-protein interactions are created and polymerization is
Accomplished, where K-casein serves as an end cap for the creation of
micelles with sequestered Calcium phosphate nanoclusters.

Trapped calcium phosphate is reported by some sources to be in Ca9(PO4)6

form; Whereas, according to other sources, it is comparable in structure to
the mineral brushite, CaHPO4•2H2O.
Sugars and carbohydrates

A simplified drawing of a lactose molecule being hydrolyzed into glucose and

Galactose.

Milk has several types of carbohydrates including lactose, glucose, galactose,

and other Oligosaccharides. The lactose is responsible for the milk’s
sweetness and accounts for about 40% Of whole cow’s milk calories. Lactose
is a disaccharide mixture of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose.
Bovine milk contains an average of 4.8% anhydrous lactose, which equates
around 50% of skimmed milk’s total solids. Lactose levels are variable based
on the type of milk since other carbohydrates may occur at higher
concentrations than lactose in milks.

Miscellaneous contents
Some of the other constituents present in raw cow’s milk include living white
blood cells, mammary gland cells, diverse bacteria, vitamin C, and numerous
active enzymes.

Appearance

Both the fat globules and the slightly larger casein micelles, which are barely
large enough to scatter Light, are responsible for the opaque white
appearance of milk. The fat globules include some yelloworange carotene,
sufficient in some breeds (Guernsey and Jersey cattle) to give a golden or
“creamy” tinge to a glass of milk. The riboflavin in the whey fraction of milk
has a Greenish hue, which at times may be seen in skimmed milk or whey
products. Fat-free skimmed milk contains only the casein micelles to scatter
light, and they scatter Shorter-wavelength blue light more than red,
imparting a bluish color to skimmed milk.

processing
Milk products and productions relationship.

Centrally, milk and products derived from milk, like cream, butter, and
cheese, are processed. In most Western nations. These dairies, in the case of
the United States, are typically local companies, while in the Southern
Hemisphere, factories might be owned by large multi-national firms like
Fonterra.

Pasteurisation

Main article: pasteurization &Milk

The process of killing harmful pathogenic bacteria like M. paratuberculosis

and [Link] 0157:H7 by briefly heating and then rapidly cooling the milk.
Varieties of Pasteurized milk are full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium
enriched, flavored, and UHT. The normal high temperature short time (HTST)
treatment of 72 °C (162 °F)for 15 seconds sterilizes pathogenic bacteria in
milk, making it safe for consumption by three weeks if they are refrigerated
constantly. Dairies place best before dates on every container, which the
stores later withdraw from sale once expired.

A by product of heating during pasteurization is the loss of some of the

vitamin and mineral [Link] calcium and phosphorus reduce by 5%,
thiamin and vitamin B12 by 10%, and vitamin C by 20% or more (even to
total loss).[85] Since losses are minimal in comparison to the vast majority of
the two B-vitamins present, milk remains a valuable source of thiamin and
vitamin B12. Loss of vitamin C is not nutritionally significant in a balanced
diet, as milk is not a key dietary source of vitamin C.

Filtration

Microfiltration is a process that partly substitutes pasteurization and gives

milk with fewer microorganisms and longer shelf life without altering the
taste of the milk. In this process, cream is skimmed from the skimmed milk
and is pasteurized as usual, but the skimmed milk is pushed through ceramic
microfilters that capture 99.9% of microorganisms. In the milk (compared to
99.999% destruction of microorganisms in regular HTST Pasteurization).
Skimmed milk is then recombined with the pasteurized cream to reconstruct
the original composition of milk.
Ultrafiltration employs finer filters than microfiltration, permitting lactose and
water to permeate but retaining fats, calcium and [Link] fat can again
be removed prior to filtration and added back afterward, as in microfiltration.
Ultrafiltered milk is utilized cheesemaking, as it has lower volume for the
same protein content, and is marketed directly to Consumers as a more
protein, less sugar content, and creamier substitute for normal milk.

Creaming and homogenisation

A milking machine in action

When left to stand for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk tends to separate into a
high-fat cream Layer over a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream usually is
sold separately with its own applications. Presently the separation of cream
from milk generally is done quickly in centrifugal cream separators. Fat
globules float to the top of a milk container because fat is less dense than
water.

The smaller the globules are, the more other molecular forces at the
molecular level prevent this from [Link] cream floats more rapidly in
cow’s milk than a simple theory would suggest: instead of single globules,
the fat of the milk prefers to clump together in groups of about a million
globules, stabilized by a variety of minor whey proteins. These groups float
slooner than single globules can. The milk fat globules in goats’, sheep’s, and
water buffalo’s milk do not cluster so easily and are smaller in the first place
and so separate cream from these milks more slowly.

Milk frequently is homogenized, a process that keeps a cream layer from

separating from the Milk. The milk is pumped under high pressure through
extremely fine tubes, disrupting the fat Globules by turbulence and
cavitation. More particles with smaller size have more total surface area than
fewer particles with larger size, and the original fat globule. Membranes will
cover them completely. Casein micelles are drawn to the newly exposed Fat
surfaces.

Almost a third of the micelles of the milk are involved in this new membrane
structure. The casein is heavy and disturbs the clustering that was hastening
Separation. The exposed fat globules are susceptible to some enzymes in
milk, which would hydrolyse the fats and yield rancid tastes. To avoid this,
the enzymes are deactivated by pasteurizing the milk just before or in the
course of Homogenization.

Homogenized milk has a less flavorful taste but a richer mouth feel than
unhomogenized. It is whiter and less prone to the formation of off flavours.
Creamline (or cream-top) milk is Unhomogenized. It is or is not pasteurized.
Milk that has been high pressure homogenized, often described as “ultra-
homogenized”, lasts longer on the shelf than milk that has been subjected to
regular homogenization under lower pressures.

UHT

Ultra Heat Treatment (UHT) is a method of milk treatment in which all

bacteria are killed With hot heat to increase its shelf life for a period of 6
months, provided the package remains [Link] is first homogenized
and subsequently heated to 138 degrees Celsius for 1–3 seconds. The Milk is
cooled immediately and filled into a sterile package. Due to this treatment,
all the pathogenic bacteria in the milk are killed, as compared to when the
milk is Simply pasteurized. The milk will now be stored for a maximum of 6
months when it is still sealed. UHT milk requires no refrigeration until the
sealing of the packaging, which aids shipping and stocking. However in this
method there is vitamin B1 loss and vitamin C loss and a mild alteration Of
the milk taste.

Nutrition and health

See also: Fat content of milk

The composition of milk differs widely among species. Factors such as the
type of protein; The proportion of protein, fat, and sugar; the levels of
various vitamins and minerals; and the Size of the butterfat globules, and the
strength of the curd are among those that may vary.

For example:

● Human milk has, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2% fat, 7.0% lactose
(sugar), and

Provides 72 kcal of energy for every 100 grams.

● Cow’s milk has, on average, 3.4% protein, 3.6% fat, and 4.6% lactose,
0.7%Minerals and provides 66 kcal of energy for every 100 grams. See
also Nutritional [Link] in this article and more comprehensive lists
at online sources that detail values and Differences in categories.
 Donkey and horse milk contain the lowest fat content, and the seals’ and
whales’ milk can contain over 50% fat.

Cow’s milk : Variation by breed

These compositions vary by breed, animal, and point in the lactation period.
 The protein range for these four breeds is 3.3% to 3.9%, and lactose is
between 4.7% and

4.9%.

Dairy farmers’ stock diet formulation strategy can manipulate milk fat
percentages. Infection mastitis, particularly in dairy cattle, may reduce the
fat levels.

Nutritional value

Processed cow’s milk was developed to have varying levels of fat in the
1950s. A 250 mL or one-cup serving of 2%-fat cow’s milk provides 285 mg of
calcium, which is 22% to 29% of the adult’s daily recommended intake (DRI)
of calcium. Depending on age,Milk has 8 grams of protein, and several other
nutrients (naturally, or by fortification).

Allergy

Main article: Milk allergy

One of the most frequent food allergies in infants is to cow’s milk. This is an
Immunologically mediated adverse reaction, seldom fatal, to one or more
cow’s milk [Link] allergy occurs in 2% to 3% of infants and young
children. To Minimize risk, it is recommended that babies be exclusively
breastfed for a minimum Of four months, ideally six months, before the
introduction of cow’s [Link] children outgrow milk allergy, but in
approximately 0.4% the condition continues into adulthood.

Lactose intolerance

Main article: Lactose intolerance

Lactose intolerance is a condition where individuals experience symptoms
because of deficiency or Lack of the enzyme lactase in the small intestine,
leading to poor absorption of milk Lactose. Individuals who are affected differ
in the quantity of lactose that they can Consume before symptoms occur,
which can include bloating, diarrhea, gas, nausea, and Abdominal
[Link] is a function of the quantity of milk [Link]
individuals Are typically able to consume at least one cup of milk without
experiencing notable symptoms, with Larger quantities being tolerated if
consumed with a meal or throughout the day.

Evolution of lactation

Main article: Lactation

The mammary gland is believed to have evolved from apocrine skin glands.
It has been argued that lactation’s original purpose (the production of milk)
was the moistening of eggs. Most of the reasoning derives from monotremes
(egg-laying mammals). Milk secretions’ original adaptive value could have
been nutrition or immunological defense. This secretion evolved to become
progressively more abundant and accumulated nutritional sophistication
over time.

Tritylodontid cynodonts appear to have exhibited lactation, according to their

dental replacement Patterns.

Bovine growth hormone supplementation

Recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbST), also referred to as rBGH, has been

sold to dairy farmers since November 1993 with FDA approval. Cows
naturally produce bovine growth hormone,But some producers give them an
extra recombinant form of BGH which is made using genetically Engineered
E. coli to boost milk production. Bovine growth hormone Also stimulates liver
secretion of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1). The United States Food and
Drug Administration, the National Institutes of Health and the World Health
Organization have stated that both of these substances are safe for human
intake at the levels present
Cows’ milk that has been given rBST can be sold in the United States, and
the FDA explained that none Important difference has been established
between milk produced from rBST-treated and from Non-rBST-treated
[Link] which claims to be from cows that were not treated with rBST,
must label this discovery on its product.

Cows given rBGH supplements may more likely develop an udder infection
called Mastitis. Mastitis problems have resulted in Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, and japan prohibiting milk from cows treated with rBST. Mastitis,
along with other infections, could be Responsible for the variation in levels of
white blood cells in milk. rBGH is also prohibited in the European Union, on
grounds of animal welfare.

varieties and brands

Main article: Dairy product

Glass milk bottle used for home delivery service in the U.S.

Milk products are available in various varieties according to types/levels of:

● Additives (e.g. vitamins, flavourings)

● Age (e.g. cheddar, old cheddar)
● Coagulation (e.g. cottage cheese)
● Farming method (e.g. organic, grass-fed, haymilk)
● Fat content (e.g. half and half, 3% fat milk, 2% milk, 1% milk, skim
milk)
● Fermentation (e.g. buttermilk)
 ● Flavouring (e.g. chocolate and strawberry)
● Homogenization (e.g. cream top)
● Packaging (e.g. bottle, carton, bag)
● pasteurization (e.g. raw milk, pasteurized milk)
● Reduction or removal of lactose
● Species (e.g. cow, goat, sheep)
● Sweetening (e.g., chocolate and strawberry milk.
● water content (e.g. dry milk powder, condensed milk, ultrafiltered milk)

Milk stored by the UHT process is not required to be refrigerated prior to

opening and has a significantly longer shelf life (six months) than milk in
regular packaging. It is commonly sold unrefrigerated in the UK, U.S.,
Europe, Latin America, and Australia.

Reduction or elimination of Lactose

Lactose-free milk may be manufactured by flowing milk over lactase enzyme

immobilized on an inert carrier. After the molecule is split, there are no ill
effects of lactose. There are varieties with reduced quantities of lactose
(usually 30% of that of normal), and alternatively with almost 0%. The only
distinguishable variation from normal milk is a hint of sweeter flavor because
of cleavage of lactose into glucose and galactose. Lactose-reduced milk may
also be manufactured using ultra filtration, where it filters out lactose and
water and retains calcium and proteins. Milk produced by such processes is
reduced in sugar content compared to regular [Link] easier digestion in
patients suffering from lactose intolerance, the alternative could also be
diary foods,millk and yogurt with the inclusion of bacterial cultures like
Lactobacillus acidophilus (“acidophilus milk”) and bifidobacteria. Another
type of milk containing Lactococcus lactis bacteria cultures (“cultured
buttermilk”) frequently is employed in cooking as a substitute for the old-
fashioned use of naturally soured milk, which is now uncommon because of
the pervasiveness of pasteurization, which also destroys the naturally
occurring Lactococcus bacteria.

Additives and flavouring

Milk commonly sold commercially often contains vitamin D added to it to
compensate for insufficient exposure to UVB radiation. Low-fat milks may
contain added vitamin A palmitate to make up for the loss of the vitamin
during fat elimination; in the United States, this means low fat milks contain
more vitamin A than whole milk. Milk commonly has flavor added to it to
improve taste or as a means of enhancing sales. Chocolate milk has been
retailed for decades and more recently supplemented by strawberry milk and
others. Some nutritionists have criticized flavored milk for adding added
sugar, most commonly in the form of highfructose corn syrup, to the already
often obese children of the U.S.

Adulteration of Milk:

Milk adulteration , or the addition of substances to alter it’s composition, is a

prevalent issue, particularly in developing countries.

Common Adulterants and their effects:

● Water : Added to dilute milk and increase volume, reducing its

nutritional value.
● Starch: Used to thicken milk and mask water addition .
● Urea: Added to increase the non-fast solid content and mimic protein
content, potentially leading to health issues.
● Detergents: Used to mimic the white appearance of milk and make it
appear thicker, posing a health risk.
● Formalin: Used to prolong shelf life ,but it can be toxic and harmful to
health.
● Sugar: Added to mask the taste of adulterated milk, but it can also
contribute to increased calorie content without adding nutritional
value.

Methods:

DETECTION OF STARCH BY IODIONE TEST

The development of blue colour on addition of iodine Itsolution in starch
containing milk is due to complex formation between iodine and amylose
component of starch. The other component, amylopectin, gives a red-purple
colour which is much less intense than the amylose.

The acidic condition in the reagent mixture accentuates the blue colour,
whereas alkali reduces its intensity, the blue colour disappears above a pH of
about 9.5. Heating the solution containing starch-iodine Complex also
destroys the colour although reversibly.

Reagents:

● Iodine solution: Dissolve 2.5 g potassium iodide (AR) and 1 g Of pure

iodine crystals (AR) in 100 ml distilled water. Prepare Iodine solution at
least a day before as iodine dissolves slowly.
● Acetic acid (10%): Dissolve 10 ml glacial acetic acid (AR) in Distilled
water and make up the volume to 100 ml.
● Citric acid solution (5%): Dissolve 5 g citric acid monohydrate (AR) in
distilled water and make up the volume to 100 ml with distilled water.

Procedure (Using milk as medium):

● Take 3 ml milk in test tube.

● Bring the milk to boil on a direct flame or on a boiling water Bath.
● Cool the test tube to room temperature under tap water.
● Add a drop of 10% acetic acid in the test tube.
● Add 0.2 ml of iodine solution.
● Mix the content and observe colour.

Interpretation: Blue/Dark blue colour formation indicates adulteration of

milk with starch. Whereas pure milk remains yellow due to colour of iodine.

Limit of detection:

● 0.02 g/ 100 ml milk (When test is performed in milk)

● 0.01 g /100 ml milk (When test is performed in whey)
Detection of Sodium Chloride Using silver nitrate
To check for the presence of sodium chloride, we use the silver
nitrate test. In this test, the chloride ions (Cl⁻) from sodium chloride
react with silver ions (Ag⁺) from silver nitrate to form a white
precipitate of silver chloride. At the same time, sodium nitrate,
which dissolves in water, is also formed. Once all the chloride ions
have reacted, any leftover silver ions combine with the chromate
ions from potassium chromate to form an orange-colored precipitate
of silver chromate.

Reagents Required:

1. Silver nitrate solution (0.1N): Made by dissolving 16.987 grams of

silver nitrate (AR grade) in 1 liter of distilled water.

2. Potassium chromate solution (5%):Made by dissolving 5 grams of

potassium chromate (AR grade) in 100 ml of distilled water.

Procedure :

1. Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube.

2. Add 0.5 ml of the 5% potassium chromate solution.

[Link] 2ml o.1 N silver nitrate and mix the contents

4. Observe for colour change

Detection of Detergents by Methylene Blue Test

Principle:

Methylene blue is a positively charged dye (cationic dye) that reacts

with negatively charged detergents (anionic detergents) to form a
colored complex. Normally, methylene blue dissolves in water. But
when detergents are present, it prefers to bind with them.
In this test, the detergent is first separated from the milk using
chloroform. Then, methylene blue solution is added.

If detergent is present, a blue color appears in the chloroform layer

In pure milk (without detergent), the blue color stays in the milk
layer

Since chloroform is heavier than milk (its density is 1.49 g/ml, while
milk is 1.030 g/ml), it settles at the bottom

So, if you see blue color at the bottom, it means detergent is

present in the sample.

Reagents Needed:

1. Methanol (AR grade)

2. Methylene Blue Solution– Dissolve 12.5 mg of methylene blue (AR

grade) in 100 ml distilled water.

*Note: Keep this solution away from sunlight.*

3. Chloroform (AR grade)

*Caution: It is flammable and toxic. Do not pipette it by mouth.*

Test Procedure:

1. Take 2.5 mlof the milk sample in a test tube.

2. Add 7.5 ml of methanol and mix well.

3. Filter the mixture using Whatman No. 1 filter paper.

4. Take 2 ml of the clear liquid (filtrate) into another clean test tube.

5. Add 2 ml of methylene blue solution and shake properly.

6. Then, add 4 ml of chloroform and shake again.

7. Let the two layers separate.

[Link] the colour extracted in the chloroform layer in

suspected milk with that of pure milk
Detection of maltodextrin in milk by using iodine
What this test is about:

Just like starch, maltodextrin also reacts with iodine to form a

colored complex. But there's a difference in the color:

Starchusually gives a blue color with iodine.

Maltodextringives a red to brown color instead.

This color difference happens because of how long the chains of the
sugar molecules (called dextrins) are.

* If the chain length is above 45 (DP), the color is blue (like starch).

* If the chain length is below 45, it gives red or brown color which is
what happens with maltodextrin.

Reagents required

1. Iodine Solution (1%)

* Dissolve *2.5 g potassium iodide in 100 ml distilled water, then

add 1 g iodine crystals.

* Prepare this solution one day in advancebecause iodine takes

time to dissolve.

2. Citric Acid Solution (5%)

* Mix 5 g citric acidin water and make the total volume 100 ml

Procedure

1. Take 20 ml of milk in a conical flask.

2. Heat the milk to 70–80°Cusing a direct flame or hot water bath.

3. Add the 5% citric acid solution slowly, drop by drop, while stirring
gently.
* You’ll see the milk start to curdle (separate). This usually takes
around 1.5 to 2 ml of citric acid.

* Don’t stir too hard, or the curd will break into tiny pieces, making
color detection harder.

4. Filter the curdled milk using Whatman No. 1 filter paper

5. Take 5 ml of the clear liquid (filtrate)in a test tube.

6. Add 0.25 ml of 1% iodine solutionto it.

7. Mix well and look at the colorthat appears.

Detection of Nitrate Using Diphenylamine Test

In this test, a solution of diphenylamine mixed with sulphuric acid is

added to the milk sample. Nitrates act as oxidizing agents. When
the test is performed, the nitrate present in milk oxidizes
diphenylamine, leading to the formation of a deep blue-colored
compound known as quinone-immonium salt, which forms through
an intermediate called diphenyl benzidine.

Reagents Required:
1. Diphenylamine Solution

Prepare this by dissolving 0.085 grams of diphenylamine in 50 ml

of distilled water. Then, slowly add 450 ml of concentrated sulphuric
acid to the mixture while stirring continuously. Make sure to keep
the mixture cool by placing it in cold water during the preparation.
This solution should be freshly made and must remain colorless.

2. 10% Acetic Acid

To make this, measure 10 ml of glacial acetic acid (AR grade) and

transfer it into a 100 ml volumetric flask. Fill up the rest with
distilled water to make the final 100 ml solution.
Procedure:

1. Take 20 ml of milk in a clean conical flask.

2. Heat the milk to around 70–80 °C. This can be done directly over a
flame or by using a boiling water bath.

3. Slowly add 10% acetic acid drop by drop to the warm milk,
stirring gently until the milk starts to coagulate visibly.

4. Filter this mixture using Whatman No. 1 filter paper.

5. Pour 2 ml of the freshly prepared diphenylamine solution into a

clean test tube.

6. Add 1 ml of the filtrate (from the milk sample) to the test tube
containing the diphenylamine solution.

7. Look carefully at the place where the two liquids meet in the test
tube. A ring formation at the junction indicates the presence of
nitrates.

Quality by water concentration

Samples of milk been poured on the glass slide by placing as
slanting position and milk flow decides the concentration of water in
the milk

CONCLUSION:

The microbic community at regular intervals milk is Advanced. The

prevailing, and tone,Microorganisms gift in milk will have a spread a spread
on the flavour, style and texture of raw milk-derived product. Variety Of
those microorganisms even have the Potential to contribute to health
through the assembly of antimicrobials or possessing different probiotic-
associated traits. Throug trendy genomics-based analysis, it’s been
Established that several of those microorganisms were tailored to Exploit
niches of diverse origins,As well as gut and plant milieu,By genomic change
and cistron gain And/or loss. In spite of the positive effect of the numerous
milk-related microorganisms From a flavour, technological or health-related
Point of view, it’s apparent that there can be may be attributable to milk And
raw milk-derived product or, extra additional, of the pathogens that may be
found in this. Whereas several of those Microorganisms gain entry to the milk
from Instrumentality and/or personnel, animal Disease pathogens may also
be introduced Into milk from unhealthy animals. As a Consequence of this
risk, sterilization or Different treatments square measure utilized To get rid
of disease-causing microorganisms. Within the food trade, the negative
impact of Removing science lab and various bacterium Resultant food
fermentations has been self addressed for some time by their reintroduction
within the type of starter and Adjunct cultures.

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