General Geology (Unit – I)
1st SEMESTER (Pachhunga Univ. College)
EARTH MOVEMENTS
Life on Earth is dependent on solar energy, and therefore the functional relationship between
Earth and the sun is of vital importance. This relationship is not static because the perpetual
motions of Earth continually change the geometric perspective between the two bodies. Two
basic Earth movements—its daily rotation on its axis and its annual revolution around the
sun—change its position with respect to the sun and thus are of special interest to
geographers.
EARTH'S ROTATION ON ITS AXIS
Earth rotates toward the east on its axis (Figure 1), a complete rotation requiring 24 hours.
The apparent motion" of the sun, the moon, and the stars is, of course, just the opposite of the
true direction of earthly rotation. All these celestial bodies appear to rise in the east and set in
the west, which is an illusion created by the steady easterly spin of Earth.
Rotation causes all parts of Earth's surface except the poles to move in a circle around
Earth's axis. Table1 shows the speed of this motion at various latitudes. Although the speed
of rotation varies from place to place, it is constant at any given place. This is the reason that
we experience no sense of motion. Often one can get the same impression in a modern jet-
liner, where a smooth flight at cruising speed is much like sitting in a comfortable living
room. Only during takeoff and landing is the sense of motion quite apparent. Similarly, the
motion and speed of earthly rotation would become apparent to us only if that rotation rate
suddenly increased or decreased—a very unlikely event.
Rotation has several striking effects on the physical characteristics of Earth's surface. Most
important are the following:
1. The constancy of Earth's rotation in the same direction causes apparent deflection in the
flow path of both air and water. The deflection is invariably toward the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This phenomenon
is called the Coriolis effect.
2. The rotation of Earth brings any point on the surface through the increasing and then
decreasing gravitational pull of the moon and the sun. Although the land areas of Earth are
too rigid to be noticeably moved by these oscillating gravitational attractions, oceanic
waters move onshore and then recede in a rhythmic pattern as a result of the interplay of
earthly rotation with these gravitational forces. The rise and fall of water level constitutes
the tides.
3. Undoubtedly the most important effect of earthly rotation is the diurnal (daily) alternation
of light and darkness, as portions of Earth's surface are turned first toward and then away
from the sun. This variation in exposure to sunlight greatly influences local temperature,
humidity, and wind movements. Except for the organisms that live either in caves or in the
ocean deeps, all forms of life have adapted to this sequential pattern of light and darkness.
We human beings fare poorly when our circadian (daily) rhythms are misaligned as the re-
sult of high-speed air travel that significantly interrupts the normal sequence of daylight
and darkness. We are left with a sense of fatigue and psychological distress known as jet
lag, which can include unpleasant changes in our usual patterns of appetite and sleep.
Department of Geology: Pachhunga University College
EARTH'S REVOLUTION AROUND THE SUN
Another significant Earth motion is its revolution around the sun. Earth's revolution is
caused by the suns gravitational pull which causes Earth to circulate through the four seasons.
So when the earth is tilted in a direction where the sun is by the northern hemisphere it is
summer. And Winter in the Southern hemisphere but the earth still rotates around it is just
tilted a different way. Each revolution takes 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds,
or 365.242199 days. This is known officially as the tropical year and for practical purposes is
usually simplified to 365.25 days. (Astronomers define the year in other ways as well, but the
duration is very close to that of the tropical year and need not concern us here.)
As mentioned earlier, the path followed by Earth in its journey around the sun is not a true
circle but an ellipse (Figure 1). Because of this elliptical orbit, the Earth-sun distance is not
constant; rather it varies from 91,445,000 miles (147,166,480 kilometers) at the perihelion
(peri is from the Greek and means "about" or "around") position on January 3 to 94,555,000
We
T A B L E 1
SPEED OF ROTATION OF EARTH'S SURFACE AT
SELECTED LATITUDES
Latitude Miles per hour Kilometers per hour
0 1037.6 1669.9
10 1021.9 1642.0
20 975.4 1569.7
30 899.3 1447.3
40 795.9 1280.9
50 668.3 1075.5
60 520.1 837.0
70 355.9 572.8
80 180.8 291.0
Figure 1 Earth rotates from west to east on 90 0 0
a rotation axis that is tilted from the
vertical.
miles (152,171,500 kilometers) at the aphelion (ap is from the Greek and means "away")
position on July 4. The average Earth-sun distance is defined as one astronomical unit (1 AU)
and is 92,955,806 miles (149,597,892 kilometers), During the course of revolution depending
upon which hemisphere of the earth is closer to the sun, and which one is farther, we have
summer and winter respectively. When both the hemispheres are equidistant from the sun
there is spring or autumn or fall. The Earth is 3.3 percent closer to the sun during the
Northern Hemisphere winter than during the Northern Hemisphere summer, an indication
that the varying distance between Earth and the sun is not an important determinant of
seasonal temperature fluctuations.
Department of Geology: Pachhunga University College
