IONISING RADIATION

1. Introduction

Over a hundred years ago, in 1895, the German Scientist Wilhelm Roentgen discovered
x-rays, and a few years later, French scientists Marie and Pierre Curie discovered
radioactive radium. The various types of radiation around us are indicated in the
electromagnetic spectrum below, ranging from radio waves, which has low energy, to
gamma radiation, which has high energy. In general, radiation is divided into two types –

(a) that with wavelength shorter than 100 nm is classified as ionising radiation
e.g. x-rays and gamma rays; and

(b) that with wavelength longer than 100 nm is classified as non-ionising radiation
e.g. microwaves, radiowaves etc.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

2. Types of Ionising Radiation

Ionisation occurs when an electron in the inner orbit of an atom receives sufficient energy
to escape from the influence of the nucleus, causing the formation of a positive ion and a
negative ion. As a result of ionisation, characteristic radiation (x-radiation) is emitted
when an electron from an outer shell falls in to take the place of the electron that was
ejected.

Ionising radiations cause ionisation when they pass through matter. Examples of ionising
radiation are alpha and beta particles, gamma rays and x-rays. Alpha and beta particles
and gamma rays are emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of unstable atoms during
radioactive disintegration while x-rays are produced by the sudden deceleration of the
electron in the strong field of the target nucleus. X-ray machines emit radiation only

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when the machine is energised. When the high voltage is disconnected, no x-rays are
emitted. In the case of radioactive materials, radiation is emitted continuously in a
regulated manner and there is no way of stopping it. It cannot be switched off.

These different types of ionising radiation have different energies: Alpha () particles
can be stopped by a sheet of paper or a few centimeters of air.
Most Beta () particles can be stopped by 1 cm of plastic. Gamma () rays and x-rays
need lead for shielding, the thickness depending on the energy of the radiation.

The Penetrating Properties of Ionising Radiation

3. Activity of Radioactive Materials

The activity of a radionuclide is a measure of the radioactivity of the substance. It is

determined by the number of disintegrations per second. The unit of activity is the
becquerel (Bq). One Bq is defined as the quantity of radioactive material with an activity
of one disintegration per second. The activity of a radioactive material varies with time
exponentially, the mathematical expression being as follows:

A = A0 e-t ……………………….(1)

where A = activity at time t;

A0 = initial activity; and
 = radioactive decay constant or transformation constant

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Equation (1) applies to all radioactive materials, each of which will have a different value
of the radioactive decay constant  . The greater the value of , the greater the probability
of decay and the smaller the activity of the radioactive material after a given time.

The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time taken for its activity to fall to half of
its initial value. The relationship between the half life and the radioactive decay constant
is,

T½ = 0.693/

The half-life is a characteristic of the radionuclide. It is not related to the atomic number
or mass number of the material. The following table shows the half-life of some
radionuclides together with their atomic number, mass number and the radiations they
emit.

Element Mass No. (A) Atomic No. (Z) Half-Life Radiation

Phosphorus 32 15 14 hours 
Cobalt 60 27 5.3 years , 
Cesium 137 55 30 years , 
Radon 222 86 3.8 days 
Radium 226 88 1620 years 

After 2 half-lives the activity is one quarter (1/2)2 its initial value.
After 3 half-lives the activity is one eighth (1/2)3 its initial value.
After 10 half-lives, the activity is (1/2)10 = (1/1024) i.e. about one-thousandth its initial
value.
In general, the activity after n half-lives is (1/2)n its initial value.

The old unit for activity is the curie (Ci).

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per sec.

= 3.7 x 1010 Bq

4. Equivalent Dose

Equal absorbed doses of different radiations do not necessarily produce biological effects
of the same magnitude. For example, one unit of absorbed dose to a tissue from alpha
radiation is much more harmful than one unit of absorbed dose from beta radiation. To
take this into account, the absorbed dose of each type of radiation, must be multiplied by
a radiation weighting factor WR which reflects the ability of the particular type of
radiation to cause damage. The quantity obtained after such multiplication is known as
the equivalent dose i.e.

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 Equivalent Dose = Absorbed Dose x Radiation Weighting Factor

The following table gives the values of radiation weighting factor for different types of
ionising radiation.

Type of ionising radiation and energy range Radiation weighting factor

Photons, all energies 1

Electrons and muons, all energies 1

Neutrons, energy, < 10 keV 5

10 keV to 100 keV 10

>100keVto 2 MeV 20

>2 MeV to 20 MeV 10

>20 MeV 5

Protons, other than recoil protons, 5

energy >2MeV

Alpha particles, fission fragments, 20

heavy nuclei

The unit of equivalent dose is the sievert (Sv). It is used to express doses received by
human beings.

Radiation dose depends on the activity (Becquerel, Bq) of a radioactive source, the
distance from the source, whether there is any shielding, and the exposure time. The old
unit for the equivalent dose is expressed in rem

1 Sv = 100 rem

10 Sv = 1 mrem

The sievert expresses biological effect on the human body. In radiation protection, it is
the biological effect of radiation which is of interest.

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5. Effective Dose

The effective dose refers to the tissue-weighted sum of the equivalent doses in all
specified tissues and organs of the body. The unit of the effective dose is also the Sievert
(Sv). The effective dose is expressed by means of the following equation:

E = ∑ ωT × HT

where ωT is the tissue weighting factor for tissue T and ∑ωT = 1. These ωT values are
chosen to represent the contributions of individual organs and tissues to overall radiation
detriment from stochastic effects.

The ωT values published by the ICRP in 2007 are given in the table below.

6. Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation

Radiation is a form of energy, and when any radiation passes through matter, including
the human body, some of this energy may be absorbed by the body. The radiation energy
absorbed will cause ionisation of atoms or molecules. Ionised molecules produce free
radicals which are chemically highly reactive. The resulting chemical changes could
cause harmful biological effects. Within certain limits, the damage thus caused, may be
repaired by the body so that there is no apparent effect, but if excessive amounts of
radiation are received, then some harm may result.

Ionising Radiation can cause two main types of biological effects:

(a) somatic effects, in which the damage appears in the irradiated person
himself; and

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 (b) genetic effects, which arise only in the offspring of the irradiated persons
as a result of radiation damage to the germ cells in the reproductive
organs.

(a) Somatic effects

Somatic effects may be further divided into acute effects and chronic effects.

i. Acute Effects

Acute effects occur if an individual receives a high dose of radiation within a

short time. The severity of the symptoms increases with dose above some clinical
threshold. This kind of effects is called non-stochastic or deterministic effects.

Acute effects of irradiation at different doses

Dose (Sv) Effect

1,000 Spastic seizures; death in minutes

100 Damage to the central nervous system; death in hours

10 Circulating changes; death in days

1 Radiation sickness (nausea, vomiting, fatigue; following a short latent

period epilation, loss of appetite, fever, diarrhoea, rapid emaciation, and
possible death); decrease in life expectancy and disease resistance;
sterility, erythema – reddening of the skin)

0.1 No obvious injury

Statistics from Chernobyl Accident

Sv Casualities Deaths

<1 105 0

1-4 53 1

4-6 23 7

6 - 16 22 21

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Most of the death cases were caused by a combination of skin burn and high radiation
dose. When a dose of 1Sv is received, lymphocyte count could drop to 60% within 5
days after exposure to radiation and recover to about 90% after 40 days. For higher doses
received, the count could drop to lower than 30% in 5 days and slowly recover after that.

The dose at which there is a 50% chance of dying lies between 4 and 6 Sv depending on
whether there is any hospital treatment. The course of events following an exposure of
4 – 6 Sv is shown in the following Table.

Symptoms observed after exposure to a dose of 4 – 6 Sv

Time after exposure Symptoms observed

0 – 48 hours Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, fatigue and prostration

2 days to The above symptoms disappear and the patient appears quite
2 – 3 weeks well.

2 – 3 weeks to Purpura and haemorrhage, diarrhoea, loss of hair (epilation),

6 – 8 weeks fever and severe lethargy. It is during this period that fatalities
occur.

6 – 8 weeks to This is the recovery stage during which surviving patients begin
months to show a general improvement and the severe symptoms tend to
disappear.

ii. Chronic effects

The human body can repair itself and recover from radiation damage.
E.g. receiving 10 Sv in a few days may be fatal, but if it were to be
received over a period of many years, no symptoms may be apparent.
However, chronic effects of radiation might result. These chronic effects
(mainly induction of various forms of cancer) often take many years to
show themselves after the radiation doses have been received.

From available data, it appears that the chances of chronic effects

occurring increase with the dose received, without a threshold value.
These are called “stochastic” effects. If an effect does occur, the gravity
of the effect does not depend on the dose received.

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Some Chronic Effects of Radiation

Effect Mean Latent Period Evidence for Effect

Leukaemia 8 – 10 years Atomic bomb casualties, Medical X-ray

treatment

Bone Cancer 15 years Radium luminous dial painters

Thyroid Cancer 15 – 30 years Atomic bomb casualties, Medical treatment

Lung Cancer 10 – 20 years Mine workers

Life shortening - Experiments with mice

Cataract 5 – 10 years Atomic bomb casualties

b. Genetic Effects

Besides causing effects on the person exposed to radiation, damage can occur in future
generations through the appearance of mutations in the offspring of the exposed person.
The genetic effects of radiation result from damage to the reproductive cells. This
damage takes the form of genetic mutation in the hereditary material of the cell, called
the gene. Reproduction occurs when an ovum is fertilised by a sperm. The offspring
receives one set of genes from each parent. These genes reproduce periodically by cell
division, and the newly produced cells carry essentially the same characteristics as the
original one.

Occasionally, a mutation will occur, generally by some external influence such as heat,
certain chemicals or radiation. It will often repair itself but in doing so, the repaired gene
will often not be in the original pattern. Such damaged genes will produce, by cell
division, similarly damaged genes. In reproduction, it will be passed on to the offspring
of the parent bearing the damaged material. Normally, if one parent has the mutated gene
and the other does not, the damage will not be evident in the offspring because mutated
genes are recessive. The offspring, while not showing evidence of damage, will have
inherited the defective gene. If, by chance, both parents have the same defective gene the
damage will affect the offspring. This often results in an abortion or stillbirth (lethal
mutation), but it can also result in congenital malformation.

Since ionising radiation can cause an increase in the mutation rate and hence the number
of inherited abnormalities, population radiation exposure must be carefully controlled and
minimised. Genetic effects are stochastic effects i.e. there is no known threshold dose,
and every radiation exposure, no matter how small, will help to contribute to the pool of
mutations present in the population’s genes. Of course, mutations are produced by other

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means such as chemicals or heat, but this provides another reason for keeping radiation
doses down to a reasonable minimum.

6. Occupational Exposure Limits

The dose limits for occupationally exposed workers and for members of the public, as
specified in the Radiation Protection (Ionising Radiation) Regulations 2023, follow the
Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
In recommending individual dose limits, the ICRP recognises two categories of persons:

(a) adults who are exposed in the course of their work; and

(b) members of the public.

Occupationally exposed workers are assumed to be ready to accept some occupational

risk. The dose limit for occupational exposure of workers is designed to prevent the
incidence of deterministic effects by keeping the dose limit below the threshold values
for deterministic effects. The dose limit for occupational exposure of workers, similar to
what has been recommended by the ICRP in 2007, is set as 20 mSv a year, averaged over
5 consecutive years and with the further provision that the effective dose does not exceed
50 mSv in any single year. Because there is no threshold value for stochastic effects, the
aim is not to just keep within the dose limit, but also to ensure that protection is optimised
and the exposures are all kept as low as reasonably achievable, with economic and social
factors being taken into account (ALARA principle).

For members of the public, the dose limit is 1 mSv per year. A higher value of effective
dose could be allowed in a year provided that the average over 5 years does not exceed 1
mSv per year. The ALARA principle also applies here.

The occupational dose limit for women who are not pregnant shall be the same as that of
men. Upon notification by a female worker of her suspected pregnancy or that she is
breastfeeding, the employer of the female worker must adapt her working conditions in
respect of occupational exposure so as to ensure that the embryo or foetus or the
breastfed infant is afforded the same broad level of protection as is required for members
of the public.

These dose limits do not include doses due to natural background and medical exposures
(such as the use of x-rays for medical diagnosis). On the average, we receive about 500
Sv per year from medical exposures. Each medical exposure should be justified by
weighing the benefit it is expected to produce against the radiation detriment it might
cause, with account taken of the benefit and risk of alternative techniques that do not
involve the use of ionising radiation.

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7. Control of Exposure from External Sources

Any person working with radiation sources or in the vicinity of radiation sources will
inevitably receive some radiation dose. We may not be in a position to decide on the
particulars of the radiation procedure, but there are some basic protective actions which
can minimise the dose received:

(i) Distance - The maximum practical distance should be maintained between any
part of the person’s body and the source of radiation. This is because the dose
received is inversely proportional to the distance from the radiation source i.e. if
the distance is doubled, the dose rate is reduced to one quarter. Distance is a very
effective way of reducing dose.

(ii) Shielding - A shield in the radiation path will cause the radiation to be attenuated
and also cause it to be scattered in various directions The type of shielding used
will depend on the type and energy of the radiation. As mentioned earlier in the
lecture, alpha particles cannot pass through a thin piece of paper or a few cm of
air, beta particles can be stopped by a few cm of perspex. Lead or any high atomic
number material is a good shield for lower energy x-ray or gamma radiation
where the Photoelectric effect is predominant and high-density concrete is a good
shield for medium to high energy x- or gamma radiation where the Compton
effect is predominant.

(iii) Time - Radiation dose is proportional to the time spent in the radiation field.
Work in a radiation area should be carried out quickly and efficiently. Workers
should not be distracted by other tasks or by conversation. However, they should
not try to work so fast that they make mistakes, which might lead to greater
exposure.

8. Control of exposure from internal sources

Sealed radioactive sources normally cause only external exposure of individuals to

radiation, but unsealed sources can give rise to both internal as well as external
irradiation. Unsealed radioactive sources can enter the body by inhalation, ingestion or
directly through the skin (e.g. through cuts or sores) causing the internal organs to be
irradiated. Some radionuclides may concentrate in certain organs, causing these organs
to receive particularly high doses e.g. I-131 is selectively taken up by the thyroid, Sr-90 is
selectively taken up by the bones, etc. Once taken up by the body, the radionuclide will
be subject to the biological half-life as well as the radioactive half-life.

When handling unsealed radioactive sources, it is therefore necessary to take special

precautions to avoid contamination of the work area as well as prevent inhalation and
ingestion of the radionuclides.

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All radioisotope laboratories or workrooms shall be adequately ventilated and shall be
provided with washing facilities suitable for decontamination purposes.

All operations likely to produce radioactive contamination of the air through the
production of aerosols, smoke or vapours shall be done in a fume cupboard.

No individual shall eat, drink, smoke or apply cosmetics inside a radioisotope laboratory
where unsealed sources are being used, handled or kept and every individual shall
thoroughly wash his hands before leaving such a laboratory.

All personnel shall wear protective clothing such as laboratory coats and the protective
clothing shall not be used outside the laboratory.

Any area used for work involving the use or handling of unsealed radioactive sources
shall, immediately after such work, be checked for radioactive contamination and be
decontaminated if any is found.

9. Detecting and monitoring

Since ionising radiation cannot be detected by the human senses, appropriate instruments
are necessary to detect and measure them. All methods of detection of ionising radiation
are based on the ability of such radiation to cause ionisation, directly or indirectly.

(a) Portable radiation monitors

These are battery operated handheld meters, such as Geiger counters and scintillation
counters. They are used at radiation facilities and work sites to ensure that the
radioactive source has returned to its safe position or to check that contamination of
surfaces has not occurred. Portable radiation monitors usually consist of a probe or
detecting head and the associated electronic circuitry. The probe contains the detector - a
GM tube, ionisation chamber or sodium iodide crystal. Sometimes, it is fitted with a
removable shield to allow measurements in mixed radiation fields. Most portable survey
meters are intended for dose rate measurements, while some have integrating facilities,
which enable the total dose in a given time to be recorded. Portable radiation monitors
must be calibrated at periodic intervals in a radiation calibration facility.

(b) Area radiation monitors

The prime purpose of this type of monitoring instrument is to give an indication of the
external radiation levels present in an area where ionising radiations are present, and in
some cases, to sound an alarm if the level exceeds a predetermined value. Area radiation
monitoring systems usually are designed to respond to gamma radiation and may use
either GM tubes or ionisation chambers in the detecting heads.

(c) Personal Dosimeters

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A radiation worker can wear a personal dosimeter to determine how much radiation he
receives in the course of his work. This can be in the form of a Thermoluminescent
Dosimeter (TLD) badge, a quartz fibre electroscope (QFE) dosimeter or a beeper.

The TLD badge consists of two Lithium Fluoride (LiF) chips mounted on a card and
encased in a special holder. It is worn like a badge on the body of the radiation worker
for one month or two months depending on the nature of his work. During this time, the
amount of radiation which the worker received is recorded on the TLD chips. After
one/two months, the used card is exchanged for a fresh card. The used card is heated up
in the TLD Reader and the amount of light emitted is proportional to the amount of
radiation absorbed by the card. This is considered to be the amount of radiation to which
the wearer has been exposed.

The TLD Badge may be supplemented by the QFE dosimeter or the beeper especially for
those workers involved in Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) work. The QFE dosimeter or
pen dosimeter, contains a quartz electroscope in a small ionisation chamber. It is
provided with an optical system. The advantage of this dosimeter is that it gives an
immediate reading of the dose received by the wearer. It is very useful for individuals
who need to enter a radiation area to do a particular job. Beepers make use of miniature
GM tubes in small instruments which are carried in the pocket. They produce an audible
“beep” warning sound, at a rate dependent on the radiation level. When a predetermined
dose rate is exceeded, it will give a warning note which increases in frequency with dose
rate.

(d) Monitors for Internal Radiation Contamination

Measurements for internal contamination can be done on body excretions e.g. urine, or
can be made directly on the body using a whole body counter or thyroid monitor,
depending on what is being tested for.

10. Transport of Radioactive Materials

The transport of radioactive materials is controlled by the Radiation Protection (Transport

of Radioactive Materials) Regulations 2000. These Regulations are based on the
International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA’s) Regulations for the safe transport of
radioactive materials and were first implemented in 1974. They have been amended to
be in line with the latest revision of IAEA’s Regulations for the safe transport of
radioactive materials (IAEA Safety Standards Series No. ST-1, 1996 Edition).

Within Singapore, a licence issued by RPNSG is required to transport radioactive

materials from one place to another.

Placards, with the radiation hazard logo, as specified in the Regulations, shall be placed
on both sides of the vehicle as well as its rear whenever it is carrying radioactive

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material. The vehicle should never be left unguarded while parked, with radioactive
materials inside.

The radiation level at any place occupied by any individual in the vehicle, shall not
exceed 0.02 mSv/hr, unless this individual is provided with a personal monitoring badge.

The vehicle carrying the radioactive material shall not carry any individual less than 18
years of age or any individual unconnected with the transport or use of the radioactive
material.

For international transport, the radioactive source must be properly packaged and labeled.
The type of packaging and labeling required would depend on the type and quantity of
the radioactive material. The different types of packaging are:

• Excepted packages;
• Industrial packages;
• Type A packages;
• Type B packages which are further classified into Type B(U) or Type
B(M) packages; and
• Type C packages.

Excepted packages contain low quantities of radioactive materials and surface dose rates
must be less than 0.005 mSv/hr.

Industrial Packages are ordinary containers used for materials of low activity. A typical
industrial container is a metal drum – for radioactive wastes or ores.

Type A packages are designed to withstand ordinary conditions of transport including

minor accidents. They are subject to tests which simulate routine conditions such as
exposure to rain, rough handling and slight mishaps.

Type B packages are designed to withstand ordinary conditions of transport and severe
accidents. Containers for Type B packages have to be subjected to mechanical, thermal
and immersion tests to demonstrate their ability to withstand severe accidents.

Type C packages are designed to limit the potential doses to acceptable levels should the
package be involved in a severe air accident. The contents are limited to ensure that any
conceivable release under accident conditions would not exceed the appropriate
regulatory limits.

The Transport Index (TI) is a number assigned to a package to provide control over
radiation exposure. It is defined as the maximum radiation level at a distance of 1 m
from the external surface of the package, measured in
level is determined in units of mSv/hr, the value determined shall be multiplied by 100.

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Packages are assigned to either category I-WHITE, II-YELLOW or III-YELLOW in
accordance with the following the conditions specified in the following table:

Conditions
Category
Transport Index Maximum Radiation Level at any point
(TI) on external surface

0 (including TI<0.05) Not more than 0.005 mSv/hr I-WHITE

More than 0 but not More than 0.005 mSv/hr but not more than II-YELLOW
more than 1 0.5 mSv/hr

More than 1 but not More than 0.5 mSv/hr but not more than III-YELLOW
more than 10 2 mSv / hr

More than 10 More than 2 mSv/hr but not more than III-YELLOW
10 mSv/hr

Where the transport index satisfies the condition for one category but the surface
radiation level satisfies the condition for a different category, the package shall be
assigned to the higher category of the two. Category I-WHITE is regarded as the lowest
category. For example, if the TI of a package is 0.6, and the maximum radiation level on
the external surface of the package is 1 mSv/hr, then the package will be assigned to
category III-YELLOW.

The number of category II-YELLOW and category III-YELLOW packages stored in any
one storage area, such as a transit area, terminal building, store-room or assembly yard,
shall be so limited that the total sum of the transport indexes in any individual group of
such packages does not exceed 50. There should be a distance of at least 6 m between
two such groups.

11. Radiation Accidents

A radiation accident in a non-medical application of ionising radiation or radioactive

material is treated as having taken place if —
(a) an unplanned or unexpected uncontrolled high level of ionising radiation
occurs;
(b) an individual enters a high radiation field by accident;
(c) there is loss of control of unsealed radioactive material causing a spillage or
leakage of the radioactive material;
(d) the skin or clothing of an individual becomes contaminated; or
(e) radioactive material is accidentally released into the environment exceeding
the discharge level permitted by the Director-General,

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such that any individual has, or could have, received an effective or committed effective
dose which is equal to or exceeding one-fifth of the appropriate dose limit specified in the
Second Schedule.

A radiation accident in a medical application of ionising radiation or radioactive materials

is treated as having taken place if there is an occurrence that involves the misuse of
irradiating apparatus or maladministration of a radioactive material for medical purposes
including —
(a) any therapeutic treatment delivered —
(i) to the wrong patient or to the wrong tissue of a patient;
(ii) using the wrong radiopharmaceutical; or
(iii) with a dose or dose fractionation which differs by more than 10% from the
value prescribed by the medical practitioner or which may lead to acute
effects;
(b) any diagnostic exposure greater than 50% of the intended dose or resulting in
doses repeatedly or substantially exceeding the established normal doses for
diagnostic radiological examinations; or
(c) any equipment failure, error, mishap or other unusual occurrence which has the
potential to cause a patient to receive a dose significantly different from that
intended.

12. Emergency Procedures

When any radiation accident occurs in a non-medical application of ionising radiation or

radioactive materials, the licensee, the radiation safety officer or the individual in charge
of the area at the time shall:

(a) evacuate all individuals from the affected area;

(b) block off the affected area and post warning signs at all its entrances;

(c) take immediate action to reduce the hazards caused by the radiation
accident;

(d) make arrangements to provide temporary shielding, monitor and

decontaminate any affected individual and the area and take all other
actions necessary to return the situation to normal;

(e) ensure that any personal clothing or other private property which is
contaminated by radioactive materials is not taken from the premises or
released to a public laundry without the approval of the Director-General;
and

(f) refer affected individuals for medical observation and treatment.

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The licensee or the radiation safety officer must inform the Director-General of of the
occurrence of any radiation accident by means of a preliminary oral report within 24
hours after the accident, which is to be confirmed in writing within 48 hours and a final
full written report within 10 days after the accident.

The preliminary written report must contain the following details to the extent possible
and the final full written report must contain all the following details:

(a) the time, place and nature of the accident, the number of individuals
affected and the manner in which they were affected and the period during
which there was loss of control of ionising radiation or of radioactive
material;

(b) the area over which any radioactive substance may have been dispersed
and the degree of contamination;

(c) the actions taken to rectify the accident situation and to minimise the
possibility of any future recurrence;

(d) any individual who may have suffered radiation exposure and the
assessment of the effective or committed effective radiation doses
received by the individual; and

(e) the results of medical examinations carried out on affected individuals,

and, in the case of any internal exposure of individuals, the results of
biological monitoring.

When any radiation accident occurs in a medical application of ionising radiation or

radioactive material, the licensee or radiation safety officer must inform the Director-
General of the occurrence of the accident by means of a preliminary oral report within 24
hours after the accident, which is to be confirmed in writing within 48 hours and a final
full written report within 10 days after the accident.

The preliminary written report must contain the following details to the extent possible
and the final full written report must contain all the following details:
(a) the time, place and nature of the accident and the details of the patient
involved;
(b) the calculated or estimated doses received and their distribution within
the patient;
(c) the corrective measures taken to prevent recurrence of a similar
accident

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13. Legislation on Ionising Radiation in Singapore

Because of the harmful effects of radiation, the Radiation Protection Act was
implemented in 1973. Under this Act, the Radiation Protection Regulations and the
Radiation Protection (Transport of Radioactive Materials) Regulations were implemented
in 1974. This is to control the import/export, sale, transport, possession and use of
radioactive materials and irradiating apparatus. The Radiation Protection and Nuclear
Science Group (RPNSG) is the controlling authority for the safe use of ionising and non-
ionising radiation in Singapore. RPNSG administers the Radiation Protection Act and its
subsidiary regulations through a system of licensing and inspections.

In 2007, the Radiation Protection Act (Chapter 262 of the 1992 Revised Edition) was
repealed and re-enacted to transfer the authority from the Health Sciences Authority to
the National Environment Agency.

The Radiation Protection (Ionising Radiation) Regulations (RP(IR)R), first published

under the Radiation Protection Act in 1974, was amended in 2000 to incorporate
requirements of the International Basic Safety Standards (BSS) published by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1996. The BSS took into account the
1990 Recommendations of International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
In 2014, the IAEA published the General Safety Requirements (GSR) Part 3 on
“Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources: International Basic Safety
Standards”, which superseded the BSS of 1996 and took into account the 2007
Recommendations of the ICRP. Following an industry consultation in July 2018, the
RP(IR)R was amended in 2023 to align with the latest international standards and
practices. This was gazetted as the Radiation Protection (Ionising Radiation) Regulations
2023.

The Radiation Protection (Transport of Radioactive Materials) Regulations 1974 were

also amended in 2000 to be in line with the 1996 edition of the International Atomic
Energy Agency’s (IAEA’s) regulations on the transport of radioactive materials.

Under the Radiation Protection Act and the Radiation Protection (Ionising Radiation)
Regulations 2023, the following licences and registrations are issued by Radiation
Protection and Nuclear Science:

Licence / Description
Registration
IR1 to manufacture, possess for sale, or deal in irradiating
apparatus or radioactive materials
IR2 to keep, possess for use (other than sale) or use
irradiating apparatus or radioactive materials
IR3 to handle and transport radioactive materials
IR4A to import a consignment of irradiating apparatus
IR4B to export a consignment of irradiating apparatus
IR5A to import a consignment of radioactive materials

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IR5B to export a consignment of
radioactive materials
IR5C to transit or tranship a consignment of nuclear material
as defined in section 28(1) of the Act
R1 To register as a radiation worker

Licence applications may be made on the GoBusiness Portal.

IR1 and IR2 licensees must designate suitable QPs to carry out necessary tasks and
actions to fulfil the responsibility of the licensee for radiation protection and safety. The
responsibility of the QP designated by the licensee (i.e. organisation) is to carry out
actions and tasks, including establishing and implementing technical and organisational
measures, that are necessary for ensuring protection and safety, and for compliance with
all applicable requirements of the Radiation Protection (Ionising Radiation) Regulations
2023, as delegated by the licensee. Every licensee must document the names and
responsibilities of persons designated and such documentation must be kept up to date
and made available for inspection at any time by the NEA. IR1 and IR2 licensees are also
required to list out the QPs in their licence.

Anyone else in the organisation performing radiation work must be registered as a

radiation worker (R1). An individual is considered a radiation worker if his/her work
(a) involves the handling of any radioactive substance; or
(b) involves the operation of any irradiating apparatus

Under the Regulations, no individual below the age of 18 years can be engaged in
radiation work. The applicants for R1 registration must undergo a medical examination
including a full blood count to ensure that they are medically fit for radiation work.

Every employer and licensee must make arrangements approved by the Director-General
for the assessment of the occupational exposure of employees and workers. Every
employer and licensee must determine if monitoring of the individual radiation dose is
required for the assessment, and if so, must ensure that arrangements are made with
approved dosimetry service providers

Radiation workers may subscribe to personal dose monitoring service provided by

RPNSG for monitoring of individual radiation dose. The personal monitoring device used
is the Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) in the form of a badge.

Under the Regulations, a wipe test must be done for all sealed radioactive sources once
every 12 months to ensure that they are not leaking.

Survey meters should also be calibrated at least once in every 12 months to ensure that
they are in good working condition.

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The design of each installation or laboratory with respect to shielding, interlocks, warning
devices, layout, instrumentation, ventilation and surface finishes must meet the
requirements of the application.

All radioactive materials, irradiating apparatus and radiation areas must be appropriately
labelled to give adequate warning of radiation hazards.

To ensure safe practice, there should be a Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) when
working with radiation and an emergency contingency plan in case an accident happens.

The loss of any radioactive source must be reported to the Director-General immediately.

When a sealed source no longer has a useful purpose, it should be properly disposed of
by returning it to supplier. Disposal of any radioactive source is not allowed in
Singapore.

14. Conclusion

Natural radiation cannot be avoided. Radiation is all around us and in us. We are
subjected to external and internal radiation because the ground that we walk on, the
building materials for our houses, the air we breathe and the food that we eat all contain
naturally occurring radionuclides. Even our body contains radionuclides – approximately
3000 Bq C-14, 20 Bq H-3 and 4300 Bq K-40, calculated from the total amount of carbon,
water and potassium in the human body and the percentage of the radioactive component
that is normally present. The dose received by each one of us from background ionising
radiation is about 1 – 2 mSv a year on the average. This excludes the dose from medical
and dental x-rays.

People seem to be afraid of radiation because radiation cannot be seen or heard and there
is no smell. Only the effects of radiation can be seen. The level of risk experienced by a
radiation worker may be judged by comparison with fatal risks, self imposed or
otherwise, that are part of everyday life.

Average annual risk of death in the UK from accidents in various industries and
from cancers potentially induced among radiation workers

Industries Risk of Death per year

Deep Sea Fishing 1 in 400
Coal Mining 1 in 4,000
Construction 1 in 5,000
Metal Manufacture 1 in 7,000
Timber, furniture, etc 1 in 17,000

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All employment 1 in 20,000
Radiation Workers 1 in 20,000
(4 mSv/yr)
Food, drink and tobacco 1 in 30,000
Textiles 1 in 40,000
Clothing and footwear 1 in 3000,000

When we travel by air, we are exposed to cosmic radiation – the higher the plane flies,
the higher the radiation level as indicated in the following table:

Altitude Dose equivalent rate from cosmic radiation

Sea level 0.03 Sv per hour

2,000 m 0.1 Sv per hour

4,000 m 0.2 Sv per hour

12,000 m 5.0 Sv per hour

20,000 m 13 Sv per hour

It has been calculated that a person travelling across the Atlantic from New York by
normal transatlantic flight which takes about 7 hrs 25 min will receive about 50 Sv from
cosmic radiation per trip. If he travels by supersonic aircraft (Concord), it will take 2hrs
35 min, but he will receive about 40 Sv from cosmic radiation per trip because the
concord flies higher.

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