Journal of Education and Future

year: 2025, issue: 27, 45-62

DOI: 10.30786/jef.1378253

Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education:

Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers
Article Type Received Date Accepted Date
Research 19.10.2023 4.02.2025

Binnur Genç İlter* Fatma Özlem Saka** Burak Asma***

Abstract

This study examines changes in attitudes towards foreign language teaching and beliefs about
foreign language education among pre-service preschool teachers from multiple perspectives. The
research was conducted within the framework of a training program organized under the TÜBİTAK
2237-A Scientific Education Activities Support initiative, which aimed to enhance the foreign
language skills of pre-service preschool teachers. The participants underwent a 40-hour training
program comprising both theoretical and practical components. The research sample consisted of
18 pre-service preschool teachers enrolled in various universities across Turkey. A sequential
transformational research design, a mixed-method approach, was employed, incorporating both
qualitative and quantitative data sources. The collected data were analyzed using comparative tests
and inductive thematic analysis. The findings reveal shifts in attitudes towards foreign language
teaching in preschool education, along with insights into the adequacy of foreign language training
at universities, the teaching responsibilities associated with foreign language instruction in
preschools, the necessity of introducing foreign languages at the preschool level, concerns
regarding potential negative effects of early foreign language learning, and the school preferences
of pre-service preschool teachers. The study concludes with recommendations for policymakers,
educators, and future research.
Keywords: Preschool, language education, pre-service preschool teachers, early childhood
education.

* Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Teaching, Antalya, Turkey.
E-mail: [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1886-6569
**Assoc. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Teaching, Antalya, Turkey.
E-mail: [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0647-9983
***Corresponding Author: Dr., Akdeniz University, Faculty of Education, Department of Turkish Teaching, Antalya, Turkey.
E-mail: burakasma@akden iz.edu.tr, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3602-3867
46 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

Okul Öncesi Eğitiminde Yabancı Dil Öğretimi:

Öğretmen Adaylarının Tutumları ve İnançları
Makale Türü Başvuru Tarihi Kabul Tarihi
Araştırma 19.10.2023 4.02.2025

Binnur Genç İlter* Fatma Özlem Saka** Burak ASMA***

Öz

Bu araştırma, okul öncesi öğretmeni adaylarının yabancı dil öğretimine yönelik tutumlarındaki ve
yabancı dil eğitimi hakkındaki inançlarındaki değişiklikleri çeşitli açılardan incelemektedir.
Araştırma kapsamında, yabancı dil becerilerini geliştirmeyi amaçlayan bir eğitim programı
araştırma ortamı olarak kullanılmıştır. Katılımcılar, TÜBİTAK 2237-A Bilimsel Eğitim Etkinlikleri
Desteği Programı kapsamında yürütülen, teorik ve uygulamalı derslerden oluşan 40 saatlik bir
eğitim programına katılmıştır. Çalışma grubu, Türkiye'deki farklı üniversitelere kayıtlı 18 okul
öncesi öğretmeni adayından oluşmuştur. Araştırma hem nitel hem de nicel veri kaynaklarını
kullanan karma bir araştırma yöntemi olan sıralı dönüşümsel araştırma tasarımına uygun olarak
yürütülmüştür. Toplanan veriler, karşılaştırma testleri ve içerik analizi tekniği kullanılarak analiz
edilmiştir. Araştırmanın bulguları, anaokullarındaki yabancı dil öğretimine yönelik tutumların
değişimini, üniversitelerdeki yabancı dil eğitiminin yeterliliğini, anaokullarındaki yabancı dil
öğretim sorumluluklarını, anaokulu döneminde yabancı dil öğretiminin gerekliliğini, erken yaşta
yabancı dil öğrenmenin olumsuz etkilerini ve anaokulu öğretmeni adaylarının okul türleri
tercihlerini ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışma, politika yapıcılara, öğretmenlere ve gelecekteki
çalışmalara önerilerle sona ermektedir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Okul öncesi, dil eğitimi, okul öncesi öğretmeni adayları, erken çocukluk
eğitimi.

* Prof. Dr., Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, İngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Antalya, Türkiye.
E-posta: [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1886-6569
** Doç. Dr., Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, İngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Antalya, Türkiye.
E-posta: [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0647-9983
***Sorumlu Yazar: Arş. Gör. Dr., Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Türkçe Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Antalya, Türkiye.
E-posta: [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3602-3867
 Binnur Genç İlter, Fatma Özlem Saka, Burak Asma 47

Introduction
The integration of foreign language education into early childhood settings has gained
considerable attention in recent years, supported by extensive scholarly research and pedagogical
advancements. Early childhood represents a critical period for language acquisition, as the heightened
neural plasticity of the brain during this stage creates an unparalleled opportunity for linguistic
development (VanPatten & Benati, 2015; Hartshorne, Tenenbaum, & Pinker, 2018; Long, 2017; Yule,
2022). Beyond the acquisition of vocabulary and grammar, early foreign language learning is deeply
intertwined with cognitive growth and cultural literacy, emphasizing its multidimensional value in
shaping young minds.
Foreign language education in early childhood goes far beyond the traditional aim of linguistic
competence. It serves as a catalyst for significant cognitive and academic benefits, as evidenced by
numerous studies (Kirsch, Aleksic, Mortini, & Andersen, 2020; Thoma & Platzgummer, 2023).
Research indicates that children exposed to foreign languages from an early age develop enhanced
problem-solving abilities, improved creativity, and superior memory retention. These cognitive
advantages arise from the mental flexibility required to switch between languages, which strengthens
executive function skills (Baqiyudin, Nurhasan, & Suroto, 2023). Furthermore, early exposure to
foreign languages fosters cultural awareness and sensitivity. As children learn to communicate in
another language, they gain an appreciation for the cultural contexts and perspectives it encompasses.
This early engagement with diverse cultures nurtures empathy and open-mindedness—qualities
essential for navigating an increasingly interconnected world (Soto-Boykin et al., 2021). By
understanding cultural differences and commonalities, young learners build a foundation for global
citizenship and social harmony.
The societal implications of early foreign language education are equally profound. In a globalized
world, multilingual individuals are highly valued for their ability to bridge cultural and linguistic
divides. Early foreign language learning, initiated in preschool settings, can pave the way for lifelong
advantages, including broader career prospects and deeper cross-cultural connections (Gimatdinova
Çağaç, 2018). Moreover, acquiring a foreign language at an early age has been shown to boost children's
confidence and self-esteem, equipping them to navigate various social and cultural environments with
ease.
However, the successful implementation of foreign language programs in early childhood largely
depends on the preparedness and competence of educators. While preschool teachers are often well-
versed in general early childhood education, their readiness to deliver effective English language
teaching (ELT) specifically in preschool settings is often insufficient. This issue is not unique Turkey
but represents a widespread challenge faced by educators globally. Despite EU policy documents
emphasizing foreign language competence as a key skill for modern EU citizens, teacher training
programs often fail to align with these objectives, resulting in a critical gap in educator preparation.
Research highlights the multifaceted challenges associated with ELT in preschool education.
Foremost among these challenges is the English language proficiency of preschool teachers, particularly
in contexts where English is not their native language. Common issues include limited vocabulary (Ping
et al., 2013; Pollard-Durodola et al., 2012), weak phonetic knowledge (Mahmoud Ghoneim &
Abdelsalam Elghotmy, 2015), pronunciation difficulties (Fauzi et al., 2021; Jacoby & Lesaux, 2019),
and concerns about teaching incorrect English (Chu, 2014; Huang et al., 2019). These limitations can
negatively impact the language performance and development of young learners (Bernstein et al., 2021;
Milton et al., 2020).
Beyond language proficiency, a lack of formal training in ELT methods tailored to preschool
learners worsens the issue. Studies show that while most preschool teachers are proficient in general
early childhood education, they often lack specialized ELT training (Huang et al., 2019; Milton et al.,
2020). Even when training is provided, it often lacks depth and fails to address essential areas such as
bilingual education (BE) and teaching strategies for culturally diverse children (Goh, 2019; Hegde et
al., 2018). Furthermore, some teachers rely heavily on textbooks and translation-based methods, leading
to rote learning and boredom among young learners (Auleear Owodally, 2015; Ng, 2015).
48 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

Pedagogical skills represent another critical area of concern. Many teachers lack proper guidance
and rely on mechanical drilling or repetitive approaches to teach language skills (Pollard-Durodola et
al., 2012). The absence of engaging, interactive, and learner-centered teaching practices undermines the
effectiveness of ELT in preschool settings. As Khurramovna and Bakhtiyarovna (2021) note, successful
ELT in preschool must resemble a game, incorporating fun and interactive methods that resonate with
young learners’ natural curiosity and developmental needs.
Globally, efforts to address these challenges remain fragmented. For instance, in countries like
Slovenia, teachers express willingness to teach foreign languages but acknowledge that their training is
inadequate (Fojkar & Skubic, 2017). Similar gaps exist across Europe, where short in-service programs
in countries like France and Cyprus are insufficient to fully prepare educators (Ellis, 2016; Ioannou-
Georgiou, 2015). In other regions, such as the Czech Republic and Slovakia, there are no formal
qualifications for pre-primary English teachers, leaving a void often filled by freelancers (Černà, 2015;
Portiková, 2015).
The disparity between policy goals and teacher preparation highlights an urgent need for systemic
reform. Effective ELT in preschool requires targeted professional development that equips teachers with
the necessary linguistic, pedagogical, and cultural competencies. Providing comprehensive training in
methodologies such as BE and interactive teaching strategies can bridge the gap between policy
aspirations and classroom realities. As Al-Darwish (2012) and Wang and Hou (2021) emphasize,
continuous professional development and curricular interventions are critical to sustaining quality
instruction in early childhood ELT.
In conclusion, while the demand for early foreign language instruction continues to grow, the
ability of preschool teachers to meet this demand is hindered by gaps in proficiency, training, and
pedagogical skills. Addressing these challenges requires a coordinated effort to align teacher training
programs with the realities of FLT in preschool contexts, ensuring that educators are equipped to foster
the linguistic and cultural competencies of future generations. Only through systemic reform and
focused support can the goal of creating multilingual, culturally aware global citizens be achieved.
Significance of Study
This study addresses the gap in understanding pre-service preschool teachers' attitudes and beliefs
regarding foreign language instruction, providing insights to enhance teacher preparation programs and
inform effective policy development. By examining changes in attitudes and exploring opinions on
responsibility, necessity, and potential challenges of early-age language instruction, the findings offer a
foundation for refining educational practices and curricula.
Improving pre-service preschool teachers' foreign language teaching skills enables governments
to utilize financial resources more efficiently, reducing dependence on external support while improving
early language education within existing systems. By integrating quantitative and qualitative methods,
this study contributes to the literature and offers practical strategies for bridging theory and practice in
early childhood foreign language education.
Research Questions
Within the scope of this research, this study aimed to address the following research questions:
1. Is there a statistically significant difference in pre-service preschool teachers’ attitudes towards
foreign language instruction between the pre-test and post-test assessments?
2. What are pre-service preschool teachers’ opinions on foreign language instruction in university
programs?
3. What are pre-service preschool teachers’ perspectives on the responsibility for foreign
language instruction in preschool educational institutions?
4. What are pre-service preschool teachers’ views on the necessity of foreign language instruction
in preschool educational institutions?
 Binnur Genç İlter, Fatma Özlem Saka, Burak Asma 49

5. What are pre-service preschool teachers’ perceptions of the potential negative effects of early-
age foreign language instruction?
6. What are pre-service preschool teachers’ opinions on the type of preschool educational
institution?
Method
Research Design
This study employed a sequential transformational research design, a type of mixed-methods
approach. This design involves collecting and analyzing quantitative data before or after qualitative
data, or vice versa, based on the researcher's objectives and requirements (Almeida, 2018). While one
data type—either qualitative or quantitative—is typically prioritized, in some cases, both may be given
equal importance. Data analysis is often combined in the interpretation and discussion sections. This
design is valuable as it allows researchers to capture diverse perspectives, support research participants,
and gain deeper understanding of the phenomenon under investigation (Baki & Gökçek, 2012).
Participants
The research participants were 18 pre-service preschool teachers enrolled in various universities
in Turkey. The participants represented 13 different state universities and took part in a project entitled
“Practices to support foreign language teaching in preschool education” supported by TUBİTAK
(Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey).
To select participants, the study employed criterion sampling, a type of purposeful sampling
technique. The inclusion criteria were as follows:
• Being a fourth-grade student in the preschool teaching department at the time of the study
• Having a minimum university grade point average (GPA) of 3.00, indicating academic
readiness and preparation for training
• Not having previously participated in a similar study
• Allowing a maximum of two participants from the same university to ensure institutional
diversity
To maintain confidentiality, participants were assigned numerical codes instead of personal
identifiers. The demographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the participants
Participant Gender Age Participant Gender Age
P1 Female 31 P10 Male 21
P2 Male 24 P11 Male 21
P3 Female 23 P12 Male 21
P4 Male 23 P13 Female 21
P5 Female 22 P14 Female 21
P6 Female 22 P15 Male 21
P7 Female 22 P16 Female 21
P8 Female 21 P17 Female 21
P9 Female 21 P18 Female 20

As part of the project, the participants completed a 40-hour training program that incorporated
both theoretical and practical components. The initial phase of the training focused on theoretical
instruction, lasting four hours, to provide foundational knowledge on the subject matter. This was
followed by four hours of applied activities designed to reinforce the concepts learned through hands-
on practice.
50 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

To enhance the learning experience and minimize external influences, the training was conducted
face-to-face. The specific content covered during the training is outlined in Table 2.
Table 2. The content of training for the participants
Duration Training Content
Orientation workshops
Foreign language teaching methods for pre-school education
8 hours (Total physical response theory-Communicative language teaching)
Foreign language teaching methods for pre-school education
(English for specific purposes-Task-based language teaching)
Teaching listening in the preschool
8 hours
Teaching speaking in the preschool
Material development techniques for teaching foreign language in the preschool
8 hours Digital material development techniques for teaching foreign language in the
preschool
Teaching foreign language with games in the preschool
8 hours
Teaching foreign language with songs in the preschool
Teaching foreign language with stories in the preschool
8 hours
Teaching foreign language with environment/nature in the preschool

The training program was developed in collaboration with six field experts specializing in foreign
language education and early childhood education, along with an academic specializing in curriculum
development. The design of the program was guided by the framework provided by the Tyler Model,
formulated by Ralph W. Tyler, an American educator and psychologist, in the mid-20th century. This
model, also known as the Tyler Rationale, has been widely acknowledged in curriculum design
literature (Çelik, 2017; Posner, 1995). The model is structured around four fundamental questions
(Tyler, 1993):
• What should be taught? (What educational objectives should the program aim to achieve?)
• How should it be taught? (What instructional experiences can be provided to facilitate the
achievement of these objectives?)
• How should it be organized? (How can these instructional experiences be effectively
structured?)
• How should it be evaluated? (How can we assess whether the objectives have been successfully
achieved?)
Given the diversity of the participants' regional backgrounds and the limited duration of the
training, careful attention was paid to avoid redundancy in the content. The program content was
meticulously streamlined to present only the essential material, ensuring alignment with the research
objectives while maintaining clarity and focus.
Data Collection Tools
Two data collection tools were used in the study: the Foreign Language Teaching Attitude Scale
and a structured opinion form. The scale form, developed by Sevi (2010), consists of 30 items and
includes four factors. The first factor is named the Priority of Foreign Language and consists of eight
items. The second factor is named the Necessity of Foreign Language and consists of nine items. The
third factor is named the Quality of Foreign Language and consists of seven items. Finally, the fourth
factor is named the Sufficiency of Foreign Language and consists of six items. Using a 5-point Likert-
type scale, participants can score between 8-40 in the first factor, 9-45 in the second factor, between 7-
35 in the third factor, and between 6-30 in the fourth factor. An increase in scores leads to positivity in
the related attitude. The reliability of the Foreign Language Teaching Attitude Scale was evaluated, and
the Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient was calculated as 0.80. According to the literature,
measurement tools with a Cronbach's alpha value above 0.70 are considered reliable (Domino &
Domino, 2006).
 Binnur Genç İlter, Fatma Özlem Saka, Burak Asma 51

The second data collection tool, the structured opinion form, consisted of five structured questions
designed to align with the study's research objectives. Initially, a seven-question form was developed
and piloted with a similar participant group to evaluate clarity and question functionality. Following the
pilot phase, the form was reviewed by two experts in measurement and evaluation, who identified two
questions with overlapping functionality. These questions were removed, resulting in the final five-
question form.
While the questionnaire was administered before and after the training, the opinion form was
delivered merely after the training.
Data Analysis
Both quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques were employed in this study. The data
collected through the Foreign Language Teaching Attitude Scale were analyzed using a comparison test
to examine participants' pre- and post-training status. The selection of the appropriate test was based on
the normality findings of the data. Since the data followed a normal distribution, the related-samples t-
test was applied. For the analysis of qualitative data, the researchers utilized the inductive thematic
analysis technique, which involves identifying themes without relying on predetermined assumptions
or coding schemes. The data were processed using natural language processing techniques, then
categorized into themes, sub-themes, and codes, which were subsequently presented in figures.
To assess inter-rater reliability, Kappa analysis was conducted. In this analysis, which is applied
in two ways, Cohen and Fleiss Kappa, Cohen analysis is applied if there are two evaluators, and Fleiss
Kappa analysis is applied if there are three or more evaluators (Kılıç, 2015). Since two experts were
involved in the data analysis process in the research, Cohen Kappa analysis was applied and the
agreement between experts was calculated as 0.83 which falls within the range of "very good
agreement" according to the intervals [(0.01—0.20 Insignificant agreement; 0.21—0.40 Weak
agreement; 0.41—0.60 Moderate agreement; 0.61—.80 Good agreement; 0.81—1.00 Very good
agreement] presented by Landis and Koch (1977). Accordingly, it was concluded that the agreement
between the experts was at a very good level.
Ethical Procedures
This research was conducted as part of the project titled "Supporting Foreign Language Teaching
in Preschool Education" (project number 1129B372200397), organized from September 5-10, 2022,
under the TÜBİTAK 2237-A Scientific Education Activities Support Program. All participants involved
in the study were part of the mentioned project and have filled out a commitment form to participate in
the research.

Findings
In this part, the findings obtained from questionnaire data and qualitative data were presented in
tables and figures.
Table 3. Related samples t-test results for pretest and posttest
Factor Test N X̄± SD df t p
Priority Pre-test 18 26,78±2,94 17 -2,229 0,040
Post-test 18 29,06±4,19
Necessity Pre-test 18 36,89±4,11 17 -2,412 0,027
Post-test 18 39,56±4,77
Quality Pre-test 18 27,72±3,49 17 -0,323 0,751
Post-test 18 28,06±3,21
Efficiency Pre-test 18 15,17±2,77 17 -0,679 0,506
Post-test 18 15,56±3,11
52 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

Table 3 presents the results of related-samples t-tests conducted to compare pre-test and post-test
scores. The table reveals that there were significant differences in the participants' scores in the first
factor (priority) and the second factor (necessity) between the two tests [ (t priority (18) =-2,229; p=0,040),
(t necessity (18) =-2,412; p=0,027)]. Further examination of the mean scores showed a significant positive
increase in the participants' attitudes towards the priority and necessity of foreign language education
in the post-tests. This finding suggests that the participants' attitudes towards the priority and necessity
of foreign language education improved after the intervention. However, when the results of the third
and fourth factors were analysed, it was evident that there was no significant change in the participants'
scores between the two tests [ (t quality (18) =-0,323; p=0,751), (t efficiency (18) =-0,679; p=0,506)].
Although there was a slight increase in the average scores, it did not lead to a meaningful change, as
indicated in Table 3.

Figure 1. The sufficiency of foreign language training at universities

Figure 1 depicts participant perspectives on the adequacy of foreign language training in
universities. They unanimously found the current training insufficient. To enhance teaching, they
proposed seven solutions. Firstly, they suggested making Foreign Language Education (FLE) more
comprehensive, focusing on all language skills, not just basics. Secondly, they recommended increasing
weekly course hours for practicality. Thirdly, they emphasized the shift from theory-based to practice-
based teaching. Moreover, they advocated enriching training for teaching foreign languages to children,
aligning with their future roles as preschool teachers. They urged lecturers to employ effective teaching
methods for a more enjoyable learning experience. The participants also emphasized the importance of
extending language training throughout the entire university education. Lastly, they noted a disconnect
between course content and its purpose, suggesting a shift towards teaching how to instruct a foreign
language rather than just learning it.
 Binnur Genç İlter, Fatma Özlem Saka, Burak Asma 53

Figure 2. Teaching duty of a foreign language in preschools

Figure 2 illustrates the perspectives of the participants regarding the role of teaching foreign
languages in preschools. When participants were asked who should be responsible for teaching foreign
languages in preschools, it was found that they placed a strong emphasis on preschool teachers. Upon
coding the responses, three codes emerged. The first code pertained to the "better understanding of
children". Some participants believed that preschool education differs from other age groups and
requires specialized knowledge and understanding. Consequently, the responsibility of teaching foreign
languages should rest with preschool teachers who have received the necessary training to work with
this age group. The second code was related to the role of teachers as "role models" and their ability to
establish positive relationships with children. Participants believed that preschool teachers had more
extended contact with children and were therefore better suited to manage classroom behavior and
provide high-quality instruction. The third code related to the "importance of having a single, competent
teacher for this age group". The participants argued that preschool education already has many factors
that can disrupt classroom dynamics and that introducing another teacher could further complicate
things. Thus, they advocated for continuity and stability in the form of a single, competent teacher. As
these codes indicate, the relationship between teachers and students and the sensitivity of children were
key factors in the participants' responses. Those who chose "foreign language teachers" also believed
that foreign language teachers should not lecture alone. They claimed that teaching should be done by
either involving teachers who are knowledgeable in both fields or adapting cooperation/collaboration
into practice. While the first code refers to any teacher who is competent in both fields, the second code
refers to hiring both subject-specific teachers and encouraging them to work collaboratively.
54 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

Figure 3. The necessity of teaching a foreign language in the preschool period

Figure 3 displays the perspectives of the participants regarding the necessity of teaching foreign
languages in the preschool period. Upon coding the responses, six codes were obtained. The participants
mainly expressed that the preschool age group is quite practical for learning a foreign language. They
supported their hypothesis by citing the "maximum learning speed" of children, the "functionality of
children's receptors", the "activeness of all developmental areas of children", the "ease of teaching
foreign languages/language input", the "usefulness of the preschool age group", and "parental
responsibility." Five of the codes were related to children's characteristics, while one of them concerned
parents' duty. The participants' reasons clearly showed that preschool children have a better mastery of
learning a foreign language, as they identified in their statements. The participants believed that the
preschool period is not only feasible but also advantageous for children's learning development due to
their brains' high plasticity and neural development, which makes it easier for them to acquire new
information and skills. They also pointed out that preschool children's receptors are quite functional, so
they can absorb and process new information more easily than other age groups, which provides them
with another advantage. Additionally, the participants indicated that preschool children are
advantageous not only in receptive skills but also in other developmental areas since they
simultaneously use multiple areas due to their age characteristics. Thanks to these features, the
participants believed that it is easier to teach a foreign language/deliver a language input to preschool
children than to other age groups. Although the final code appeared different from the others, it was
connected since a conscious parent has the responsibility to utilize their children's characteristics and
pave the way for learning a foreign language at an early age.
 Binnur Genç İlter, Fatma Özlem Saka, Burak Asma 55

Figure 4. Negative effect of learning foreign languages at early ages

Figure 4 depicts the perspectives of participants on the negative effects of learning a foreign
language at an early age. When the responses of participants were examined, six codes were identified:
two for those who believe that learning a foreign language has negative effects on the native language,
and four for those on the opposite side. While two participants claimed that it might cause some negative
outcomes, such as speech delays in either the native or foreign language and complexity in the initial
stages, others (14 of them) believed that it would not affect children's languages negatively. These
participants provided four reasons for their hypothesis. They argued that children have the capacity to
learn multiple languages at an early age. They also stated that even if there were problems, they could
be overcome by using appropriate methods and techniques. Some of them mentioned that it is crucial
to have continuous and suitable training to avoid such problems. Finally, some participants emphasized
the importance of choosing the optimal age to start teaching a foreign language.
56 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

Figure 5. School type preferences of the prospective preschool teachers

Figure 5 shows the perspectives of the participants regarding school preferences after graduation.
When they were given three options, none of them chose a preschool based solely on native language
education. Fourteen participants preferred to work in a preschool that offered native language education
in addition to at least one foreign language. Upon coding the responses of these teachers, three codes
were obtained. In the first code, the participants' opinions on the sequence of learning languages were
discovered, as they stated that foreign language should come after native language. In the second code,
some participants underlined the significance of native language development at early ages and stated
that their first goal was to teach the native language effectively. Therefore, it should be prioritized more
in preschool. The last code of this theme highlighted the conditions of foreign language acquisition in
the country. The participants emphasized that EFL (English as a foreign language) is more useful than
ESL (English as a second language) in the country. Therefore, a preschool aiming to teach a language
as a foreign language will be more practical. Regarding school preferences, four participants chose to
work in a preschool based on bilingual education. They reasoned that learning a foreign language at an
early age has advantages, and it is easier to teach two languages simultaneously.
Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations
This study examined changes in pre-service preschool teachers’ attitudes toward teaching foreign
languages and their beliefs about foreign language education in preschool settings from different
perspectives. Based on the research results obtained from both quantitative and qualitative data, the
following conclusions were reached:
The first result pertained to attitude changes in teaching foreign languages. The Foreign Language
Teaching Attitude Scale scores revealed that pre-service preschool teachers demonstrated a significant
 Binnur Genç İlter, Fatma Özlem Saka, Burak Asma 57

positive shift in their attitudes toward the priority and necessity of foreign language instruction between
the pre-test and post-test assessments. This improvement may be attributed to the activities implemented
during the training program. Since foreign language training at universities is typically theory-based,
pre-service teachers may initially hold negative or indifferent attitudes toward foreign language
instruction. However, during the training sessions, they had the opportunity to engage in practical
activities that could be directly applied in their future careers. This pragmatic approach may have played
a critical role in shaping their positive attitude changes regarding these factors. Conversely, while there
was a slight increase in attitudes toward the quality and efficiency of foreign language instruction, these
changes were not as significant as expected. A closer examination of these factors suggests that they
relate specifically to the quality and efficiency of foreign language education provided at schools and
universities. Since the research design did not involve participants’ actual university coursework or
school-based instruction, but instead established a distinct learning and teaching environment, pre-
service preschool teachers' attitudes toward these particular factors may have remained largely
unaffected.
The second key result focused on the sufficiency of foreign language training in university
programs. Participants widely agreed on its inadequacy and proposed several solutions, including
enhancing comprehensibility, increasing weekly instructional hours, shifting towards more practical
training, integrating child language teaching methods, implementing engaging and interactive practices,
embedding language training within university education, and providing specialized instruction on
language teaching methodologies. A study conducted by Çetintaş and Yazıcı (2016) also highlighted
the deficiencies in foreign language education within undergraduate programs, emphasizing the need
for significant improvements in this area. Additionally, the study underscored the importance of
incorporating courses on bilingual foreign language education and teaching methodologies into
undergraduate curricula. As a long-term solution, it was suggested that integrating bilingual foreign
language education methods at an early stage—both within preschool education undergraduate
programs and in the German, French, and English undergraduate programs of education faculties that
train foreign language teachers—would be a crucial step toward addressing these shortcomings.
The third key result addressed foreign language teaching in preschools. While most participants
agreed that preschool teachers should assume this responsibility, some expressed differing opinions.
Five distinct teaching duty codes were identified: three advocating for preschool teachers and two for
foreign language teachers. Pre-service preschool teachers supported their involvement in foreign
language instruction, emphasizing their close relationship with students, their understanding of
children's sensitivities, and their potential effectiveness as role models. They argued that having a single
competent teacher for this age group would be more effective in fostering language learning.
Conversely, some participants believed that foreign language teaching should not be the sole
responsibility of foreign language teachers. Instead, they proposed involving teachers proficient in both
preschool education and foreign language teaching or adopting a collaborative teaching approach. This
issue has been well-documented in the literature. Bayyurt (2012) found that English teachers often lack
sufficient prior knowledge and awareness of appropriate methods for teaching English to young
learners. Similarly, Şad and Sarı (2019) examined the proficiency of English teachers in early-age
foreign language instruction and found no significant differences based on gender, faculty type, or prior
education in early language teaching, suggesting a broader need for attention to this issue. Unlike other
disciplines, English language teaching in Turkey is not divided into education level-specific
undergraduate programs, allowing graduates from general English language teaching (ELT) programs
to teach at all levels, from preschool to higher education. This approach may lead to challenges in
developing level-specific competencies. Research on English instruction by non-specialist teachers
(classroom teachers) (Çelik & Işık, 2019; Gönül, 2020; Zengin & Ulaş, 2020) has shown that their
involvement in English lessons negatively impacted instructional quality. These studies indicate that
classroom teachers lacked proficiency in foreign language teaching, and those who participated in
English lessons expressed that it would be more beneficial for subject-specific teachers to conduct these
courses.

The fourth key finding of the study revealed a strong belief among participants in the necessity of
teaching foreign languages in the preschool period. Participants provided various reasons to support this
58 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

perspective, including the high learning speed of preschoolers, the functionality of their cognitive
receptors, the simultaneous engagement of multiple developmental areas, and the role of parental
support. These findings suggest that preschool age presents a practical and advantageous window for
language acquisition, making it easier to teach foreign languages to preschool children compared to
other age groups. Given these insights, it is crucial to recognize the importance of early language
learning and actively support foreign language education in preschool settings to capitalize on young
children's unique cognitive and developmental characteristics. This study contributes to the existing
literature by emphasizing the role of early childhood education in fostering bilingualism. Several studies
support the importance of foreign language instruction in the preschool period (Anşin, 2006; İlter & Er,
2007; İrem, 2019). However, to ensure an effective teaching and learning process, it is essential to focus
on age-appropriate methodologies, including the use of games, songs, and nursery rhymes. Research
suggests that successful foreign language acquisition in early childhood depends on the use of
developmentally appropriate materials and instructional techniques tailored to children's linguistic and
cognitive abilities.
The fifth key finding of the study explored participants' perspectives on the potential negative
effects of learning a foreign language at an early age. The results showed that there were differing
opinions on this subject. While some participants expressed concerns that early foreign language
learning might lead to speech delays and initial confusion, others argued that it does not negatively
impact language development and that any challenges can be mitigated through appropriate
instructional methods, continuous and structured training, and selecting the optimal age to introduce a
foreign language. The perspectives shared by pre-service teachers are supported by previous research
in the literature. Sandhofer and Uchikoshi (2013) found that children learning two languages
simultaneously may experience a slower initial learning and development process compared to
monolingual children. Additionally, Espinosa (2015) noted that while bilingual children tend to have a
smaller vocabulary in each language individually, their total vocabulary across both languages is
comparable to that of monolingual children. In terms of recall times and verbal expression, bilingual
children may initially take longer to retrieve words and may score lower than their monolingual peers
due to the complexity of processing two languages simultaneously (Petitto et al., 2011). However, as
children's proficiency in both languages improves, many of these challenges gradually diminish and
eventually disappear (Conboy, 2013).
The final key finding of the study focused on pre-service preschool teachers' school type
preferences. The results indicated a growing interest in foreign language-oriented preschool education,
as none of the participants preferred working in a preschool that exclusively offered native language
education. Although the preschool period is a significant phase for further educational phases and
functions as a foundation for many things, it is vital that native and foreign language education be
offered properly during this period. Otherwise, harder efforts may be needed to correct mistakes and fill
gaps in learning during this phase. When analyzing other preferences, a significant number of
participants favored native language-based preschools that incorporated a foreign language component,
rather than bilingual education. At first glance, this preference may appear to contradict the increasing
trend of bilingual education. However, the reasons behind this preference provide valuable insights. The
first reason participants cited was the sequence of language instruction. They believed that prioritizing
native language education first, followed by the introduction of a foreign language, would lead to more
effective and sustainable language learning. Their primary concern was ensuring that native language
instruction was properly established, as an unsuccessful early language learning experience could have
long-term negative effects on further educational stages. The second reason related to the suitability of
the local context for bilingual education. Participants argued that the sociolinguistic environment in
their country was not conducive to bilingualism. Instead of attempting to train children as bilinguals,
they believed it would be more practical to focus on strengthening their skills in the target foreign
language. On the other hand, some participants expressed a preference for bilingual education in
preschools, supporting their choice with two key arguments. First, they emphasized the importance of
raising bilingual children during the critical period for language acquisition, as highlighted in the
literature. They believed that early exposure to two languages would provide long-term cognitive and
linguistic benefits. The second reason centered on the ease of language learning at this stage.
Participants noted that since children’s first language experiences occur during the preschool period,
 Binnur Genç İlter, Fatma Özlem Saka, Burak Asma 59

they are free from the negative washback effects of previous language learning experiences. As a result,
teaching both languages simultaneously would be easier, more natural, and more enjoyable for young
learners.
Recommendations
The research results suggest some recommendations for policy makers, practitioners, and future
researchers. These include:
✓ While the present study collected qualitative and quantitative data with a limited sample size,
future research should aim to obtain quantitative data from a larger sample to provide a more
comprehensive understanding of the current situation.
✓ The findings of this research demonstrate the need for concrete measures to be taken in order to
enhance the proficiency of foreign language trainers during the pre-school education period.
These measures may take the form of hiring foreign language teachers or improving the foreign
language skills of pre-service preschool teachers.
✓ The research findings indicate a need to shift the emphasis of foreign language education in
universities. In addition to language acquisition, instruction should include pedagogical training
that equips pre-service teachers with the necessary skills to teach the language effectively.
Moreover, practical activities ought to be incorporated into the curriculum rather than relying
solely on a theory-based educational model.
✓ It is crucial to educate both educators and parents about the potential effects of bilingual
education on the mother tongue during the preschool period. Disseminating precise and timely
information regarding both the positive outcomes and negative challenges that may arise in this
process is essential for the effective implementation of bilingual education. Such information-
sharing will play a pivotal role in the success of the program.
✓ The project activities carried out within the framework of this research can be extended to a
university and/or city level. This approach could effectively eliminate negative perceptions of
foreign language education among pre-service pre-school teachers. Additionally, similar
activities could provide opportunities for teacher candidates to interact with both mother tongue
and foreign language education disciplines, leading to benefits for all involved. Such activities
could raise awareness about foreign language education among pre-service pre-school teachers
and facilitate pre-service foreign language teachers' understanding of the pre-school education
period.

References
Al-Darwish, S. (2012). Kindergarten children and language learning: Missing pillars for language acquisition.
International Journal of Higher Education, 2(1), 44–52. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v2n1p44
Almeida, F. (2018). Strategies to perform a mixed methods study. European Journal of Education Studies, 5(1).
137-151. https://zenodo.org/badge/DOI/10.5281/zenodo.1406214.svg
Anşin, S. (2006). Çocuklarda yabancı dil öğretimi. D.Ü. Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 6, 9-20.
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/zgefd/issue/47964/606853
Auleear Owodally, A. M. (2015). Supporting early oral language skills for preschool ELL in an EFL context,
Mauritius: Possibilities and challenges. Early Child Development and Care, 185(2), 226–243.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2014.919494
Baki, A., & Gökçek, T. (2012). Karma yöntem araştırmalarına genel bir bakış. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi,
11(42), 1-21. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/esosder/issue/6156/82721
Bayyurt, Y. (2012, Kasım). 4+ 4+ 4 Eğitim sisteminde erken yaşta yabancı dil eğitimi. Yabancı Dil Eğitimi
Çalıştayı, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara.
60 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

Baqiyudin, G., Nurhasan, N., & Suroto, S. (2023). Improving The Gross Motor Skills Of Mentally Retarded
Children Through Rhythmic Brain Gym Activities. International Journal of Educational Research & Social
Sciences, 4(5), 845-849. https://doi.org/10.51601/ijersc.v4i5.726
Bernstein, K. A., Kilinc, S., Troxel Deeg, M., Marley, S. C., Farrand, K. M., & Kelley, M. F. (2021). Language
ideologies of Arizona preschool teachers implementing dual language teaching for the first time: pro-
multilingual beliefs, practical concerns. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,
24(4), 457–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1476456
Černà, M. (2015). Pre-primary English language learning and teacher education in the Czech Republic. In S.
Mourão & M. Lourenço (Eds.), Early years second language education: International perspectives on theory
and practice (pp. 165–176). Routledge.
Conboy, B. (2013). Neuroscience research: How experience with one or multiple languages affects the developing
brain. In Child Development Division, California Department of Education (CDE) (Ed.), California’s Best
Practices for Young Dual Language Learners: Research Overview Papers.
Chu, Y.-W. (2014). Teachers’ beliefs in teaching english for kids at a kindergarten: A case study of students from
the Department of Applied English. English Language Teaching, 7(10), 100–112.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n10p100
Çelik, Ö. (2017). Ortaokul fen bilimleri dersi 6.sınıf öğretim programı vücudumuzdaki sistemler teması bakımından
değerlendirilmesi: Konya il merkezi örneği [Yüksek lisans tezi, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi]. Ulusal Tez
Merkezi.
Çelik, S., & Işık, A. (2019). İlkokullarda yabancı dil öğretimi ile ilgili öğretmen görüşleri. Manisa Celal Bayar
Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 7(1), 1-11.
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/mcbuefd/issue/54488/742554
Çetintaş, B. G., & Yazıcı, Z. (2016). Erken çocukluk döneminde anaokulu ve anasınıflarında iki dilli eğitim
uygulamaları ve deneyimleri üzerine öğretmen görüşleri. Akdeniz İnsani Bilimler Dergisi, 6(2), 173-187.
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/mjh/issue/82957/1427793
Domino, G., & Domino, M. L. (2006). Psychological testing: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, G. (2016). A short, in-service training course for pre-school teachers in France. In V. A. Murphy & M.
Evangelou (Eds.), Early Childhood Education in English for Speakers of Other Languages (pp. 265–278).
British Council.
Espinosa, L. (2015). Getting it right for young children from diverse backgrounds: Applying Research to improve
practice (2nd Ed.). Pearson.
Fauzi, W. J., Radzuan, N. R. M., Ngah, E., Rani, A. A., & Ali, F. (2021). Digitising English language learning for
early childhood educators in Malaysian context: The rationale. Asia-Pacific Journal of Research in Early
Childhood Education, 15(3), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.17206/apjrece.2021.15.3.113
Fojkar, M. D., & Skubic, D. (2017). Pre-Service Preschool Teachers' Beliefs about Foreign Language Learning and
Early Foreign Language Teaching in Slovenia. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(4), 85-104.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1165346
Gimatdinova Çağaç, F. (2018). Benefits of learning a foreign language at an early age. The Journal of International
Social Research, 11(59), 132-137. http://dx.doi.org/10.17719/jisr.2018.2622
Goh, P. S.-C. (2019). Preschool teachers’ perspectives on using english language to teach. GEMA Online Journal
of Language Studies, 19(4), 346–362. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2019-1904-18
Gönül, S. (2020). Sınıf öğretmenlerinin ilkokullarda yabancı dil öğretimine ilişkin görüşleri [Yüksek lisans tezi,
Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi]. Ulusal Tez Merkezi.
Hartshorne, J. K., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Pinker, S. (2018). A critical period for second language acquisition:
Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition, 177, 263-277.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.04.007
Hegde, A. V., Hewett, B., & Terrell, E. (2018). Examination of teachers’ preparedness and strategies used to teach
English language learners in kindergarten. Early Child Development and Care, 188(6), 774–784.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1237513
 Binnur Genç İlter, Fatma Özlem Saka, Burak Asma 61

Huang, H.-T., Chang, D.-F., & Weng, H.-J. (2019). Fuzzy method for determining the gaps between parents and
teachers perceived on implementing of preschools English curriculum policy. ICIC Express Letters, Part B:
Applications, 10(12), 1077–1084. https://doi.org/10.24507/icicelb.10.12.1077
Ioannou-Georgiou, S. (2015). Early language learning in Cyprus: voices from the classroom. In S. Mourão & M.
Lourenço (Eds), Early years second language education: International perspectives on theory and practice
(pp. 95–108). Routledge.
İlter, B., & Er, S. (2007). Erken yaşta yabancı dil öğretimi üzerine veli ve öğretmen görüşleri. Kastamonu Eğitim
Dergisi, 15(1), 21-30. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/kefdergi/issue/49108/626693
İrem, O. (2019). Yabancı dil öğretimi/öğreniminde yaş etkeni üzerine bir değerlendirme. Dil Dergisi, 170(1), 40-
53. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/dilder/issue/43587/528966
Jacoby, J. W., & Lesaux, N. K. (2019). Supporting dual language learners in Head Start: Teacher beliefs about
teaching priorities and strategies to facilitate English language acquisition. Journal of Early Childhood
Teacher Education, 40(2), 120–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2018.1529006
Khurramovna, S. S., & Bakhtiyarovna, A. S. (2021). Methodology of teaching English to preschool children.
Eurasian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3, 148–150. https://bit.ly/3Q0qlyN
Kılıç, S. (2015). Kappa test. Journal of Mood Disorders, 5(3), 142-144.
Kirsch, C., Aleksić, G., Mortini, S., & Andersen, K. (2020). Developing multilingual practices in early childhood
education through professional development in Luxembourg. International Multilingual Research Journal,
14(4), 319 – 337. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2020.1730023
Mahmoud Ghoneim, N. M., & Abdelsalam Elghotmy, H. E. (2015). The effect of a suggested multisensory phonics
program on developing kindergarten pre-service teachers’ EFL reading accuracy and phonemic awareness.
English Language Teaching, 8(12), 124–143. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v8n12p124
Milton, C., du Plessis, S., & van der Heever, H. (2020). English as an additional language: Professional
development needs of early childhood practitioners in historically disadvantaged contexts. South African
Journal of Childhood Education, 10(1), Article a804. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v10i1.804
Ng, M. L. (2015). Difficulties with team teaching in Hong Kong kindergartens. ELT Journal, 69(2), 188–197.
https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccu057
Landis, J., & Koch, G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1),
159-174.
Long, M. H. (2017). Problems in second language acquisition. Routledge.
Petitto, L. A., M. S. Berens, I. Kovelman, M. H. Dubins, L. J. Williams, & M. Shalinsky. (2011). The ‘Perceptual
wedge hypothesis’ as the basis for bilingual babies’ phonetic processing advantage: New insights from fNIRS
brain imaging. Brain Language, 121 (2), 130– 43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2011.05.003
Ping, Z., Vicente Nicolás, G., & Coyle, Y. (2013). Preschool English education in the Spanish curriculum. Analysis
of the Region of Murcia. Porta Linguarum : International Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, 20,
117–133. https://doi.org/10.30827/digibug.27178
Pollard-Durodola, S. D., González, J. E., Simmons, D. C., Taylor, A. B., Davis, M. J., Simmons, L., & Nava-
Walichowski, M. (2012). An examination of preschool teachers’ shared book reading practices in Spanish:
Before and after instructional guidance. Bilingual Research Journal, 35(1), 5–31.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2012.667374
Portiková, Z. (2015). Pre-primary second language education in Slovakia and the role of teacher training
programmes. In S. Mourão & M. Lourenço (Eds.), Early years second language education: International
perspectives on theory and practice (pp. 177–188). Routledge.
Posner, J. G. (1995). Analyzing the curriculum (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Sandhofer, C., & Uchikoshi, Y. (2013). The relationship between dual language development and development of
cognition, mathematics, socialemotional development, and related domains. In California’s Best Practices for
Young Dual Language Learners: Research Overview Papers, Child Development Division, California
Department of Education (CDE). http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/ce/documents/dllresearchpapers.pdf
62 Foreign Language Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Attitudes and Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers

Sevi, L. (2010). Öğretmen adaylarının yabancı dil eğitiminin gerekliliğine ilişin görüşleri [Yüksek lisans tezi,
Kütahya Dumlupınar Üniversitesi]. Ulusal Tez Merkezi.
Soto-Boykin, X. T., Larson, A. L., Olszewski, A., Velury, V., & Feldberg, A. (2021). Who is centered? A systematic
review of early childhood researchers’ descriptions of children and caregivers from linguistically minoritized
communities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 41(1), 18-30.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121421991222
Şad, S.N., & Sarı, M. (2019). English teachers’ competencies in teachin English to young learners (The case of
Kütahya province). Inonu University Journal of the Graduate School of Education, 6(12), 144-163.
https://doi.org/10.29129/inujgse.567423
Thoma, N., & Platzgummer, V. (2023). ‘It’sa bit contradictory’: teachers’ stances to (practiced) language policies
in German-language ECEC in Italy. International Journal of Multilingualism, 20(4), 1319-1335.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2023.2237061
Tyler, W. R. (1993). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. The University of Chicago Press.
Vanpatten, B. & Benati G.A. (2015). Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition (2nd Ed.). Bloomsbury.
Wang, S., & Hou, Y. (2021). Learning stories as an assessment: A case study exploring its local application in China.
Early Childhood Education Journal, 49, 693–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-020-01092-y
Yule, G. (2022). The study of language. Cambridge university press.
Zengin, E., & Ulaş, A. H. (2020). Sınıf öğretmenlerinin yabancı dil öğretiminde karşılaştıkları problemlerin
belirlenmesi. Turkish Journal of Educational Studies, 7(1), 27-42. https://doi.org/10.33907/turkjes.581983