.

Origin and Evolution of Teleosts Crossopterygii (Lobe-finned Fishes)

Teleosts, belonging to the subclass Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes), are the Crossopterygii is a subclass of Sarcopterygii, or lobe-finned fishes, characterized by
most diverse group of vertebrates, comprising about 96% of all living fish fleshy, lobed fins with a bony structure. This group includes both extinct and extant
species. Their origin and evolution reflect key innovations that allowed them to species and is significant in understanding vertebrate evolution, as they are closely
dominate aquatic habitat related to the ancestors of tetrapods (land vertebrates).

1. Origin of Teleosts 1. Distribution

Timeframe: Fossil Distribution:

Teleosts originated during the late Triassic Period (~225 million years ago) and Crossopterygian fossils are found worldwide, with notable specimens from the
diversified extensively in the Jurassic Period (~200–145 million years ago). Devonian period in Europe, North America, Africa, and Australia. They were
primarily marine but also inhabited freshwater environments.
Ancestral Lineage:
Teleosts evolved from Holostei, an earlier group of ray-finned fishes. Their Modern Distribution:
closest relatives include gars and bowfins, which retain primitive features. The only extant crossopterygian genus is Latimeria (coelacanths), found in:

First Teleost Fossil: Western Indian Ocean: Around the Comoros Islands, Madagascar, and the East
Fossil genera like Leptolepis from the Jurassic period exhibit early teleost African coast.
features such as lighter skeletons and flexible jaws.
Indonesia: Near Sulawesi.
2. Evolutionary Innovations in Teleosts
2. Structure ;Crossopterygians exhibit several unique structural features that
The success of teleosts is linked to several key adaptations: distinguish them from other fishes and highlight their evolutionary significance:
A. Skeletal Modifications
A. External Features
Lightweight Skeleton: A lighter, more ossified skeleton improves swimming
efficiency.
Lobed Fins:Fins are fleshy and muscular, supported by a series of bones resembling
the limb structure of tetrapods.
Flexible Vertebral Column: Allows greater flexibility and maneuverability.
Scales:Cosmoid scales with multiple layers, providing protection and flexibility.
B. Jaw and Feeding Mechanisms
B. Internal Features
Protrusible Jaws: Enables precise prey capture by extending the mouth
forward. Pharyngeal Jaws: Secondary jaws in the throat enhance food
Skeleton: Well-developed bony skeleton with a notochord extending through the
processing.
vertebral column.

C. Tail and Fin Structures

 Cranium:
Acoustico-Lateralis System in Fish Sound Production o in Fish
Skull divided into two distinct regions: an anterior
 Homocercal Tail: A symmetrical tail improves thrust and reduces ethmosphenoid unit and a posterior otico-occipital unit.
drag.
The acoustico-lateralis system is a complex sensory system found in fish and  capable
Fish are Jaws of producing
and Teeth: sounds through various mechanisms, and these sounds
someamphibians.
Highly It plays aFins:
Mobile crucial role in detecting
Increased control inenvironmental stimuli,
diverse swimming styles. o Jaws
serve multiple purposes, including communication,
with labyrinthine navigation,
teeth (infolded mating,similar
enamel), and defense.
to early
particularly sound vibrations, water movement, and pressure changes. This Unlike mammals, fish do not have vocal cords, but they utilize other specialized
amphibians.
system helps fish navigate their environment, detect prey, avoid predators,
D. Swim Bladder
communicate, and maintain orientation in water. The system is composed of two
 Swim
anatomical structures to generate sound. The sound produced by fish can vary in
Bladder/Lungs:
frequency, pitch, and intensity depending on the species and the context of the
main parts: the lateral line system and the inner ear. o Modified into a gas bladder or lung-like structure for buoyancy
behavior. or respiration, a precursor to the lungs of terrestrial vertebrates.
 Evolution of a swim bladder for buoyancy regulation allowed teleosts
 Circulatory System:
1. Lateral to exploit
Line various depths without expending energy.
System
o Possess
Mechanisms of Sound Production in Fish
a partially divided atrium and ventricle in the heart, an
adaptation seen in tetrapods.
E.
TheEfficient Reproductive
lateral line Strategies
system is a key component of the acoustico-lateralis system and Fish produce sounds in several ways, primarily through mechanical processes
is responsible for detecting mechanical changes in the surrounding water, such involving their muscles, bones, or other specialized structures. The most common
as vibrations, pressure waves, and currents.
 Diverse reproductive strategies, including external fertilization, methods of sound production include:
viviparity, and high fecundity, contributed to their success. 3. Affinities
A. Structure of the Lateral Line System 1. Stridulation (Rubbing of Structures)

Crossopterygians share affinities with both fish and tetrapods, showcasing transitional
Lateral Line Canal: A visible groove or canal that runs along the sides of the
fish’s body and head. This canal is lined with specialized sensory cells called
 Mechanism:
characteristics:
3. Major Phases of Teleost Evolution Some fish produce sounds by rubbing body parts together, a process
neuromasts. known as stridulation. This is similar to how a cricket makes a sound by
A. Affinities with Tetrapods
rubbing its wings together.
Teleost evolution is marked by four key radiations:
Neuromasts:  Structures Involved:
These are the sensory organs responsible for detecting changes in water  LimboHomology:
Teeth and Jaw Structures: In some species, such as catfish,
movement.
First They(Triassic-Jurassic)
Radiation consist of hair cells (sensory cells) embedded in a gel-like o theTheteeth
bones oninthe upper
their finsand lower jaws
(humerus, are ulna)
radius, rubbedaretogether to
homologous
substance that responds to water movement. When water pressure or flow produce a sound.
to the limb bones of tetrapods.
changes, the gel moves, causing the hair cells to bend and generate nerve
 Early teleosts like Leptolepis appeared, characterized by simplified
impulses.  LungoEvolution: Pharyngeal Teeth: Some species use pharyngeal teeth (teeth
scales and ossified skeletons. o located in the throat)
Their respiratory to produce
structures sounds by
are believed to grinding theminto
have evolved
together.
lungs in tetrapods.
 Initial adaptations for efficient swimming evolved during this period. o Spines and Fins: Certain fish rub spines on their pectoral fins
There are two types of neuromasts:
 Labyrinthine Teeth:
against bony structures to produce sound. For example,
o triggerfish
Similar dentalcanstructure
produce links them
clicking to early
noises amphibians.
by snapping their
Second Radiation (Jurassic)
Canal neuromasts: Located in the lateral line canals. spines into a groove on the side of their body.
 Examples
B. Affinities with Other Sarcopterygians
of Fish:
 Diversification
Superficial neuromasts: Found on themarine
into shallow skin, typically around the
and freshwater head, fins, and
environments. o Catfish: Some species can produce grating or grinding sounds
body surface.
Fossils such as Pholidophorus show more advanced jaw structures. using their teeth.
 Crossopterygii
o shares features with lungfishes (Dipnoi), such as a lobed
Triggerfish: Known for producing distinctive clicking or
fin structure and cosmoid scales. However, their skeletal and cranial
Hair Cells: popping sounds by rubbing their spines.
Third Radiation (Cretaceous) anatomy is more advanced.
These are the sensory cells within neuromasts that detect vibrations. Hair cells
have hair-like projections (cilia) that bend in response to water displacement.
2. Vibration of Swim Bladder (Swim Bladder as a Resonator)
 Explosion
This bending triggers of
anmodern
electrical signallineages.
teleost that is sent to the brain. C. Differences from Actinopterygii (Ray-finned Fishes)
Pituitary Gland in Fish Role of Physio-Chemical and Biological Factors in Aquaculture

The pituitary gland is one of the most important endocrine glands in fish, as it Aquaculture success depends heavily on the careful management of physio-chemical
plays a central role in regulating numerous physiological processes, including and biological factors in the aquatic environment. These factors directly influence the
growth, reproduction, osmoregulation, and metabolism. It is often referred to as health, growth, reproduction, and survival of cultured organisms.
the "master gland" because it produces and releases a variety of hormones that
control the function of other endocrine glands.
Physio-Chemical Factors

The pituitary gland in fish is located just beneath the brain, often in a bony or
cartilaginous structure known as the sella turcica or hypophyseal cavity. It is 1. Temperature
connected to the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that controls its function
through releasing and inhibiting hormones.  Role:
oAffects metabolic rates, growth, and reproduction.
Structure of the Pituitary Gland in Fish oInfluences dissolved oxygen levels (higher temperatures
reduce oxygen solubility).
The pituitary gland in fish is composed of two main parts:  Optimal Ranges:
o Warm-water species (e.g., tilapia): 25–30°C.
1. Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
o Cold-water species (e.g., trout): 10–20°C.
2. Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
2. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
1. Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
 Role:
The anterior pituitary is responsible for the secretion of many important oEssential for respiration and survival.
hormones that control growth, reproduction, and metabolic processes. These oInsufficient DO can cause stress, reduced feeding, and
hormones are usually released into the bloodstream after being stimulated by mortality.
releasing hormones from the hypothalamus.  Optimal Levels:
o Above 5 mg/L for most species.
Key hormones produced by the anterior pituitary include: o Below 3 mg/L can be lethal.

 Growth Hormone (GH): Promotes growth and development by 3. pH

stimulating protein synthesis and the growth of tissues, particularly
in juvenile fish.  Role:
 Prolactin: Regulates osmoregulation (especially in freshwater oAffects fish health, enzyme activity, and the solubility of
species) and is involved in the adaptation to changes in salinity. It nutrients and toxins.
also promotes reproductive behaviors and the development of
secondary sexual characteristics.
 Optimal Range:
o 6.5–8.5 for most aquaculture species.
 Gonadotropins (FSH and LH): These hormones regulate o Extremes (<4 or >10) can be harmful or fatal.
reproductive processes in both males and females. FSH stimulates
the development of gametes (eggs or sperm), and LH triggers
ovulation in females and the release of sperm in males. 4. Ammonia and Nitrite
Aquatic Weeds and Their Control in Aquaculture Bacterial Diseases in Fish and Their Control
 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid
gland to produce thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism,
Aquatic weeds are unwanted plants growing in water bodies such as ponds,  diseases
Bacterial Role: in fish are caused by pathogenic bacteria that infect different parts
growth, and development.
lakes, reservoirs, and canals. While some aquatic plants are beneficial for the of the fish's [Link]
diseasesiscana toxic byproduct
lead to of fish metabolism.
severe economic losses in both wild and
 Adrenocorticotropic
ecosystem, Hormone
excessive growth of weeds (ACTH):
can harm Stimulates
aquaculture the interrenal
systems by o High
cultured fish populations. nitrite levels
Bacterial interfere
infections maywith oxygen
manifest transport
in various in fish
forms,
gland
competing for (equivalent
nutrients, to theoxygen,
depleting adrenal and
gland) to release
hindering fishcorticosteroids
movement. like affecting the skin, gills,blood.
internal organs, and even the fish's immune system. Below
cortisol, which play a role in stress responses and metabolism.
 common
are some bacterial diseases in fish, their symptoms, and control measures.
Management:
o Maintain total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) below 0.05 mg/L.
2. Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis) o Promote nitrification using biofilters in recirculating systems.
Types of Aquatic Weeds
The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones that are produced by the 5. SalinityBacterial Diseases in Fish
Common
hypothalamus. These hormones include:
Aquatic weeds are classified based on their growth habits:
 Role:
1. Aeromonas Infections (Aeromonas spp.)
 Oxytocin: Plays a role in reproductive behaviors, including the o Affects osmoregulation, growth, and survival.
1. Submerged Weeds of muscles during egg laying and parturition (live birth
contraction
in viviparous fish). It also influences social bonding and some  Cause:o TheSome species, like shrimp or euryhaline fish, tolerate a wide
bacteria Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas salmonicida, and
range of salinities.
 aspects of osmotic regulation. others are commonly found in freshwater and brackish waters.
 Symptoms:
Grow entirely underwater, anchored to the bottom.
 Vasopressin
Examples: (Antidiuretic Hormone, ADH): Regulates water
Optimal Levels:
balance by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys and gills, oo Ulcers
Freshwater species:on<0.5
and lesions the ppt.
skin.
o Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) o
especially during dehydration or increased salinity.
o Elodea (Elodea canadensis) o Hemorrhages in the fins,5–20
Brackish water species: gills,ppt.
and body.
o Vallisneria (Vallisneria spiralis) o Swelling of internal organs like the liver and kidneys.
6. Turbidity o Lethargy, abnormal swimming behavior, and reduced appetite.
 Impact:
Regulation of Pituitary Function
o Reduce oxygen levels at night due to respiration.  Transmission: Spread through contaminated water, feed, or physical
o Obstruct
The release of hormones from the pituitary
water flow. gland is regulated by the  contact
Role:
with infected fish.
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus produces releasing hormones (e.g.,  Control: o High turbidity reduces light penetration, affecting
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone [GnRH], Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone o Antibiotics:
photosynthesis Use of oxygen
and antibacterial agents such as oxytetracycline
production.
2. Floating
thatWeeds
[CRH]) stimulate the anterior pituitary to release its hormones. The o and florfenicol.
Excessive suspended solids can clog fish gills.
hypothalamus also produces inhibitory hormones (e.g., Somatostatin) that o Water Quality Management: Maintain good water quality by
 Management:
 the Float
prevent secretion ofon
freely certain pituitary
the water hormones.
surface or have roots in the substrate with o regularly monitoring parameters such as pH, oxygen levels,
Maintain clear water or moderate turbidity (30–40 cm Secchi
floating leaves. and ammonia.
disk depth).
o Quarantine: Isolate new fish before introducing them to
 Examples:
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are part of a feedback loop:
existing stock.
o Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) 7. Hardness andoAlkalinity
Vaccination: Vaccines are available for some species (e.g.,
 Negative o Feedback
Duckweed (Lemna spp.)
Mechanism: For example, high levels of Aeromonas vaccines for trout and salmon).
o or thyroid
cortisol Water lettuce (Pistia
hormones canstratiotes)
signal the hypothalamus and
 pituitary
Impact: to reduce the release of ACTH or TSH, respectively.  Role:
o Feedback o Essential for buffering pH and supplying calcium for bone and
 Positive Block sunlight, hindering
Mechanism: photosynthesis
In some cases, like for submerged
during shell formation.
plants. such as LH can be released in a surge due to
ovulation, hormones
o feedback
positive Cause oxygen depletion and fish mortality.
from estrogen.  Optimal
2. Vibriosis (Vibrio Levels:
spp.)
o Total hardness: 50–200 mg/L as CaCO₃.
o Total alkalinity: 75–200 mg/L as CaCO₃.
Integrated Fish Farming Riverine Fisheries Resources of India

Integrated fish farming (IFF) is a sustainable aquaculture practice that Riverine fisheries resources in India refer to the fish and other aquatic species
integrates fish farming with agriculture, livestock, and other enterprises to that are found in the country's vast network of rivers, streams, and tributaries.
maximize resource use, minimize waste, and increase overall productivity. It India is home to several major river systems, including the Ganga, Brahmaputra,
relies on synergistic relationships between different farming components to Yamuna, Godavari, and others, which provide rich fisheries resources. These
create a closed-loop system where waste from one activity serves as input for resources play a crucial role in supporting the livelihoods of millions of people,
another. contributing to food security, and sustaining biodiversity.

Key Features of Integrated Fish Farming Major River Systems in India Contributing to Riverine Fisheries

1. Resource Optimization: 1. The Ganga-Brahmaputra River System:

o Efficient utilization of land, water, and nutrients through o One of the largest and most significant river systems in
recycling and integration. India, supporting diverse aquatic life.
2. Waste Minimization: o Fish species: Rohu (Labeo rohita), Catla (Catla catla),
o Organic waste from livestock and agriculture is used as Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha), various
fish feed or pond fertilizer. catfish species (e.g., Mystus spp.), and several species of
3. Diverse Income Sources: small fish.
o Multiple farming enterprises reduce financial risks and o Significance: Supports traditional fishing communities
increase economic returns. along the riverbanks, with both wild capture and
4. Sustainability: aquaculture practices.
o Promotes environmentally friendly practices by reducing 2. The Indus River System:
the reliance on synthetic inputs. o A transnational river system that flows through northern
India and Pakistan.
o Fish species: Catla, Rohu, Mahseer (Tor spp.), and small
species like Puntius spp.
o Significance: Although fishing in India is limited due to the
Components of Integrated Fish Farming river’s location in arid areas, some fisheries exist in the
upper reaches and tributaries.
3. The Godavari River System:
1. Fish Farming: o The second-largest river in India, running through the states
o Species are chosen based on local conditions and market of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa.
demand. o Fish species: Rohu, Catla, Pangasius, Mahseer, Hilsa, and
o Polyculture is often practiced, combining compatible various species of catfish and small riverine species.
species like carp, tilapia, or catfish to utilize different o Significance: A major source of livelihood for fishermen,
ecological niches. with extensive riverine aquaculture practiced in its
2. Livestock: floodplains and tributaries.
o Poultry, pigs, ducks, or cattle are integrated with fish 4. The Yamuna River:
farming. o A major tributary of the Ganga, running through Haryana,
o Livestock manure enriches pond water with nutrients, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and other states.
promoting plankton growth as natural fish food. o Fish species: Rohu, Catla, small species of carps, and
Integument
3. in Fish: Structure and Function
Agriculture: Accessory Respiratory Organs in Fish
indigenous fish.
o Crops are grown on pond bunds or nearby fields. o Significance: Fisheries in the Yamuna support rural
o and
The integument (skin Waterassociated
enrichedstructures) is annutrients
with fish farm essentialispart
usedoffor
a fish's While gills are the primary respiratory
communities, organspollution
although in fish, many species have
has impacted fish evolved
anatomy, playing a vitalirrigation.
role in protection, sensory functions, osmoregulation, accessory respiratory populations.
organs to help them survive in environments where oxygen
4. Additional
and locomotion. Components:
The structure and function of the fish integument are [Link] The
be low, variable,
Narmada or absent. These specialized structures allow fish to
River:
o Duckweed:
adapted to its aquatic environment. Cultivated in ponds for feeding fish and supplement or eveno replace
Originates from Madhya
gill respiration, Pradesh
enabling and to
them flows through
breathe air or
livestock. Gujarat, supporting significantrespiratory
freshwaterorgans
fish production.
extract oxygen from alternative sources. Accessory are
o Horticulture: Fruit and vegetable farming on pond o Fish species: Mahseer, Rohu, Catla, and other riverine
embankments. particularly important for fish living in oxygen-poor environments such as
species.
o Apiary: Beekeeping for honey production, leveraging stagnant water, muddy substrates, or
o Significance: aquatic habitats
Narmada's fisherieswith high organic
resources material
are important
1. Structure of the Integument
floral crops. decomposition. for local populations, although they are threatened by
overfishing and pollution.
The fish integument consists of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) [Link] Accessory
The Mahanadi River:
Respiratory Organs
and the dermis (inner layer). Beneath these layers are specialized structures o Flows through the states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
that help in the fish's survival.
Models of Integrated Fish Farming 1. Swim Bladdero Fish
(Lungs species:
in Some Rohu, Catla, Hilsa, and various freshwater
Fish)
species.
A. Epidermis (Outer Layer) o Significance: A significant source of both capture fisheries
Some fish species, especially lungfish, have evolved swim bladders that function
1. Fish-Cum-Livestock Farming: and aquaculture, especially in Odisha.
as lungs,
7. allowing them to extract oxygen from air.
o Fish-Pig Farming: The Krishna River:
 Cell Types:  Pig manure serves as pond fertilizer and o Runs through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
boosts fish production.  Lungfish: Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
o Epidermal  Cells:
Common The in
outermost layerabundant
regions with of cells, often
pig o (e.g.,
Lungfish FishAfrican
species: Rohu, and
lungfish Catla, Mahseer,lungfish)
Australian and varioushave small
a highly
[Link].
mucous-producing species.
specialized swim bladder that functions as a lung, allowing them to
o Fish-Duck Farming: o Significance: Fisheries along this river are important to the
gulp air at the surface when the oxygen concentration in water is low.
o Mucous  Cells:
Ducks are secrete
These reared on ponds,
mucus and
that their the skin,
covers Some
agriculture-based
lungfish can survive in
communities
dried-up mud
that depend on
by breathing
it.
air through
droppings fertilize the water. 8. The Cauvery River:
providing a slimy coating.
 Ducks also help control aquatic weeds and o Flows
their lungs for months.
through Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
pests. o Fish species: Rohu, Catla, Mahseer, and various species of
o
o Chromatophores:
Fish-Poultry Farming: Pigment cells that give fish their color
 Swim Bladder local fish.
in Fish:
(help with camouflage, mating,fertilize
or warning). o Significance: A source of livelihood for many, including
Chicken droppings ponds, while Most fish possess
throughariverine
swim bladder primarily
aquaculture, for buoyancy
though regulation.
water diversion for
chicken coops are built above or near the However, inirrigation
certain fish, suchfish
as mudskippers
impacts populations. and some catfish, the
o Sensory Cells: Found in some fish for detecting stimuli.
pond.
9. swimTapti
The bladder serves a dual function in gas exchange, allowing them to
River:
2. Fish-Cum-Crop Farming:
o Pond water is used for irrigating crops, and crop residues o airFlows
breathe when through Maharashtra
water oxygen andinsufficient.
levels are Gujarat.
 Thickness: are used as fish feed or compost.
o Fish species: Catla, Rohu, Hilsa, and Mahseer.
The epidermis is relatively
o Examples: thin but canfarming,
Paddy-cum-fish vary depending on is
where rice the 2. Labyrinth Organo Significance: Important for local fisheries but increasingly
species andcultivated
environmental factors (e.g., deeper affected by water pollution and overfishing.
with fish in flooded fields. in colder waters).
10. The Sunderbans Delta:
3. Fish-Cum-Horticulture: The labyrinth organ is a highly vascularized structure found in certain fish species
o A unique ecosystem where freshwater rivers meet the saline
 MucusoLayer: Fruit trees and vegetables are grown on pond that allows them to extract
watersoxygen directly
of the Bay from the air. It is typically located in
of Bengal.
embankments, benefiting from nutrient-rich soil and
A thick layer of mucus coats the epidermis, providing a protective
water. o the
the head, often near Fish gills or the Hilsa
species: mouth.(Tenualosa ilisha), mud crabs, shrimp,
4. barrier. This mucusFarming:
Fish-Cum-Azolla contains antimicrobial peptides to protect and other estuarine species.
SUMMARY OF THE POEM SKYLARK BY [Link]

"Skylark" is a poem by water security - conservation of surface and ground water wildlife and causes of extinction
मममममम मममममम मम ममममममममममम मममम मममममममम ममम ममममम मममममम: ममममम ममममममममममममममम मम ममममममम
ममममममम मम ममम मम मममममम मममममम मममम मम मममम मममममम
ममममममममम मम मम ममममममम मममममम मम मममममममम मम
मममम मममम ममम मममम मम ममममममम मम मममममम मम ममम ममममम: मम ममममम मममममममममममम मम ममममममम मममममम
ममममम मममम ममम मम ममम: 1. मममममम मम मममममममम मम ममममम ममममम मममममममममम मममममम मम मममममम मम:
मममममम:
मममममम ममममममम: मममममम मममममममममम ममम ममममम
मममम मममममम ममममममम मममममममम, मममममम ममममम, मम मममम: ममम ममममम ममममममम मम मममममम मम ममममम
ममममममममममम मममममम ममममममम मम मममममममम मममम मममममममममममम मम ममममममम ममममममम मममममम: मम ममम
मममम मम मममममममम मममममम: ममममममम मममममम, ममममम ममममममम मममम मममम मम मममम
ममममममममम, मम ममममममममम मममममम मम मममममम मम ममममममममममममममम ममममममममम मम ममम मममम मममम ममम
मममममममम ममममममम ममम

2. मममम मम ममममममम ममममममम ममममममम: ममममममम मम मममममममममममम मममममम: मम-ममममम मम मम-ममममम

मममम मममम मम मममममम मम ममममम मम मममममम ममम मम ममममममम: ममम ममममम ममममममममम मम मम-ममममम मम मम-
ममम मम ममम मममम मममम ममममममममम ममममम मममममममम ममममम मममममममम मम ममम ममममममममम मममम ममम मम
ममममममम: मममममम ममममम मम ममम मममममममममम ममममम ममममममम: ममममम मममम मम ममम ममममम ममममममम
ममममममम मम ममममम मममम, मममम मम मममममम मममममममम मममममममम मम ममममम मममम मम ममम ममम मममममममममम
ममम ममममम, मममममममममम मम ममममममममम मममममममम मम ममममम ममममममम: ममममम मम ममममम ममममममम मम ममम
मममममममम 3. मममममम ममममममम ममममममम मममममम मममममममममम मममममममम मम ममममम मममममम मम ममममम
ममममम: मममममम ममममममम मम ममममममममम मम मममम मममम मम ममम ममम
ममममममम मम मममममममम मममम ममम, मममम ममममममम मम
मम मममम मम मममम ममममममम मममममममम: ममममममम ममममममम मममममम: ममममममम मममममम मममममममम:
मममममममम मम ममममममम ममममममम मम ममममममममममम ममममममम मममममममम मम मममममममम मम मममम मममम,
मममम मम ममममममम मम मममममममममम मममममममम मम ममममममम मम मममममम ममम मममम मममममम मम ममममममम
ममममममम ममममम 4. मममममममममम ममममममम मममममममममम मममममममम ममममममममम: मममममम मम ममममम मम ममम ममममम
ममममममम: मममममममममम ममममममम मम ममम मम मममममम मममममममममममम मम मममम ममम ममममममममम मममममम
मममम, ममममम ममममम मममममम मम ममम ममममममम मम ममम ममममम ममममममम मम मममममम मममममम: मममममममममम मम
ममममम मममममममममम ममममममममम: मममममममममम मममम- मममममम मम ममममममम मम मममममम ममम मम मममममम मममम
मममममम ममममममममममम मम मममममममममममममम मम ममम मममममम ममममममम मममममम
ममममममममम मम ममममम ममममम 5. मममममम ममममम मममममम
मममममम: मममममम ममममममम ममम ममममम मम ममममम मममम, मममममम: मम मममममममममममम मम ममममममम मममममम मम
मममम मम मममममम मममममम ममममम, मममम मममममममम ममम ममममममम ममममम मम, मममममम मम ममम-मममममम ममममममममम
ममम मममम, मम ममममममम ममममम मम मममममम मममममम ममम ममममम मम मममममममम ममम ममममम ममम ममम ममम मम,
मममममम: मममममम मममममममम मम ममममम ममम ममममम मममम ममममममम मम मममममम मममममम मम मममममम मम ममममममम
मममम मममम ममम मममममम ममममम मम ममममम मम ममममम मम मममममममम मम ममम मममममम मममम ममम मम मम
मममममम मम मममम मम ममममममममममम ममममममममम मम ममममममममममम ममममम मम ममम
मममम मममम मम मममममम मममम ममममममम, मममममम, मम
मममममम मममममममम ममममम मममम ममम मममममम मम मममममममम: मम ममममम मममममम मम ममममममम मममममम मम
Pen and Cage Culture in Aquaculture Intrinsic Diseases in Fish

Pen and cage culture are methods of aquaculture where fish or other aquatic Intrinsic diseases in fish are diseases that arise due to genetic, metabolic, or
organisms are raised in confined enclosures within natural water bodies like lakes, developmental factors within the fish itself, rather than external causes like
rivers, reservoirs, or seas. These systems allow better control over the culture pathogens or environmental factors. These diseases are often hereditary, related
environment while utilizing natural resources. to metabolic dysfunction, or occur due to abnormalities in growth and
development. While these diseases are less common than infectious or nutritional
diseases, they can still have significant impacts on the health of fish, especially in
aquaculture settings where selective breeding practices are common.
Pen Culture

Definition:
Types of Intrinsic Diseases in Fish
Pen culture involves the construction of fixed or semi-fixed enclosures in shallow
areas of natural water bodies. The pen has a net or mesh wall, but the bottom is 1. Genetic Disorders
open to the substrate of the water body.
Genetic disorders in fish occur due to mutations or abnormalities in the fish’s
DNA, which may be inherited from one or both parents. These disorders can lead
to defects in physical characteristics, behavior, or internal organs.
Structure and Design:
 Examples:
 Materials: Bamboo poles, synthetic mesh, nylon netting, or HDPE
netting. o Skeletal Deformities: These include deformities such as
scoliosis (curved spine), lordosis (curved back), and kyphosis
 Shape: Typically rectangular but may vary. (humpback) in species like salmon and trout. These
conditions often arise due to inbreeding or genetic
 Size: Varies based on the site, species, and purpose (e.g., nursery or mutations.
grow-out).
o Albinoism: A lack of pigmentation due to a genetic
 Anchoring: Poles are driven into the substrate to hold the structure in mutation. This condition may lead to an increased
place. susceptibility to predation and poor survival rates in wild
environments.

o Immunodeficiency: Some fish may inherit immune system

Advantages: deficiencies, making them more susceptible to infections,
even under optimal environmental conditions.
1. Natural Environment: Fish are cultured in their natural habitat,
benefiting from natural water quality and plankton.
Cryopreservation of Fish Gametes  Cause:
Transgenic Fish

2. Low Cost: Comparatively inexpensive as it uses local materials and the o genetically
Genetic mutations or inbreeding depression, where limited
Cryopreservation is the process of freezing and storing biological materials, such Transgenic fish are modified organisms (GMOs) that have had foreign
natural substrate. genetic variation
as gametes (sperm and eggs), at ultra-low temperatures (-196°C, typically in liquid genes (transgenes) introduced into theirleads to thetoexpression
genomes of deleterious
confer desirable traits. This
nitrogen) to preserve their viability for long periods. In fish, cryopreservation traits. has significant applications in aquaculture,
biotechnological advancement
3. Ease of Maintenance: Less need for artificial water quality control.
primarily focuses on sperm (milt), as the structure and size of fish eggs make them research, and environmental management.
more 4.
challenging to Uses:
Multiple freezeSuitable
effectively.
for nursery, grow-out, or broodstock holding.
 Prevention:

o Practicing selective breeding to minimize the risk of passing

Methods of Producingon
Transgenic
hereditaryFish
conditions.
Importance of Cryopreservation in Fish
Disadvantages:
1. o Using genetic testing in breeding programs to avoid
Microinjection:
1.
1. Conservation ofOpen
Predation Risk: Biodiversity:
bottom allows access to predators. inbreeding and the propagation of genetic defects.
o A common method where transgenes are directly injected
2. o Preserving
Environmental Impact:genetic
Overusematerial of endangered
can lead to substrate fish species. and
degradation into fertilized eggs or embryos using a micro-needle.
eutrophication.
o Ensuring genetic diversity in wild and cultured populations. o High precision but labor-intensive.
2. Metabolic Disorders
3. Limited Control: Water quality and disease management depend on
2. Assisted Reproductive
the natural water [Link]: 2. disorders
Metabolic Electroporation:
result from abnormalities in biochemical processes within the
fish’s body. These disorders may be caused by insufficient or excessive production
o Facilitating artificial fertilization in aquaculture and o hormones,
of certain enzymes, Electrical or
pulses
othercreate temporary pores in cell membranes,
metabolites.
research. allowing the uptake of transgenes.
Cage Culture  Examples:
o Providing year-round availability of high-quality sperm. o Efficient for species with soft eggs.
Definition: o Liver Dysfunction: Some fish may develop liver problems,
3. Selective Breeding Programs: 3. Viral Vectors:
such as fatty liver disease, where excess fat accumulates in
Cage culture involves raising fish in enclosed floating or suspended structures the liver due to improper metabolism. This can result in
(cages) in naturalowater
Enabling
[Link] improvement
Unlike pens, cages arethrough the storage
fully enclosed, of the
including o Modified viruses
poor growth, carrying
weight loss, transgenes
and reducedare used health.
overall to infect
bottom. gametes from superior broodstock. embryonic cells.
o Pancreatic Disorders: Certain fish species may suffer from
4. Ease of Transportation: o Offers highinsufficiency,
pancreatic efficiency butleading
may raise biosafetydigestion
to impaired [Link]
nutrient absorption.
o Allows the transport of genetic material without moving live
Structure and Design: 4. Liposomal Fusion:
fish.
o Hyperthyroidism or Hypothyroidism: Disorders in thyroid
 Materials: Galvanized iron frames, HDPE or nylon nets, and floats made o Transgenes are encapsulated in liposomes, which fuse with
function can lead to abnormal growth rates, metabolic
of PVC pipes, drums, or plastic barrels. cell membranes to deliver DNA.
imbalances, and changes in behavior.
Cryopreservation Process 5. CRISPR-Cas9 and Gene Editing:
Principles and Methods of Inland Fishing Crafts and Gears Fish Byproducts

Inland fishing refers to the fishing activities conducted in freshwater bodies, such Fish byproducts are secondary products derived from the processing of fish. These
as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and ponds. The types of fishing crafts (boats) and gears byproducts, which include parts of the fish that are not consumed directly (such as
(fishing implements) used for inland fishing are diverse and vary depending on the bones, heads, scales, and internal organs), are often considered waste. However,
specific habitat, the target species, and the fishing method employed. The many of these byproducts can be utilized in various industries, offering economic
selection of crafts and gears is influenced by factors such as the size of the water value and reducing waste. Fish byproducts are highly valuable for their nutritional
body, the nature of the aquatic ecosystem, and the local fishing traditions. content, and they find applications in animal feed, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics, and more.

Below is a detailed overview of some of the most common fish byproducts:

Principles of Inland Fishing Crafts and Gears

The principles of inland fishing crafts and gears are based on optimizing efficiency,
sustainability, and safety in catching fish. The following factors are central to the 1. Fish Oil
design and use of fishing crafts and gears:
Fish oil is one of the most commercially valuable byproducts. It is extracted from
1. Efficiency: the flesh, liver, and bones of fish, especially fatty fish like mackerel, sardines, and
anchovies.
o Fishing crafts should be designed to support specific fishing
operations, such as netting, trapping, or angling, in a way Uses:
that maximizes catch rates while minimizing time and effort.
 Animal Feed: Fish oil is often included in animal and poultry feed to
o Fishing gears are designed for particular types of fish and provide essential omega-3 fatty acids (DHA and EPA).
fishing methods, such as gill nets for capture and traps for
specific species.  Nutritional Supplements: Used in dietary supplements for humans due
to its high content of omega-3 fatty acids, which are beneficial for heart
2. Sustainability: health, brain function, and inflammation reduction.

o Fishing practices must respect the local fish populations and

 Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals: Fish oil is used in skincare products
ecosystems. Overfishing and destructive fishing techniques
for its moisturizing and anti-inflammatory properties. It is also used in
can deplete fish stocks and damage habitats.
the formulation of certain pharmaceuticals and treatments for joint
health and cardiovascular disease.
o Sustainable practices include using selective gears (e.g.,
traps) and adhering to seasonal fishing regulations to
protect breeding stocks.
 Biodiesel: In some cases, fish oil is used as a feedstock for the
production of biodiesel.
3. Safety:

o Fishing crafts and gears must be safe to operate, ensuring

2. Fish Meal
the safety of fishermen. The design and construction of the
craft should prevent accidents, while fishing gears should
Fish meal is a high-protein powder produced by grinding fish or fish parts, such as
avoid entangling or harming the fishery resource.
bones, skin, and offals. It is obtained by cooking fish and then pressing out the
water and oil, followed by drying and grinding.
4. Adaptation to Environment:

Uses:
Different freshwater ecosystems (rivers, lakes, ponds) require different
approaches to fishing. The design of crafts and gears must be suitable for the  Animal Feed: Fish meal is a key ingredient in the feed of livestock,
specific habitat in which they are used poultry, pets, and aquaculture species. It is rich in proteins and
essential amino acids, making it highly nutritious.

 Fertilizer: Fish meal is also used as an organic fertilizer due to its high
nitrogen content, which is beneficial for plant growth.

 Pet Food: Some pet foods, especially those formulated for cats and
dogs, include fish meal as a primary source of protein.

3. Fish Protein Hydrolysates

Fish protein hydrolysates (FPH) are produced by breaking down fish proteins into
smaller peptides and amino acids through enzymatic or acid hydrolysis.

Uses:

 Animal Feed: FPH is widely used in livestock feed, particularly for

young animals and aquaculture species, as it is highly digestible and
rich in nutrients.

 Nutritional Supplements: Fish protein hydrolysates are sometimes

used in human food products as a protein source or in supplements for
joint health and muscle recovery.