PURNIMAA S.

DIXIT

OPTICAL FIBRES
Optical fibres are light guides used in optical communication as
wave guides. They are made of transparent dielectric material s like glass
or plastic.

An optical fibre is made of two parts. One is the inner cylindrical

material made of glass or plastic called core and the other is called
cladding which envelopes the core. Cladding is made of same material as
that of core but with lesser refractive index. The cladding envelopes core
as concentric cylinder. There is a material continuity between core and
cladding. The cladding is enclosed in a polyurethane jacket which
safeguards the fibre against any chemical reaction with the surrounding.
Many such fibres, each protected by individual jacket grouped to form a
cable. A cable may consist of one to several hundred fibres.

A waveguide is a tubular structure through which energy can be

guided in the form of waves. This is also called light guide (or) fibre
wave guide. The guiding mechanism is as follows:

We know that in an optical fibre cladding has a R.I always lesser than
that of the core. The light signal which enter into the core can strike the
core-cladding interface only at large angles of incidence. The light signal
undergoes reflection after reflection with the core. Since each reflection
is T.I.R the signal sustains its strength and also present within the core
during propagation.

The guiding or propagation of light continues as long as the wave

guide/fibre is not bent too sharply. This is because for sharp bends the
light does not undergo T I R and hence the strength of the signal drops
down. Therefore care should be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the
fibre.The principle mainly involved in optical guide is T I R.
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Consider a plane xx’ separating two media of refractive index n1& n2. Let
n1>n2. A light wave AO be incident on xx’ at O at an angle of incidence𝜃1 .
Since n1>n2, the light gets refracted as OA’ with 𝜃2 as the angle of refraction.
Also𝜃2 > 𝜃1 . As the angle of incidence 𝜃1 is increased, angle of refraction 𝜃2
also increases and for an angle 𝜃c, the refracted ray just grazes the
boundary,(i.e) 𝜃2 = 900. For any angle of incidence 𝜃1 > 𝜃𝑐 , the ray gets
reflected back into the medium of R.I n1. This is called TIR. The angle𝜃𝑐 ,
for which 𝜃2 = 900 is called critical angle. According to Snell’s law,

n1sin𝜃1 = n2sin 𝜃2

When 𝜃1 =𝜃𝑐 , 𝜃2 = 900,

n1sin𝜃𝑐 = n2, sin𝜃𝑐 = n2/ n1

𝜃𝑐 = sin-1(n2/ n1).

TIR has a special importance. During any other reflection like plane
mirror reflection, some energy is lost. But in TIR there is absolutely no loss
in energy. Because of this property, optical fibres are able to sustain the
light signal transmission over a long distance.

Ray Propagation and Numerical aperture:

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Consider the ray AO entering into the core at an angle 𝜃0 with the axis of
the core. Let this gets refracted as OB at an angle 𝜃1 to the axis. Let the
angle of incidence at B be critical angle. Therefore the ray just graces the
core – cladding interface as BC. The angle of incidence at B is (90 - 𝜃1 ).

From the fig. it is clear that any ray falling into the core making an angle
less than𝜃0 , will have the angle of refraction less than𝜃1 . Due to this the
angle of incidence at B becomes greater than critical angle and hence the
ray undergoes TIR.

On the other hand any ray entering the core with an angle greater than
𝜃0 will be incident at B making an angle less than the critical angle and so
gets refracted and lost.

If OA is rotated around the axis of the core by keeping 𝜃0 same, it is seen

that those rays which are funneled into the core within this cone of half
angle 𝜃0 will only be TIR and the rest of the incident light emerge from the
sides of the fibre.

Angle𝜃0 is called acceptance angle and sin𝜃0 is called numerical aperture

(NA). NA represents the light gathering capacity of optical fibre.

Let 𝑛0 , 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 be the r.I of the surrounding, core and cladding medium

respectively. For refraction of ray 𝐴0

𝑛0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 … … … … … … . (1)

𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 … … … … … … . (2)
𝑛0

At the interface point B, 𝑛1 sin(90 − 𝜃1 ) = sin 90 (𝑛2 )

𝑛1 sin(90 − 𝜃1 ) = 𝑛2

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𝑛2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = … … … … … … . (3)
𝑛1
Also we have, from equation (2)
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝑛0
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = √(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 … … … … … … . (4)
𝑛0
Substituting equation (3) in equation (4) we get

𝑛1 𝑛2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = √(1 − 2 )
𝑛0 𝑛1

𝑛1 √𝑛12 − 𝑛2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 =
𝑛0 𝑛1
Since 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟎 we have

√𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟎 = … … … … … … . (5)
𝒏𝟎

If the surrounding media in air, 𝑛0 = 1𝑵𝑨 = √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐

A ray with an angle of incidence 𝜃1 will be propagated if and only if

𝜽𝟏 < 𝜽𝟎

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 < 𝑁. 𝐴

Fractional index change∆

It is defined as the ratio between the change in Refractive Index of core

and cladding to the refractive index of the core.
𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐
∆ =
𝒏𝟏
Relationship between Fractional Index Change and Numerical Aperture
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∆ = − − − − − (1)
𝑛1

∴ (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) = ∆𝑛1 − − − − − (2)

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We know that,

NA = √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐 − − − − − (3)

𝑁𝐴 = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) − − − −(4)

Substituting equation (2) in (4) we get

𝑁𝐴 = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )∆𝑛1

For all practical purpose 𝑛1  𝑛2𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = 2 𝑛1

𝑁𝐴 = √2𝑛1(∆𝑛1 )

𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛1 2 2∆

𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟏 √𝟐∆ − − − − − (𝟓)

Equation (5) represents the relationship between  and NA

 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟏 √𝟐∆

Note that if ∆ increases, NAalso increases and hence the light gathering
capacity of optical fibre increases. But ∆ cannot be increased to a very
large extent, since it causes signal distortion.

V – Parameter (V) Also known as Normalized Frequency

The number of modes supported for propagation of light in the optical
fibre is determined by a dimension less number called V – Parameter and
is given by,

𝟐𝝅𝒂 (𝑵𝑨)
𝑽=
𝝀
Different forms of 𝑉 parameter are as follows:

√𝑛 2 −𝑛2 2
2𝜋𝑎 (𝑁𝐴) 2𝜋𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 2𝜋𝑎 ( 1𝑛 ) 2𝜋𝑎 ( √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) 2𝜋𝑎 (𝑛1 √2∆)
0
𝑉= = = = =
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

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√𝑛 2 −𝑛2 2
𝜋𝑑 (𝑁𝐴) 𝜋𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 𝜋𝑑 ( 1𝑛 ) 𝜋𝑑 ( √𝑛12 − 𝑛2 2 ) 𝜋𝑑 (𝑛1 √2∆)
0
𝑉= = = = =
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

√𝑛12 − 𝑛2 2
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑎(𝑁𝐴) = 𝑘 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘 𝑎 ( ) = 𝑘 𝑎 (√𝑛12 − 𝑛2 2 ) = 𝑘 𝑎 (𝑛1 √2∆)
𝑛0

Where, 𝑉 – 𝑉 Parameter (Normalized frequency) dimensionless

a – Radius of the core medium in meter (m)

NA – Numerical Aperture

θ0 – Acceptance angle in degrees

𝜆 - Wavelength of the light used measured in meter (m)

n1, n2, n0 – RI of core/cladding/surrounding medium

 - Fractional index change

d – Diameter of the core mediumin meter (m)

k – Wave vector or propagation constant k=2π/ 𝜆

Number of modes (N)

The propagation of light along a waveguide can be described in terms of
a set of guided electromagnetic waves and these are called as modes
ofwave guide. Only certain discreet number of modes are capable of
propagating along optical fiber waveguide and this is given by number of
modes N and is given by, (Mode can also be defined as the number of rays
a fibre can support)

𝑽𝟐
𝑵=
𝟐
Refractive Index Profile

The curve which represents the variation of refractive index with respect
to radial distance from the axis of the optical fiber is called refractive
index profile.

Types of optical fibres

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Based on refractive index profile, optical fibres can be classified into two
categories

1. Step Index 2. Graded Index

In step index profile, R.I of core (n1) is uniform and constant throughout
core. R.I. of cladding (n2) is uniform & constant throughout cladding but
with lower R. I [n1 > n2].

In graded index profile, R.I of core is maximum at the axis (n1), decreases
uniformly on both sides reaches (n2) at the core cladding interface. R.I of
cladding is constant throughout the cladding.

Based on the modes supported, optical fibre can classified into two
categories namely

1. Mono / Single mode 2. Multi – mode

If a fibre can support only one ray for propagation, it is called single mode
fibre. If a fibre can support more than one mode for propagation it is
called multimode fibre.

Here we shall discuss only three types of optical fibres namely

1. Step index single-mode optical fiber 2. Step index multi-mode optical

fiber. 3 Graded index multi-mode optical fiber ( GRIN)

1. Step index single-mode optical fiber

a) Single mode optical fiber is made of thin core (8 - 10µm) and

thick cladding (60 – 70 µm)
b) Both core and cladding has uniform but different refractive
indices [n1 > n2]
c) It is designed to transmit only one mode of wave propagation
d) Cut-off condition is less than 2.4 i.e., V< 2.4
e) Light rays propagating through it are in the form of meridonal
rays and propagates in zig-zag manner
f) Input light source suitable are lasers
g) Splicing (joining the two free ends of fiber) is very difficult
h) Loss in signal strength is relatively less, hence output pulse is
essentially same as input pulse
i) Very Expensive, Used in Submarines communication system

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2. Step index multi-mode optical fiber

a) Multimode optical fiber is made of thick core (50 - 200µm) and

thin cladding (200 – 250 µm)
b) Both core and cladding has uniform but different refractive
indices [n1 > n2]
c) It is designed to transmit large number mode of wave
propagation
d) Cut-off condition is less than 2.4 i.e., V> 2.4
e) Light rays propagating through it are in the form of meridonal
rays and propagates in zig-zag manner
f) Input light source suitable are lasers, LED
g) Splicing is relatively easier
h) Loss in signal strength is very high, hence output pulse is
widened and is not same as input pulse
i) Less Expensive, Used in LAN communication system

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3. Graded index multi-mode optical fiber (GRIN)

a) Multimode optical fiber is made of thick core (50 - 200µm) and

thin cladding (200 – 250 µm)
b) R.I of the core varies across the diameter gradually (Max. at
the center optical fiber axis and becomes equal to cladding at
the interface) and R.I of the cladding remains a constant
c) It is designed to transmit large number mode of wave
propagation
d) Cut-off condition is less than 2.4 i.e., V> 2.4
e) Light rays propagating through it are in the form of skew rays
and propagates in helical or spiral manner
f) Input light source suitable are lasers, LED
g) Splicing is relatively easier
h) Loss in signal strength is relatively less, hence output pulse is
almost same as input pulse
i) Cost effective, Used in high data rates transfer over relatively
long distances communication system

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Advantage of optical communication:

i) Carries large amount of information.

ii) The material used for making optical fibre is very cheap.
iii) Because of their compactness and light weight fibres are much
easier to transport.
iv) There is not energy radiation from the fibre so the possibility of
information taping is ruled out. If any tapping is done it can be
easily made out.
v) Since the signal is optical no sparks are generated and hence it
leads to protection from flame.
vi) Fibre communication is easily compatible with the electronic
system.
vii) In the case of metallic cables, the e.m wave causes interference
between one communication channel to other where as in optical
fibres there is no interference.
viii) There is no disturbance due to the signals from lightning,
sparking, electrical equipments etc.

Limitations :

i) Splicing is a very difficult and skillful task.

ii) Optical connectors which are used in splicing is highly costly.
iii) Maintenance cost is high.
iv) Fibers cannot be bent in to circles.

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v) They undergo expansion or contraction with temperature which

leads to loss in signal power.

Attenuation : It is the power loss suffered by optical signal, when it

propagates through the fiber. It is also called fiber loss. It is represented
by 𝛼.

10 𝑝
𝛼= − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑝𝑜 ),
𝐿 𝑖

where L→ length of fiber in km, The unit of 𝛼 is dB/km.

Types of Attenuation
Attenuation can be due to i) Absorption, ii) Scattering iii) Radiation.

Absorption: The power can be lost by intrinsic or extrinsic absorption.

Each fiber material has its own nature of absorbing certain 𝜆. This is
called intrinsic absorption. The absorption by the impurities present in
the fiber is called extrinsic absorption.

Eg. : Hydroxy ions.

Scattering : The signal gets scattered by impurities of very small size.

This scattering is more if 𝜆 of light is small, as scattering is proportional
1
to𝜆4. Due to very small variation in R.I. Also, scattering occurs. The
structural inhomogenities can also cause scattering.

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Radiation: Thisoccur due to bending of fiber. It can be macroscopic and

microscopic. The loss is negligible for macroscopic bends, microscopic
bends are mainly manufacturing defects, due to which the I.R gets lost
and the power loss occurs.

Application: They are used in point to point telecommunication system.

The block diagram is shown below.

The voice gets converted into

analog electrical signal which
gets coded in the binary form
by coder. These are converted
into optical pulses and get
modulated by suitable light
source. This is done by optical
transmitter. From this the optical power is fed into optical fiber which
gets transmitted through it by undergoing TIR. The output from optical
fiber is fed into a photo detector which converts them into binary
electrical signal. They are then decoded and then get converted into sound
energy.

While getting transmitted through optical fiber the signal gets attenuated
and the power drops. To regain the power a repeater unit, which has a
receiver & transmitter kept side by side is used. A receiver receives the
optical signal, converts into electrical signal, amplifies and modulates it
and send it to the transmitter. A transmitter amplifies the signal, converts
it into optical signal and feed it into the fiber.

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