Combustions Emissions and Pollution Control in

Internal Combustion Engines

Amin S. El Hammami - 211009815

Electrical Energy Engineering Department

College of Engineering and Technology
Arab Academy for Science, Technology, and Maritime Transport
Smart Village Campus

April 15, 2025

Combustion Engines – EG423

Dr. Haytham M. ElZomor

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Abstract
This report explores the emissions produced by internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, their impact on the
environment and human health, and the technologies developed to mitigate these effects. Key pollutants such as
hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and particulate matter (PM) are discussed in
terms of their formation mechanisms and harmful consequences. The report also reviews emission control
techniques including thermal and catalytic converters, chemical methods, and improvements in engine design.
Additionally, it highlights the shift toward alternative vehicle technologies such as electric vehicles (EVs),
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which aim to reduce or eliminate
harmful emissions. By analyzing both the limitations of ICEs and the benefits of newer transportation
technologies, this report emphasizes the importance of transitioning to cleaner mobility solutions to achieve long-
term environmental sustainability.

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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................. II
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................ III
I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................1
II. MAJOR COMPONENTS AND THEIR SOURCES .......................................................................................................1
III. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH EFFECTS ..........................................................................................................4
IV. EMISSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES: .................................................................................................................5
V. ALTERNATE TECHNOLOGIES FOR ICE VEHICLES ...................................................................................................7
VI. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................7
VII. REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................................7

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I. Introduction
As we all know, internal combustion engines (ICEs) are the main tool of transportation these days although
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are currently breaking through strongly. The main cause of EVs replacing the ICE
based vehicles is due to the harmful emissions produced by the ICE which harshly contribute to the air
pollution. These emissions include harmful substances that affect humans as well as the environment due
to the incomplete combustion procedure that takes place within the engine.
These pollutants—such as carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), and particulate matter (PM)—are the result of imperfect fuel-air mixing, flame quenching, and
suboptimal operating conditions. Not only do they pose severe health risks by aggravating respiratory and
cardiovascular conditions, but they also contribute to environmental problems like smog formation, acid
rain, and global warming. Over time, governments and researchers have worked on advanced technologies
and regulatory measures to reduce these emissions while maintaining the efficiency of ICEs.
In this report, we will delve into the sources and types of emissions generated by internal combustion
engines, examine their environmental and health impacts, and explore the current technologies and
strategies developed to mitigate their harmful effects. The transition to cleaner alternatives like EVs is
ongoing, but ICEs continue to dominate global transportation, making it crucial to understand and control
their emissions in the meantime

II. Major Components and Their Sources

A. Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds originally made up from hydrogen and carbon atoms which are the
main components of fuels. These are supposed to burn completely in an ideal situation with oxygem
following the combustion equation (1) to produce water and carbon dioxide.
𝐶𝑥𝐻𝑦 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂
This ideal combustion does not happen due to several factors, in addition to that almost 6000 particle per
million (ppm) is produced from the overall exhaust gases leaving the combustion chamber. The factors
causing hydrocarbons to be a major shareholder in the amount of exhaust gases are actually too many,
however some of them are to be discussed in this section.
A nonstoichiometric air-fuel ratio due to a lean or a rich mixture is a main cause of the extreme production
of hydrocarbons; in the starting of a motor, there is way too fuel which isn’t all combusted due to low
amount of present air and in a lean mixture the combustion becomes so poor. This shows that optimization
has to be made to obtain as low as possible emissions maintaining a good stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, as
shown in Fig.1.
The incomplete mixing of the air and fuel results in some fuel particles not finding oxygen to react with,
flame quenching at the walls leaves a small volume of unreacted air-and-fuel mixture and the thickness of
this unburned layer is on the order of tenths of a mm are all also causes of incomplete combustion which
increase the amount of hydrocarbons although ideal stoichiometric mixture may be achieved. A second
spark plug may be added in the combustion chamber to reduce the amount of HC emissions.
During the expansion stroke, pressure in the cylinder is reduced below the crevice volume pressure causing
air and fuel to flow back to the combustion chamber, where most of the mixture is consumed in the flame
reaction. However, by the time the last elements of reverse blowby flow occur, flame reaction has been
quenched and unreacted fuel particles remain in the exhaust also causing HC emissions.

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Valve overlap period can cause some intake air-fuel mixture to flow into the exhaust too, as well as
deposits which are present on the combustion chamber walls, and they mainly depend on the absorption

pressure of gas; when the exhaust valve opens and cylinder pressure is reduced, absorption capacity of the
deposit material is lowered and gas particles are desorbed back into the cylinder. These particles, including
some HC, are then expelled from the cylinder during the exhaust stroke.
During the intake and compression strokes, the air-fuel ratio comes in contact with a thin oil film that is
deposited on the cylinder wall of the engine which absorbs and deabsorbs gas particles based on the
pressure. When the gas particles are absorbed they stick to the oil film at high pressures then later at low
pressures they deabsorb due to the reduction in absorption capability of the oil film and deposit in the
cylinder and end up in the exhaust. As the engine ages, the oil consumption increases thus the increase in
HC emissions increase due to the deposition on the cylinder walls. The relation is shown in Fig.2.

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B. Carbon Monoxide:
This gas is a colourless and odourless gas produced due to the incomplete combustion of the fuel. It is
mainly produced due to rich mixtures where fuel does not find enough air particles to react with so it ends
up as carbon monoxide (CO). Some chemical energy is also lost due to the production of CO, the following
equation shows that further combustion of CO can produce energy in the form of heat.
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𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
2

C. Nitrogen Oxides:
Roughly, 2000ppm of nitrogen oxides are produced within the exhaust of engines and is generally formed
due to high temperatures within the engine where a diatomic nitrogen breaks down to monatomic nitrogen
which is reactive and causes harm to the environment. Fig.1 shows that maximum NOx is formed at a
slightly lean equivalence ratio of about cfJ = 0.95. At this condition flame temperature is still very high,
and in addition, there is an excess of oxygen that can combine with the nitrogen to form various oxides. It
also depends on the pressure air-fuel ratio and combustion time with the cylinder. The fastest the time of
combustion it is, the lower the NOx concentration it is as shown in Fig.3.

NOx also causes photochemical smog which is the reaction of NO with sunlight energy producing smog,
NO and monatomic oxygen which is highly reactive and initiates different reactions enhancing the
formation of ozone
𝑁𝑂𝑧 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ~ 𝑁𝑂 + 0 + 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑔
𝑂 + 𝑂2 𝑂3

D. Particulates:
Solid particles are also produced from the exhaust of ICEs, these are generated in the fuel-rich zones inside
the cylinder and this occurs when the engine is under load at WOT where maximum fuel is injected to
supply maximum power causing fuel not finding enough air particles to help in combustion resulting in
poor fuel economy as shown in Fig.4.

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E. Other emissions:
Some other emissions are also produced such as Aldehydes which is a product of incomplete combustion
that causes respiratory problems. Sulfur is also produced and is a main cause of acid rain formation as it
combines with hydrogen at high temperatures and with oxygen forming sulfur hydroxide and sulfur
dioxide respectively. These react with water vapor in air forming sulfuric acid which is a main ingredient
of acid rain.
𝐻2 + 𝑆 𝐻2𝑆
𝑂2 + 𝑆 𝑆𝑂2
2𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2  2𝑆𝑂3
𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2𝑂  𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
Lead and Phosphorus are also hazardous exhaust produced as lead was a major gasoline additive so when
exhausted was a highly poisonous pollutant.

III. Environmental and Health Effects

Internal combustion engines (ICEs) emit various pollutants that have significant environmental
consequences. Among these emissions are carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), unburned
hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM). CO₂ is a major greenhouse gas
contributing to global warming and climate change. NOₓ and HC emissions react in the presence of
sunlight to form ground-level ozone and smog, which degrade air quality, harm plant life, and accelerate
the formation of acid rain. Particulate matter, especially from diesel engines, can settle on soil and water
bodies, negatively impacting ecosystems and biodiversity.
In addition to environmental harm, ICE exhausts pose serious health risks. Prolonged exposure to
pollutants like NOₓ and PM is linked to respiratory issues, such as asthma, bronchitis, and decreased lung
function. Fine particles (PM2.5) can penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream,
increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases, strokes, and certain cancers. Carbon monoxide is
particularly dangerous in enclosed or poorly ventilated areas, as it interferes with oxygen delivery in the
body and can lead to dizziness, unconsciousness, or even death in high concentrations. These health
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 impacts are especially pronounced in urban areas with high vehicle density, making the reduction of ICE
emissions a key public health priority.

IV. Emission Control Techniques:

After the previously mentioned exhausts are emitted and the combustion process stops, the components in the
cylinder are not fully burnt thus secondary reactions take place due to reaction with oxygen forming Coz and HzO
reducing the undesirable emissions. To reduce these emissions, temperature must be very high by using a suitable
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, high engine speed and a low expansion ratio.

1. Thermal Converters:

These are high-temperature chambers through which the exhaust gas flows to ptomote the oxidation of
CO and HC so that they become Coz and HzO. It is recommended that the temperature is higher than 700
degrees Celsius and the converter must be large enough to provide adequate dwell time to promote the
occurrence of the secondary reactions. This causes some problems as space in the engine is very limited
and a large well insulated thermal converter is hard to fit in as well as the very high temperature of 700
degrees may cause other issues in the engine compartment.

2. Catalytic Converters:

They are a solution to the issues faced in the thermal converters where temperature is reduced to almost
250-300 degrees Celsius using some catalysts which promote the oxidation of HCs and COs to HzO and
COz. Most of the catalytic converters consist of a stainless-steel container mounted somewhere along the
exhaust pipe of the engine. Inside the container is a porous ceramic structure through which the gas flows.
In most converters, the ceramic is a single honeycomb structure with many flow passages. The surface of
the ceramic passages contains small, embedded particles of catalytic material that promote the oxidation
reactions in the exhaust gas as it passes. Aluminum oxide (alumina) is the base ceramic material used for
most catalytic converters. Alumina can withstand the high temperatures, it remains chemically neutral, it
has very low thermal expansion, and it does not thermally degrade with age.

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Some suggest that a turbocharged engine would somehow reduce the operating temperature of the
catalytic converter however this will reduce the converter’s efficiency. Unfortunately converters lose their
efficiency by age thus they normally have an effective lifetime of 200,000km at least or a lifetime equal
to that of the vehicle. The addition of lead on the catalyst material due to additives in fuel is very dangerous
on the converter’s efficiency as shown in the following figure.

One of the main limitations of catalytic converters is their reduced effectiveness during cold starts. When
a vehicle is first started after sitting idle, the converter is cold and cannot efficiently facilitate oxidation
reactions until it reaches its light-off temperature, typically around 250–300°C. Since a significant portion
of vehicle usage involves short trips, especially in urban areas, the converter may not reach this
temperature before the trip ends. As a result, emissions during cold starts can be disproportionately high,
contributing up to 70–90% of total hydrocarbon emissions. To overcome this issue, several strategies have
been developed to preheat catalytic converters or accelerate their warm-up time.
Among these solutions are placing the converter closer to the engine, using small secondary converters,
and implementing advanced insulation techniques like superinsulated double-walled casings. Some
systems integrate electric resistance heating or flame-based preheating to bring the converter up to
temperature before or immediately after engine start-up. Experimental approaches also include chemical
reactions within the ceramic structure that generate heat, although these face challenges such as
degradation over time and freezing in cold climates. Despite the added complexity, these methods aim to
significantly reduce emissions during the critical initial moments of engine operation and improve overall
converter performance, especially in modern emission-regulated vehicles.
3. Chemical methods:
Cyanuric acid is sometimes used to reduce NOx emissions due to its low cost and solid material which
sublimes in the exhaust flow. It dissociates, producing isocyanide that reacts with NOx to form N2, H20,
and CO2 at a temperature of 500 degrees reducing the NOx by 95% approximately. Practically it’s not
very doable due to its size, weight and complexity, however by research it has a high potential. Large
vehicles, as ships, inject ammonia NH3 to reduce NOx in the presence of a catalyst however this may not
be so beneficial as ammonia itself is an undesirable emission.

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 V. Alternate Technologies for ICE Vehicles
To address the environmental and efficiency limitations of internal combustion engine vehicles, several
alternative vehicle technologies have been developed and are increasingly being adopted. One of the most
prominent alternatives is the electric vehicle (EV), which uses electric motors powered by rechargeable batteries
instead of burning fuel. EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, making them especially attractive for reducing urban
air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Advances in battery technology, charging infrastructure, and
renewable energy integration have further accelerated the adoption of EVs, with many countries offering
incentives to support the transition from ICE vehicles.

Another alternative is the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (FCV), which generates electricity onboard by combining
hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell stack, producing only water vapor as a byproduct. FCVs offer faster refueling
times compared to EVs and a longer driving range, making them suitable for commercial and long-distance
transportation. In addition to EVs and FCVs, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) combine a traditional ICE with an
electric propulsion system to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions. While these technologies vary in
complexity and infrastructure needs, they all represent viable paths toward cleaner and more sustainable
transportation solutions.

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VI. Conclusion
The environmental and health concerns associated with internal combustion engine (ICE) emissions have
become increasingly critical in recent years. Pollutants such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
and particulate matter not only degrade air quality but also pose severe risks to human health and contribute
significantly to global climate change. While technological solutions such as thermal and catalytic converters
have been developed to mitigate these emissions, their limitations—especially during cold starts or due to aging—
highlight the need for continued innovation and regulatory oversight.

As global awareness grows and sustainable practices become more urgent, the transition toward alternative
vehicle technologies is accelerating. Electric vehicles (EVs), hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), and hybrid
electric vehicles (HEVs) offer promising pathways to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and minimize
environmental damage. Although ICE vehicles still dominate the global transportation sector, the adoption of
cleaner alternatives, combined with advancements in emission control methods, marks a crucial step toward
achieving a more sustainable and healthier future for our planet.

VII. References
Pulkrabek, W.W. (2004). Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine. Pearson. Chapter
9.