3

Review of literature
SUMMARY

Crop diversity safeguards against severe weather conditions and enhances soil
fertility, pest management, and resource efficiency in the face of shifting climates.
By mitigating climate risk and fostering sustainable agriculture, it guarantees a
resilient future. Diversification of crops enhances soil biodiversity, facilitates pest
management, and promotes ecological equilibrium. It helps maintain stable
microclimates to support sustainable agriculture. Moreover, Crop diversification in
farming mitigates greenhouse gas emissions, optimizes land utilization, and
safeguards the environment. Mixed cropping, intercropping, and crop rotation
mitigate risks by distributing them over different crops, ensuring stability even in
the event of one crop's difficulties. These techniques optimize the utilization of
resources, enhancing soil productivity and increasing water retention capacity.
However, agricultural resilience modeling combines sustainability principles with
crop variety to assist farmers in making sustainable choices. Biodiversity and crop
diversification in agriculture serve as a protective measure against pests, ensuring a
state of equilibrium. The process of multicultivation disrupts the lifecycles of pests
due to the emission of unique chemical signals by several plant species, which
hinders their ability to reproduce. Diversifying crop varieties enhances the process
of nutrient cycling, mitigates soil degradation, and minimizes water depletion in
the context of sustainable agriculture. Advanced breeding, precision agriculture,
intercropping, agroforestry, smart irrigation, and precision nutrient management
revolutionize crop diversification and enhance agricultural productivity. Crop
diversification plays a crucial role in promoting sustainable living in the face of
climate change since it tackles issues, such as ensuring food security, maintaining
economic stability, and enhancing community resilience.
 Chapter 3

3.1. Unleashing the Potential of Crop Diversification in Changing Climatic

condition

Global environmental and social changes are crucial for food security in developing
nations, as climate change, environmental deterioration, and population growth lead
to food shortages. Burning fossil fuels, particularly during the industrial revolution,
has increased greenhouse gas emissions, causing climate changes, droughts, heat
waves, flooding, and rising sea levels (Zandalinas et al. 2021). This disrupts
ecosystems, threatens biodiversity, and worsens ecological imbalances. High-quality
agriculture is decreasing, and urban water demands create interrelated concerns
(Borrelli et al. 2020). Plants face additional problems from rising temperatures,
abiotic stress, environmental toxins, degraded irrigation water, and climate shifts
(Slattery et al. 2019; Lobell et al. 2012). Human activity produces heavy metals,
microplastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, and antibiotics, which can
change soil pH and salinity, harm the ozone layer, and increase UV radiation exposure
(Shi et al. 2017; Rillig, 2019). These compounds also affect plant growth,
reproduction, and susceptibility to infections and pests (Hamannet al. 2021). Climate
change-induced extreme weather events (Wang et al. 2017; Yan et al. 2022) such as
spring cold spells, threaten food production, including low-temperature stress (Collins
and Chenu, 2021), which can reduce long-term agricultural production by 10% and
affect crop yields by 30-50%(Jackson et al. 2021; Ferrante et al. 2021; Zhang, 2022;
Liu et al. 2019). Figure 3.1 shows how climate change threatens agriculture and
ecosystems through increased temperatures, precipitation patterns, water scarcity,
extreme weather events, pests and diseases, rising sea levels, biodiversity loss, soil
degradation, and carbon sequestration.

The above issues threaten food security, livelihoods, and ecological services. Climate-
resilient agriculture, water management, ecosystem conservation, and emission
reduction are vital to adaptation and mitigation. Climate change poses a significant
threat to agriculture and animal industries, with climate variability affecting essential
food crops like wheat and rice (Tilman et al. 2011; Wu et al. 2014). With an expected
4°C rise in average temperatures, food production must grow by 70% by 2050 to feed
2.3 billion more people (FAO, 2009; Molotoks et al. 2021; Shah et al. 2020a; Raza et
al. 2022). Climate change and severe events also affect cattle, fisheries, forest
farming, and crop output (Raza et al. 2019). Integrated sustainable agriculture

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practices, population control policies, and climate resilience strategies are needed to
ensure adequate food production and mitigate the effects of these changes (Awan and
Yaseen, 2017).

Figure3.1. Climate-smart agriculture addresses climate change threats by prioritizing resilience,

resource efficiency, and emission reduction. It ensures sustainability and food security in
challenging environments through innovative strategies.

Approximately 75% of the global population lives in rural areas, where agriculture is
their main revenue source (Chisale et al. 2021). Projections show that worldwide
agricultural production must rise 60% by 2050 to meet rising demand, with
productivity being key (Alexandratos et al. 2012). Climate change has cut maize and
wheat yields by 3.8% and 5.5%, respectively, while temperatures breach crucial
thresholds, reducing crop production (Lobell et al. 2011). These difficulties underline
the need for proactive initiatives to improve agricultural resilience, food access, and
the differential impacts on vulnerable people. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA)
integrates climate change into sustainable agricultural planning, finding linkages
between food security, adaptation, and mitigation to inform climate policy (Wheeler
et al. 2000; Olsson et al. 2014).

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) combines adaptation and mitigation strategies to

boost agricultural productivity, resilience, and emissions reduction (FAO, 2013). It
includes a variety of methods such as crop-livestock-aquaculture-agroforestry, water
and nutrient management, reduced tillage, and tree integration (Terdoo et al. 2014;
Verma et al.2023; Scherr et al. 2012). To address shifting weather patterns, CSA
supports climate-resilient crops and intercropping technologies (Dhankher et al. 2018,
Gollin et al. 2005; Bhattacharyya et al. 2020). Wheat cultivar combinations and

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intercropping tactics improve yield and stability (Fletcher et al. 2019; Bybee-Finley et
al. 2023). Climate shocks' effects on agricultural output are evaluated using dynamic
panel-data analysis, as well as the function of crop diversification in mitigating them
(Birthal et al. 2019. Sustainable agriculture considers climate change to improve crop
resilience and productivity (Gaidashova et al. 2010). Leguminous crops, improved
nitrogen consumption efficiency are vital for climate-vulnerable areas (López-Bellido
et al. 2012). Tree-crop intercropping (TCI) systems offer economic and environmental
benefits but may reduce crop yields in China due to climate warming (Yang et al.
2023). Regional agricultural development plans considering environmental and social
factors are essential (Liu et al. 2021). In Michoacán, Mexico, an AI-based approach
assists in proactive decision-making for dryland roselle agriculture amidst climate
hazards (Montiel-González et al. 2021). Optimal sowing dates for maize in North
China Plain vary with climate factors, guiding adaptive planning (Li et al. 2022). To
sustain sugarcane production in southern Africa, technology transfer, drought-resistant
varieties, and soil improvement are crucial (Ngcobo et al. 2023). Conservation
Agriculture (CA) mitigates climate risks in West African agriculture, preserving yields
(Husson et al.2022; Deng et al.2017). China's innovative cropping methods balance
food security and climate mitigation (Chen et al. 2020). In Uganda's Kyoga basin,
understanding climate impacts helps develop resilient rain-fed farming systems
(Lugoi et al. 2023). These studies highlight the importance of adaptive strategies in
agricultural planning amidst changing climates.

3.2. Crop Diversification Highlights Ecosystem Health and Sustainability

Indicators

Worldwide, agriculture increase and intensification cause habitat loss, biodiversity

loss, soil and water degradation, pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions (Campbell
et al. 2017; Power et al. 2010). These difficulties necessitate a new crop production
technique to meet rising food demands while minimizing environmental damage
during global transitions. To reduce environmental impact and sustain agricultural
yields, adopt biodiversity-rich crop management approaches. Diversifying above- and
below-ground biotic populations improves resource efficiency and ecosystem
productivity. This method assumes that diversity improves ecological stability and
production (Cardinale et al. 2012; Wagg et al. 2014). Adding functional biodiversity
to crop systems in different places and times restores important biotic interactions that

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keep yields and ecological services going (Renard et al. 2019). Figure 3.2 depicts crop
diversification and ecological services and disservices. Enhancing functional
biodiversity involves diverse strategies. These involve increasing diversity in crop and
non-crop species diversity through agricultural practice such as intercropping, crop
rotation, and habitat enhancement.

Figure3.2. Crop diversification involves cultivating a range of crops, improving pest control,
pollination, soil health, water management, and climate resilience, thereby promoting sustainable
agriculture.

Beneficial microorganisms can be introduced via inoculation. Below-ground,

functional diversity can be nurtured by incorporating organic materials or reducing
soil disturbance, promoting soil stratification and increasing niches for diversity
(Kremen et al. 2012). Review 98 meta-analyses, 5160 original research, and 41,946
comparisons between varied and simplified farming methods to determine how they
affect above- and belowground biodiversity and ecosystem services. While sustaining
agricultural yields, diversification improves biodiversity, pollination, insect
management, nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and water regulation. Aboveground
biodiversity improves pest management and water regulation, while belowground

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variety improves nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and water regulation, resulting in win-
win services and yields. Broad diversification can conserve biodiversity and provide
global food security. (Tamburini et al. 2020). Management practices significantly
influence the risk of 'disservices' in agriculture, such as habitat loss, nutrient runoff,
and pesticide impacts. Additionally, agricultural activities can adversely affect
biodiversity through various channels, they're often seen as contradictory to
conservation goals. However effective management can mitigate these negative
impacts while preserving important provisioning services (Zhang et al. 2007).
Agroecosystems regulate and culturally serve communities in addition to supplying
and support. Regulatory services include flood and water quality control, carbon
storage, disease regulation, and waste treatment. Cultural services include aesthetics,
education, entertainment, tourism, and traditional practices, including agriculture in
community rituals. Diversity conservation is a cultural service that supports
agroecosystems and adjacent ecosystems, affecting communities and their interaction
with the environment (Manning et al. 2019).

Monocultures supplied with nutrients and pesticides produce high short-term outputs,
while species diversity promotes ecological processes and decreases chemical inputs
(Letourneau et al. 2011; Manning, 2019). The transition from monoculture to two-
cultivar combinations benefits ecosystem health and resource efficiency (Torralba et
al. 2016; Albrecht, 2020). Diversified arable farming, which includes crops cultivated
at different seasons, reduces the environmental impact of monocultures (Hufnagel et
al. 2020). Meta-analyses reveal that agricultural variety improves agroecosystem
services while decreasing the ecological effect of monocultures (Beillouin et al.
2021). Integrating agroecology crop diversity with management restrictions sustains
output while increasing environmental advantages (Ditzler et al. 2023). Table 3.1
shows how agricultural diversification helps to protect biodiversity, improve soil
health, mitigate climate change, and reduce the use of synthetic inputs, all of which
contribute to sustainability and food security.

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Table 3.1. Agricultural diversification and their associated ecological benefits

Sl. Agricultural Diversification Type Associated ecological Benefit Research Reference

systems location /
No
1. Mixed Farming Horticulture Crop- The diversified farming practice increased ecosystem services of agro ecosystem, work Morocco Taher Sraïri et al.
livestock farming economic efficiency, staple food production to ensure the healthier livelihoods of (2017)
systems smallholder farmer in the rural area.
2. Arecanut- livestock This integrated approach increased the soil organic carbon, carbon sequestration, resource India Sujatha et al.
farming systems use efficiency, income intensification, self-sustainability in laterite soils and reduced the (2015)
ecological imbalance in perennial cropping system.
3. Soybean-beef cattle The integrated crop -livestock farming system with long term no tillage practices enhanced Brazil Posselt Martins
farming system the carbon stock in soil and reduced the Aluminum toxicity under moderate grazing as et al. (2020)
compare to non-grazed areas.
4. Maize- cattle farming The crop residues are crucial component for the mulching and livestock feed. The allocation Africa Duncan et al.
system of crop residues to soil enhanced the soil fertility and helped in maintenance of soil health (2016)
for higher biomass production in small scale farmer system in rural areas.
5. Eucalyptus +beef It’s enhanced the soil water, soil enzymatic activity, microbial community, microbial Brazil V.M. Sarto et al.
cattle biomass, and conserved the carbon and nitrogen stocks in the soil. (2020)
Farming system
6. Crop -beef cattle This system helped in reduced the conversion potential of grassland to cropland in transition USA Smart et al.
farming system zone. Grass land provides multiple ecosystem services such as provisioning, supporting, (2021)
regulating which helped in sustainable agriculture production.
7. Soybean–beef cattle The long-term application of the crop-livestock system under No tillage with moderate Brazil Posselt Martins
farming system grazing help in regulating the soil physical character and lowering the soil acidification et al. (2014)
process in the agro ecosystem.
8. Sugarcane-livestock Its improved the soil bio-physico-chemical property of soil, soil organic matter and Brazil Rosa Portilho et
system enhanced the diverse nitrogen cycling bacterial community, nitrogen cycling gene (amoA, al. (2018)
nirK, and nosZ) which helped in nitrogen mineralization in agriculture system.
9 Cotton -livestock The integrated crop-livestock agroecosystem increased the saprophytic fungal USA Davinic et al.
system andmycorrhizal population. Its potentially to facilitate organic matter transformation, (2013)
nutrient cycling, element mineralization, soil water conservation under grazing perennial

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vegetation in semi-arid region.

Leguminous crop – Application of rhizobium and P fertilization in crop -livestock agro ecosystem increased the Ethiopia Belete et al.
livestock farming nutritional content in grain, and fodder quality of the grain legume with minimum input. (2019)
10 system
11. Grass-chicken farming The double rice cropping system with Grass-chicken farming is more sustainable than the China Zhang et al.
organic farming. (2019)
It increased the dissolve organic nitrogen, soil nitrogen content, ammonia, rice straw
biomass and grain yield in farmland ecosystem.
12. Soybean-beef cattle Regarding biodiesel production soybean -livestock farming system move toward to Brazil Esteves et al.
farming optimize land and input use and its more sustainable and environment friendly option for (2018)
reducing the greenhouse gas emission in agro pastoral system.
13. Rice-cattle farming Adaptation of No tillage with cattle grazing system increased the soil chemical attributes, Brazil de O. Denardin et
nutrient cycling Nutrient used efficiency and rice yield up to 40% as camper to al. (2020)
conventional cropping system.
14 Soybean-livestock Integrated approach of crop livestock system plays crucial role in residues decomposition, Brazil Carpinelli et al.
farming fertilization management, macronutrient cycling, and nutrients release such as Nitrogen, (2019)
Phosphorus, potassium up to 57, 11, 58 kg ha−1 respectively in sub-tropical agriculture
system.
15 Black oat-cattle Moderate grazing intensity help in mitigating the greenhouse gas emission through reducing Brazil Ribeiro et al.
farming the C-footprint and global warming potential up to 1.84 Mg CO 2eq ha–1yr–1, in subtropical (2019)
no tillage agriculture system.
16 Crop –livestock The Grazing stroke of livestock minimize the intensive used of agrochemical and facilitated South Africa MacLaren et al.
Farming the sustainably non-chemical weed management under no tillage of agro farming system. (2019)
17 Non-crop-livestock Grazing grassland potential to decrease the as pest suppression services surrounding the Australia Nagy et al.
farming cropped landscape (2020)
18 Cover crop- sheep Integrated sheep grazing for non-marketable plan species reduced the weeds pressure and United States McKenzie et al.
farming act as ecological sift for the beetle and weeds community (2016)
19. Corn- cattle grazing Integrated grazing system within the crop rotation reduced the surface water runoff and Pérez-Gutiérrez
positively affect the water quality, soil water storage and reduced the flood risk potential et al. (2019)
USA
20 Crop –livestock Moderate Grazing intensity enhanced the soil quality, soil carbon balance and positively South Brazil Damian da Silva

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affect the animal fitness and performance in subtropical agro-farming. et al. (2014)
rice-duck co-culture Biodiversity based farming increased the production of nutritious rice, duck meat and this is China Li et al. (2019)
environmentally friendly approach for controlling the weed and rice leaf roller disease
without using the agro-chemical.
21. Ratooning Agronomic Adoptive agriculture practices for rice production with minimal resource input under USA Ziska et al.
management practices changing climatic condition (2018)
22. Rationing Rice Rice based Rationing agro ecosystem increased the energy use efficiency, energy Iran Firouzi et al.
productivity, feedstock for bioethanol production as compare to single cropping system (2018)
23 Ratooning pigeonpea Its effective seed cost reduction strategy of crop establishment and increased the grain yield Tanzania Rusinamhodzi
and productivity in maize-pigeonpea intercropping system. etal. (2017)
24. Ratoon rice Ratoon rice cropping system potentially to manage rice agro ecosystem which enhanced China Ling et al. (2019)
biomass, resource use efficiency and crop productivity in changing climatic condition
25. Sugarcane ratooning Sugarcane ratoon under no tillage system change the physicochemical and mechanical Brazil Awe et al. (2020)
properties of soil. its sustainable management option for sugarcane production in humid
subtropical agroecosystem.
26 Living mulch Stylosanthesguianensis promising Management strategies for enhancement of soil quality through changing in soil China Chen et al.
C:N:P stoichiometry under diverse edaphic, climatic, biotic condition in orchards. (2020)
27 Trifolium ambiguum Perennial living mulch create suitable environment for the growth and development of the United States Dobbratz et al.
corn through minimal use of herbicides, improvement of the Rotary zone tillage, soil (2019)
moisture and temperature in warm condition.
28 Vicia villosa The integration approach of herbicides and living mulch potentially used for weed Canada Sullivan et al.
Sweet woodruff management and completely protection of apple tree from feeding damage of the Microtus (2018)
creeping thyme montane
29 Trifolium repens Adoption of living mulch enhanced the soil nutrient content, soil metabolic and enzymatic China Qian et al. (2015)
Coronilla varia activity, change the bacterial community structure and function which regulate soil micro-
Lolium perenne ecological environment in apple orchards on the Loess plateau.
30 Italian ryegrass Living mulch cropping system most effective for the weed control, lodging resistance Japan Uchino et al.
against pest, and enhanced the forage soybean production without using the herbicides. (2016)
31 Trifolium Intercropping of wheat with living mulching reduced the nitrogen fertilization rate, weed Germany Radicetti et al
subterraneum infestation, yield gap, and act as low input cropping system in different agro- environmental (2018)
condition.
32 Agrostis vulgaris Long term application of living mulch positively influences the soil physical properties such Poland Żelazny et al.

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Festuca ovina as pH, soil porosity, humus content in rain fed apple orchard floor management system. (2018)
33 White clover White clover living mulch reduced the nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization rate and Japan Deguchi et al.
increased the colonization of arbuscular mycorrhiza which enhanced the uptake of (2017)
phosphorus and crop growth and development without tillage agroecosystem.

34 Legume living mulch Frost-sensitive legumes crop intercrop with oilseed increased the soil organic matter Paris Lorin et al.
mineralization and nitrogen accumulation at the end of rape flowering. (2016)
35 Trifolium ambiguum Corn - living mulch cropping system maintain the belowground nutrient cycling, increased United States Ginakes et al.
the microbial biomass nitrogen and carbon and mitigate the weed competition with crop. (2018)
36 Trifolium ambiguum Kura clover living mulching system improved the soil aggregation ability, infiltration rate USA Siller et al.
and reduced the soil erosion, water runoff, nutrient losses, reduced and adverse (2016)
environmental impact for crop production.
37 Rice-duck co-culture Biodiversity based farming increased the production of nutritious rice, duck meat and this is China Li et al. (2019)
environmentally friendly approach for controlling the weed and rice leaf roller disease
without using the agro-chemical.
38 Avena sativa Lime application with mixed cropping system restored the degraded acid soil, increased the Spian Vázquez et al.
Vicia sativa with lime nutrient used efficiency, foliar nitrogen content, AMF root colonization, stimulating biotic (2020)
interaction and plant performance in these agronomic practices.
39 Intercropping Rice with water Environmentally friendly and cost-effective strategies for safe crop production and removal China Kang etal. (2020)
spinach of cadmium from rice under different moisture condition in cadmium contaminated soil
40 Proso millet with Optimize the resource used efficiency, photosynthetic active ration, radiation use efficiency, China Gong et al.
mung bean dry matter accumulation and increased the Proso millet yield up to 37% as compare to (2020)
mono cropping agro-farming system.
41 Sugarcane with Long term application of intercropping agriculture system enhanced the crop production, China Wang et al.
soybean energy yield up to 39%, and reduced the nitrogen input and carbon footprint as compared to (2020)
sugarcane mono cropping system.
42 Faba bean and wheat Intercropping with inorganic nitrogen application 90 kg N ha −1 is right strategies for China Guo et al. (2020)
controlling the chocolate spot disease and afford the suitable ecological environment for
higher crop productivity in biotic stress condition.
43 Cotton and peanut Wide strip intercropping with strip rotation increased the dry matter accumulation, nutrient China Chi et al. (2019)
uptake, leaf photosynthesis, seed cotton yield 17%, crop productivity and economic return
compared to traditional intercropping system.

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44 Maize-soybean legume-cereal based intercropping system increased the soil organic matter, soil enzymatic China Zhi-dan et al.
activity, soil microbial community such as Actinobacteria, Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria (2019).
and nutrient uptake nitrogen, phosphorus, Potassium, up to 25.5, 24.4, 9.6 % respectively in
agro-farming system.
45 Proso millet with Four rows of mung bean and two row of millet intercropping system enhanced the land use China Gong et al.
mung bean efficiency, water use efficiency, root interaction and Proso millet yield up to 50% in arid (2020)
agro ecosystem.
46 Potato and maize Host and non-host intercropping pattern reduced the adult and larva population act as China Ya-qiang et al.
biocontrol agent against to potato tuber moth Phthorimaea operculella through enhancing (2020)
density of natural enemies such as the level of parasitism and number of parasitoids in agro
ecosystem.
47 Rice with alligator flag Intercropping with remediating plant has potential to phytostabilize cadmium though China Wang et al.
absorption, transportation, and accumulation to produces rice safely in cadmium (2020)
contaminated soil and water agroecosystem.
48 Maize-pigeon pea Intercropping agriculture system play crucial role in sustainable agriculture production by China Daryanto et al.
reducing the soil erosion up to 46%, pest and weed incident 30% and increasing the carbon (2020)
sequestration 15%, resource use efficiency as compared to sole crop.
49 Forage Sorghum with Sorghum -maize mixed culture produced higher biomass yield and act as potential Samarappuli et
Maize ecofriendly option for more resilient and stable forage, feed stock for the biogas production USA al. (2018)

50 Peanut with maize Strip intercropping provides effective biological control services against the peanut by China Ju et al. (2016)
increasing the predator ladybeetle density and suppress the pest as compared to traditional
farming system.
51 Crop rotation Maize with mixed Rotational biodiversity farming system enhanced the maize yield, improved environmental USA Bowles et al.
cereal crop sustainability and resilience against the changing climatic condition. (2020)
52 Pulse-wheat Pulse crop-based rotation is viable option for the sustainable crop intensification which Canada Liu et al (2019)
enhanced soil organic carbon, crop system performance, protein-based system yield, system
stability as compare to wheat monoculture.
53 Sunflower- Sesamum Oil crop rotation is efficient environmentally friendly and cost effective phytoremediater China Zhou et al.
indicum where extraction efficiency of lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, 0.07,1.37,1.10,6.12 % (2020)
respectively in heavy metal contaminated site

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54 winter wheat-legume Diversifying crop rotation system regulate the multiple ecosystem services such as soil UK Degani et al.
mixture quality, pest and weed control, improved the soil moisture, temperature control and (2019)
increased the stress resistance for the better food production in drought condition.
55 Crop-pasture Long term application of crop posture rotation with tillage system improved the soil Argentina Tourn et al.
physical properties, soil aggregate stability, soil organic carbon, soil health under loamy (2019)
agricultural soil
56 Corn-soybean Integrated approach of cover crop with corn-soybean crop rotation shows no negative effect USA Behnke et al.
on cash crop yield moreover decreased the residual soil nitrogen and reduced the (2019)
greenhouse gas emission in changing climatic condition
57 Soybean – maize crop rotation soil management practices increased the oil concentration, seed protein Argentina Marro et al.
content, oleic acid up to 27, 14, 25% respectively and also increased the soil microbial (2019)
community, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in this selecting agriculture practices.
58 Maize-wheat-soybean Combined approach of Crop rotation with residues management is effective strategies for South Africa Gura et al. (2019)
increasing the microbial biomass carbon, soil enzymatic activity, soil aggregate stability,
soil quality for archiving the agriculture sustainability under no till condition.
59 Oilseed rape- Oil crop rotation system act as safe and effective approach for the phytoremediation of China Yang et al.
sunflower heavy metal. its produced high volume of dry biomass and has higher phytoextraction (2017)
efficiency 1.98% for the cadmium in heavy metal contaminated agroecosystem.
60 Maize-wheat Long term adaptation of diversifying cereals -legume crop rotation system promotes the soil Hazra et al.
aggregation, active and passive carbon pool and mitigate the greenhouse gas emission in (2017)
changing climatic condition
61 Cultivar Soybeans Crop genotypic diversity potentially assist the insect pest management for sustainable USA Grettenberger et
mixtures agriculture by increasing the leafhopper populations and suppressing the aphid populations al. (2020)
in soybean cropping system.
62 Wheat Cultivar mixture is mostly used for the low input farming system that minimize the Denmark Kristoffersen et
application of fungicides. Resistant cultivar mixture of wheat reduced the Septoria tritici al. (2020)
blotch disease up to 17% in agro-farming systems
63 Wheat Adaptation of crop genetic diversity acts as buffer for biotic and abiotic stress. it regulates Italy Lazzaro et al.
the various ecosystem services such as weed suppression, crop yield, grain quality and (2018)
overall crop performance in agroecosystem.
64 Potato Diversifying Genotypic potato cultivar Eshu10 has potential to accumulate higher amount China Ye et al. (2019)
of cadmium in leaf and stem tissue as comparison to tuber. Low amount of cadmium

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accumulation in tuber is sustainable option for staple food production in cadmium

contaminated soil.
65 Wheat Wheat cultivar mixture with different phenology is low-cost method for mitigating the risk Australia Fletcher et al.
of flowering too early or too late that also balance the crop yield and stabilize the uncertain (2019)
risk for agriculture production.
66 Sugar beet Genetic variation in the cultivar plant shows the resistance against the Cercospora leaf spot Egypt Abd El-Fatah et
and minimizing the use of fungicides for crop production. al. (2020)
67 Wheat Increasing the biodiversity of rice plant reduced the chemical input, high pressure of pest, France Borg et al. (2017)
and regulate the ecosystem services for higher crop performance in uncertain climate.
68 Crop Wild Relatives Genetic variation within the crop species play potentially role in reclamation and restoration China Li et al (2019)
of degraded land, increased the pest and disease resistant, abiotic stress tolerance and crop
quality for efficient conservation agriculture practices
69 Cover crop Avena strigosa Decomposition of cove crop mixture enhanced the functional microbial diversity, microbial Netherlands Drost et al.
mixture Vicia sativa metabolite potential, stimulate the soil function and mitigate the greenhouse gas emission in (2019)
Raphanus sativus agriculture field
70 Grass with Cover crop mixture play crucial role in ecological nutrient management system. It enhanced USA White et al.
Non-legume the nitrogen retention, nitrogen supply services and reduced the nitrate leaching in soil. (2017)
71 Crucifer–legume Crucifer based crop mixture increased the biodiversity, biomass per plant, endogenous France Couëdel et al.
secondary metabolite concentration of glucosinolates that help in suppress the pest and (2018)
pathogen compared to sole crucifers.
72 Helianthus annuus Flower based annual cover crop provides natural floral resource for attracting solitary wild USA Mallinger et al.
Fagopyrum bees, rare species of bees that important for regulating the pollinating services, and provides (2019)
esculentum multiple ecosystem services in agriculture landscape

73 Cereal Rye Residue of cover crop mixture crucial for improving β-glucosidase and urease activity, soil United States J. Nevins et al.
Hairy Vetch microbial activity, and increased inorganic nitrogen availability for the adoptive nitrogen (2020)
management of agroecosystem.
74 Hairy vetch Root functional traits of cover crop mixture such as root hair length, root diameter, higher Michigan Bukovsky-
cereal rye C: N potentially helped in nutrient cycling processes, nutrient acquisition and regulate the Reyeset al.
belowground supportive ecosystem services in the cover crop. (2019)
75 Secale cereal Cover crop is cost effective and environment friendly approach for habitat management to Tifton GA Bowers et al.
Trifolium incarnatum regulate the recruitment of natural enemies, biological control services, pest population, for (2019)

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higher cotton production

76 Oilseed radish, hairy Adaptation of conservation agriculture system protect the soil erosion, reduced the nitrogen Switzerland Wittwer et al.
vetch fertilization and anthropogenic input without compromising the crop yield. (2020)
77 Agro -forestry Shade trees and crops, Agroforestry system enhanced the Large and small faunal aggregates up to 42 and 58 % Colombian
home garden respectively and carbon storage in sylvo-pastoral systems (131 Mg ha-1), and home gardens Amazonia Rodríguez et
(105 Mg ha-1) for the most potential option for storage carbon in deforested soil. al.2021
78 Cacao Cacao based agroforestry system improved the physic-chemical and biological properties of Peru Arévalo-Gardini
soil. This system enhanced the soil fungal diversity and functional groups in traditional et al. (2020)
agroforestry system as compared to natural agroforestry system.
79 Theobroma cacao, Diverse agroecosystem changes the microclimate and improved the soil moisture level, soil Canada Borden et aol.
Terminalia ivorensis texture which regulate the root traits expression like Fine root architecture, Specific root (2020)
length, Root tissue density, Specific root area etc.
80 Olive, annual crop Olive agroforestry system enhanced the grain yield, protein content 39 % and 4% France Fida Temani et al
respectively. It enhancing the ore land productivity as compare to sole crop in changing (2021)
environmental conditions.
81 Ziziphus mauritiana, Its affordable and low input sustainable forming system which enhanced the water use India Vincent Bado et
Millet, cowpea efficiency, soil fertility and nutrient availability and agricultural productivity in al. (2021)
agroecosystem.

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Sustainable agriculture research emphasizes biodiversity's response to farming

practices, recognizing the complex interactions across landscapes (Bohan et al. 2013).
Ecosystem services derive from intricate interactions within agricultural ecosystems
(Power et al. 2010). Ecological networks aid in understanding resilient agroecosystem
interactions and predictive decision-making (Raimundo et al. 2018; Ebeling et al.
2008). Plant diversity influences ecological dynamics, impacting primary production
and ecosystem stability (Wan et al.2019). Bottom-up approaches, such as plant
composition manipulation, enhance agricultural production and ecosystem services
(Isaacs et al. 2009; Ramankutty, 2018). Agroecological farming systems maximize
ecological processes to balance production and environmental sustainability
(Boeraeve et al. 2020). Intercropping of legumes and cereals enhances resource-use
efficiency and food security in Africa (Daryanto et al. 2020). Cover crops contribute
to soil health, pest management, and pollinator conservation (Mallinger et al. 2019;
Plaza-Bonilla et al. 2016). Legumes in cropping systems reduce nitrogen fertilizer use
and enhance ecosystem services (Zanaty et al. 2023; Iakovidis et al. 2022). Perennial
agricultural energy offers ecological benefits and greenhouse gas reduction potential
(Han et al. 2020; Stylianou et al. 2020). Full dietary management is vital for
productivity and stability in rice and wheat crops (Kumar et al. 2022; Fernando et al.
2018).

3.3. Harvesting Crop Diversification to Regulate Microclimate in Resilient Agro-

Ecosystems
Crop microclimate is the distinct climate inside and above the crop canopy and soil
root zone due to daily management. Plant response is optimized in an ideal
microenvironment, increasing crop yield. Humidity, temperature, wind patterns,
turbulence, dew formation, heat balance, frost danger, and evaporation rates
determine microclimatic conditions (Singh et al. 2018). Microclimates range from
millimeters to 100 meters horizontally and centimeters to ten meters vertically.
Microclimates—influenced by sun radiation, temperature, soil moisture, and wind
direction-impact crop growth and development in agriculture, requiring precise crop
selection, planting schedules, irrigation, and pest management. This knowledge and
management boost crop yields and quality while reducing weather and environmental
hazards (Unwin et al. 1991). Madasamy et al.2020, offer an intelligent cotton pest and
disease forewarning system that targets yield-losing pests and diseases. The

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technology anticipates pest and disease outbreaks using microclimatic factors and
sends farmers crop management advice via SMS and the Internet. The strategy
reduces pesticide use and pollution while improving farmer livelihood stability. It
improves cotton crop management and sustainability over prior models. Alley-
cropping systems may alleviate the harmful effects of forest conversion to oil palm
plantations on tropical biodiversity (Ashraf et al. 2019). Vegetation structure,
microclimate, and soil conditions of monoculture oil palm fields are examined
throughout alley-cropping strategies and years.

Carefully planted black pepper and cocoa can boost vegetation diversity and
microclimate control, suggesting climate-smart alley-cropping systems for sustainable
oil palm farming. Agroecosystem photosynthesis, notably gross primary production
(GPP), is also examined in agriculturally active areas to mitigate global climate
change. Wang et al. (2023) observed that partial root-zone drying (PRD) irrigation in
Portugal improved microclimate, photosynthetic photon flux density, and fruit
temperatures, affecting GPP-influencing parameters. However, the PRD inhibited
vine development, reducing leaves, leaf area, canopies, and water shoots. PRD
improved berry quality without reducing production, suggesting it may benefit
climate-stressed locations. In 2018, Karungi et al. studied agricultural earthworm and
ant populations in Uganda's Mount Elgon region. The data shows that earthworm
abundance is highest at high altitudes, but falls with height except in certain farming
systems. These findings show that these factors are crucial to agricultural ecosystem
sustainability, especially in mountainous Sub-Saharan Africa. Stefan et al. (2021)
examines how intensive agriculture harms soil ecosystem diversity and emphasizes
intercropping to promote soil microbial diversity. Experiments in Switzerland and
Spain showed that increasing crop diversity changed the microbial population,
particularly Actinobacteria, which increased crop output by 15% to 35%. Abiotic
variables like fertilizer and soil moisture affected soil microorganisms more than crop
diversification. Bouzouidja et al. (2021) examine the use of Expert Models and
Methods (EMMs) to assess Nature-Based Solutions (NBSs) in urban climate change
adaptation, highlighting the challenge of integrating NBS components and the need to
understand metrics relationships. The study emphasizes employing EMMs carefully
in certain project settings and scales. With canopy structure, land-use changes in
Indonesia, particularly forests, greatly affect microclimate conditions, according to

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Meijide et al. (2018) and Principe et al. (2019). Jungle rubber agroforests are more
stable land-use systems but have constraints during the El-Nino Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) occurrence, according to the study. Forest preservation is crucial for climate
management and has consequences for land-use planning in the face of environmental
change. We also examine how microclimate affects holm oak tree regeneration in
Mediterranean drylands. Microclimatic differences, especially on southern slopes with
high Potential Solar Radiation, limit germination and seedling establishment,
emphasizing the necessity for long-term land-use planning in the face of
environmental change.

Terrain, plant mix, and tree structure can affect microclimates in agroforestry systems.
Animal productivity and pasture establishment depend on tree canopy and pasture
surface temperature. Positive interactions between air temperature, black globe
temperature, and relative humidity explain moderate to strong microclimate-
thermography relationships in Brazil (Junior et al. 2020). Jalisco, Mexico, shows that
tropical forest integrative recovery requires measuring vegetation parameters such as
litterfall, basal area, plant richness, and litter amount (Gavito et al. 2021). The
Enabered watershed in Ethiopia, examined by Castelli et al. (2019), shows how
landscape changes affect local climates, especially in dry and semi-arid regions. To
combat soil degradation and boost output, farmers employ Landscape Restoration and
Water Harvesting (LRWH). Remote sensing data showed soil moisture conservation
and SMTC effects. Lower temperatures were found due to improved soil moisture
retention during the wet season. In arid and semi-arid regions, water collection, land
restoration, and green water management practices improve agricultural ecosystem
resilience and food security. Schmidt et al. (2019) found habitat transitional zones that
threaten biodiversity while serving as evolutionary centers. In transition zones,
researchers found S-shaped microclimatic gradients with reduced aboveground
biomass and higher soil carbon and nitrogen. This study quantitatively explains
agricultural landscapes and emphasizes integrated ecosystem mosaics for ecosystem
services. Kun et al. (2021) demonstrated how control systems, physiological
activities, and leaf aerodynamics influence microclimates in plant factories, hence
impacting ventilation and air conditioning. The researchers discovered that interlayer
cold airflow improved plant canopy conditions, lowering energy consumption by
50.8% and decreasing root growth by 41.7% while maintaining lettuce production.

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Wheat grain and alfalfa hay yields, as well as protein content, fell due to lower PAR
and air temperature. In contrast, crop revenue grew annually, indicating long-term
economic benefits (Yang et al., 2021; Von Haden et al., 2019; Donat, 2023).
Furthermore, Yang et al. (2019) highlighted the impact of cultivated land patterns on
energy budgets, seasonal fluctuations, and ecosystem service values in Northern
China's Yinshan-Otindag Sandy Land Windbreak and Sand-Fixation Ecological
Conservation Area.

3.4. Reducing greenhouse gases in farming through crop diversity for sustainable
agriculture
In developing regions like Africa and Southeast Asia, smallholder farms support 83%
of the worldwide agricultural population (Lowder et al. 2016). These areas have land
shortages, resource scarcity, and increased grain production. The "Green Revolution"
introduced synthetic agrochemicals to boost agricultural yields in affluent nations like
the EU and China. This has raised productivity-environmental effect issues (Cumming
et al.2014). Increased grain production using extensive inputs is costly and harmful to
ecosystem. Overuse of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in China has increased
greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient inefficiency, soil acidification, and water and soil
contamination (Seto et al. 2016). This pollutes soil and water. Globalization says
industrialized nations like Australia, Canada, and the US should convert grasslands
into croplands to boost grain production. This could lead to carbon depletion and
environmental issues including carbon losses. This could help battle global famine
(Herrero et al. 2010; Nemecek, 2018). Human activities boost greenhouse gas
emissions, exacerbating climate change. Agroecosystems, especially agriculture, emit
10-14% of global greenhouse gases (Paustian et al. 2016; Carlson et al. 2017).

Nitrogen fertilizer has increased China's rice output and emits 10-14% of human
greenhouse gasses. Overapplication lowers yields, increases greenhouse gas
emissions, alters soil organic carbon, and costs money (Huang and Tang, 2010). For
sustainable rice production, nitrogen fertilization's environmental and economic
implications must be studied (Chen et al. 2014; Grassini, 2013). Agroecosystems store
carbon and modify climate. Rice carbon sinks are affected by nitrogen fertilizer
application rate; thus, its environmental implications must be assessed (Gan et al.
2014; Lal, 2013). Jiang et al. (2019). To propose environmentally friendly nitrogen
fertilizer management systems, the study assesses rice production's greenhouse gas

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emissions and ecosystem services using carbon footprint and ecosystem service value
assessments. Climate change affects crop nitrogen fertilizer consumption, and crop
response and sensitivity (Liang et al. 2018). Climate change increases greenhouse gas
emissions from agroecosystems, creating a negative feedback loop (Schlenker and
Lobell, 2010). Agriculture contributed 40–47% and 60–82% of global anthropogenic
CH4 and N2O emissions between 2007 and 2016. (Frank et al. 2019, Lavell et al.,
2012) These emissions are expected to rise 47 and 50% in 2050 and 2070,
respectively, making agricultural GHG emission reduction crucial for environmental
sustainability (IPCC, 2019a). The previous studies show that carbon footprint (CF) is
an important metric for GHG emissions management. As farming systems emit and
absorb CO2, carbon footprint assessments at various scales are becoming more
prevalent in agriculture (Xu and Lan, 2016). CO2 equivalent emissions from
materials, straw burning, nitrification, and methanogenic bacteria are significant.
Cropland's CO2 equivalent sink is predominantly soil carbon sequestration due to
fertilizer input, straw return, and no-till. Carbon footprint is important, according to
Xu et al. (2013) and Xu and Lan (2016). Yan et al. 2014, and 2015, calculate carbon
footprints at various scales. Agriculture emits 10-12% of greenhouse gases and CO2
equivalents, and the Paris Agreement, an UN-IPCC collaboration, intends to limit
global warming to 2°C. Around 85% of global ammonia output comes from
fertilizers. The UN strives to restrict CO2 emissions to mitigate severe climate change,
requiring diverse mitigation techniques acknowledge in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3. Greenhouse gas emissions from industry, transportation, and agriculture drive climate
change, causing rising sea levels and extreme weather. Mitigation strategies like reforestation and
renewable energy aim to reduce these impacts.

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emissions like fertilizer manufacturing, land use change, and packaging contribute to
greenhouse gas emissions, ammonia feedstock choice is critical for energy
consumption and CO2 emissions in food production. Rice farming emits most
greenhouse gases due to anaerobic conditions and excessive chemical nitrogen
fertilizers (Jiang et al. 2019; Bayer, 2015). Climate change affects rice production
through temperature-induced precipitation changes and increased atmospheric CO2
(Felkner, 2009; Jin, 2015). Agroecosystems store organic carbon from soil, reducing
emissions. The Sustainable Development Goals focus on resilient soil, water, and
climate practices for sustainable food production by 2030 (Mungkung et al. 2019;
IPCC, 2013). Organic rice farming is growing due to lower chemical use hazards,
potentially reducing global warming and ecosystem damage (Rogelj et al. 2016).
China aims to decrease greenhouse gas emissions and boost carbon sequestration by
2060(Zheng et al. 2016). Agroforestry, an alternative to conventional farming, can
reduce fossil fuel emissions by preventing soil erosion, conserving biodiversity,
increasing crop output, and improving soil and water quality (IPCC, 2007; UNEP,
2013; Nair et al. 2009, 2010; Jose et al. 2012).

Agroforestry trees help in soil carbon sequestration, reducing greenhouse gas

emissions (Jose et al. 2012; Hildebrand et al. 2012). This study examines the carbon
profiles of wheat-maize, rice-maize, and rice-crayfish rice production systems using
process-based life cycle assessment (PLCA)(Ercin and Hoekstra. 2012; Lenzen and
Crawford, 2009). Schulz (2010) reported to balance production and sustainability by
evaluating the carbon footprints and economic benefits of these systems (Herttich and
Peters. 2009). The research also explores the impact of cover crops (CCs) and tillage
on greenhouse gas emissions and agricultural yields in Illinois (Lin et al. 2020).
Yearly ryegrass reduces soil nitrogen but yields less, while winter cover crops
improve agricultural sustainability by improving soil functions and controlling
parasites (Behnke et al. 2019). A microcosm experiment found that fungal biomass
increased across all regimens (Drost et al. 2020), but this initially decreased CO2 and
N2O emissions compared to monocultures.

A ten-year study in central Spain found that cover crops and soil fertility management
can reduce global warming potential in irrigated agricultural systems. Cover crops
reduced yield-scaled barley and vetch emissions by 77% and 91%, respectively.
However, certain conditions led to ammonia volatilization and yield variations. The

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study emphasizes the need for further research on cover crop combinations and their
impact on agricultural microbial diversity (Guardia et al.2019).

Muhammad et al. (2019) found that cover crop species, biomass quality, and residue
management affect greenhouse gas emissions. Cover crops help enhance soil health,
carbon sequestration, and environmental quality. Xavier et al. (2020) found that soil
moisture affects 60% of CO2 emission changes. Water constraints and economic
development in Asia have led to hybrid lowland-upland systems, affecting soil
fertility and global warming potential. Yue et al. (2023) studied the environmental
footprints of rice, wheat, and faba bean cropping systems, finding that the CMV-PR
rotation sequesters soil carbon and has the lowest area-scale carbon footprint (Janz et
al.2019).

The study highlights the importance of optimizing nitrogen and water management
strategies and changing rotation systems over time to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and nitrogen losses in eco-friendly agriculture (Zhou et al. 2023; Holka et
al. 2020). Ratoon rice (RR) is an environmentally friendly and economically viable
alternative to double-season rice, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and global
warming. Conventional, reduced, and no-tillage systems affect cereal maize
production in Poland. Sustainable approaches are needed to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions in wheat production on salt-affected arable land in the North China Plain
(Li et al. 2023; Mishra et al. 2021). Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS)
technologies can improve agricultural sustainability by maximizing nutrient
production, minimizing emissions, conserving resources, and improving climate
resilience (Davis et al. 2019; Gonzalez-Diaz et al. 2020). Organic rice production in
Thailand and India has been examined for its environmental benefits and carbon
reduction potential (Arunrat et al. 2021).

Organic farming in Punjab, India, minimizes carbon emissions and avoids chemical
use, with larger rice and wheat farms emitting less CO2. Local government activities
are critical in addressing these concerns (Kim et al. 2016; Abdullahi et al. 2018).
Agroforestry influences greenhouse gas emissions, with carbon sequestration rates
changing over time (Lin et al. 2021). Integrated soil management can improve pepper
yields while lowering carbon and nitrogen footprints (Wang et al. 2020).
Conservation agriculture in South Asian rice-upland cropping systems helps to reduce

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greenhouse gas emissions (Alam et al. 2019). Italian durum wheat emissions are
predominantly from soil, highlighting the importance of soil carbon sequestration
(Moukanni et al. 2022). Co-management approaches and cover crop management
have an impact on soil carbon dynamics and emissions (Baah-Acheamfour et al.
2006). Agroforestry systems that use perennial vegetation help to reduce carbon
emissions (Jansson et al. 2021). Biochar, cover crops, and conservation tillage are
effective at increasing soil organic carbon, particularly in milder climates (Chen et al.
2020; Bai et al. 2019). Climate-smart agriculture practices can improve croplands'
ability to act as carbon sinks while considering local environmental conditions (Zhang
et al. 2017). Plant variety enhances soil organic carbon storage (Bai et al. 2022; Cai et
al. 2018; Luo et al. 2022).

3.5. Explore Crop Diversification Strategies to Reduce Risk and Increase

Resilience

Climate change poses a significant threat to agriculture due to the increased sensitivity
and cost of managing disturbed environments. By 2090-2099, global temperatures
could rise by 1.8-4°C, causing heatwaves, floods, and droughts that lower crop yields
(Lobell et al. 2008; Zhao et al. 2015). Resilience is the ability of social, economic, and
environmental systems to handle and adapt to disasters while maintaining their core
functions (Holling et al.1973). Meuwissen et al. (2019) examine that European
farming systems have three resilience capacities: robustness, adaptability, and
transformability. Agriculture and risk management can improve these capacities by
integrating ecological concepts and agricultural practices. Resilient systems are
dynamic and adaptive, learning from experiences and adjusting as necessary.
Adaptation, stress management, resistant crop selection, crop schedule optimization,
and control of soil, water, nutrients, pests, and disease can strengthen agricultural
production systems (Macholdt et al. 2019a; Olesen et al. 2011; Peltonen-Sainio et al.
2009). Climate adaptation is crucial for managing heat waves and droughts, ensuring
global food security from climate change and population growth(Zampieri et al. 2015,
Toreti et al. 2019; Zampieri, 2018b). Adaptive crops are needed to resist pests and
diseases, adapt to changing environments, and yield more (Soriano et al. 2023).
Sequencing and machine learning are needed to create crops that resist pests and
diseases, adapt to changing environments, and yield more (Saad et al. 2022).
Personalized methods and policy cooperation can strengthen European farming

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systems (FSs) through flexible, coordinated tactics. Crop diversity's climate change
resilience is emerging, as it lowers farm and general economic and production risks
(Peterson et al. 2018; Renard et al. 2019).

Crop rotation has been used for generations to improve soil health and interrupt
herbivore, weed, and disease cycles, increasing yields. Diversified crop rotations may
help drought-resistant productivity, with improved soil properties like water retention
and beneficial bacteria influencing this resilience. However, more research is needed
to assess their wider use and methods. Understanding the larger effects and trade-offs
of crop rotations in agriculture is essential for making informed decisions (Chimonyo,
2019; Ortiz-Bobea, 2018). Climate change poses a threat to rain-dependent Indian
agriculture, which is more susceptible to temperature and rainfall changes(World
Bank, 2013; Birthal et al. 2014). Indian farmers, often smallholders, face risk and
cannot afford expensive preventative measures (Altieri and Nicholls 2017). Crop
diversification is a cost-effective approach to mitigate weather-related production
losses (Labeyrie et al. 2021b). This enhances ecological variety, aiding ecological,
social, and economic recovery (Berkes et al. 2000; Folke, 2004; Reyes-García et
al.2013). Biocultural interactions foster biodiversity and social-ecological resilience.
Climate change also threatens East African rural farmers with shorter wet seasons and
heat stress (Zimmerer et al. 2022). Despite these challenges, farmers have adopted
mixed and intercropping, conservation tillage, early planting, and crop diversification
strategies (Ackerl et al. 2023).The literature analysis explores the resilience and
adaptability of East African rural farmers to climate change challenges. It highlights
the importance of mixed and intercropping, conservation tillage, early planting, and
crop diversification in overcoming these challenges (Thomas et al. 2016). Factors
such as age, gender, family size, economic status, landownership, livestock
ownership, education, and training influence farmers' adaptation tactics (Birthal et al.
2019; Guo et al. 2021). In Senegal, seed transportation plays a crucial role in crop
diversification, but understanding farmer-to-farmer seed circulation networks is
essential for successful agricultural diversification. The study also examines the
vulnerabilities of Indian agriculture to drought, flood, and heat stress (Gatto et al.
2021; Wang et al. 2023). It recommends updating early warning systems and funding
stress-tolerant crop breeding research for cost-effective, scalable, and long-term
climate resilience. The study also examines the impact of climate change on the

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sugarcane sector in subtropical China, the Philippines, and the agricultural system in
water-stressed locations.

Summer soy–maize–wheat and spring mung bean–summer millet multi-rotations may

reduce groundwater use, increase profitability, and couple precipitation. Multi-year
multi-crop rotations may increase crop variety, system outputs, groundwater
depletion, and energy use, according to the study. This finding could assist other
water-stressed agricultural regions build resilient and diversified crop rotations with
many co-benefits. The project also examines the complicated interaction between
biotic and abiotic stresses in plants and genetic engineering options for crop resilience
in difficult agricultural conditions (Cappetta et al. 2020). Zampieri et al. (2020) use
agricultural production time series data to estimate yearly crop production resilience.
The indicator measures ecological resilience and agricultural production system shock
recovery. The study evaluates the indicator's crop management sensitivity, severe
event frequency, and simplified socio-economic effects of production losses. A study
suggests that multi-crop rotations can reduce groundwater use, increase profitability,
and couple precipitation in water-stressed agricultural regions. These rotations can
also increase crop variety, system outputs, groundwater depletion, and energy use
(Cappetta et al. 2020). Genetic engineering options for crop resilience in difficult
agricultural conditions are also explored. Crop diversity up to six crops significantly
boosts resilience, especially with less connected crops (Zampieri et al. 2020; Bunting
et al. 2017). Shrimp-rice agroecosystems can adapt to climate change and enhance
output on salinized soil (Kissoudis et al. 2016). However, legislative backing and
practical actions are needed to realize their benefits (Tekalign et al. 2023). A cross-
sectional study found that adopting improved potato cultivars can increase food
insecurity resistance and food security resilience. Governments, NGOs, and
stakeholders should promote superior potato varieties for smallholder farmers to
improve food security and livelihoods (Liu et al. 2019).

Lentil and wheat stubbles reduced oilseed crop yields by 4% and 5%, but system
production improved across the 2-year cropping sequence. Crop choices affected
production variance 40% more than the weather. Adding lentils and B. juncea to
canola systems can increase output and yield stability in varied environments, helping
to adapt to shifting climates. Zuma et al. (2023) explored climate-mitigating
agronomic farming processes and their consequences on crops, pests, and beneficial

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arthropods. Eco-friendly fertilizers and insecticides require smart, biodegradable, and

biocompatible components. Lamichhane et al. (2020) found resilience in wheat, rice,
and maize in Nepal's Terai area and Hill and Mountain regions, suggesting
smallholder farmers prioritize food subsistence and choose locally-grown crops.
Bowles et al. (2020) evaluated time-varying crop diversification and maize yields in
intensively managed grain farms, emphasizing systems approaches to environmental
sustainability and agricultural resilience. Mäkinen et al. (2015) investigated fodder
crop response diversity to agro-climatic conditions, emphasizing the impact on
productivity and cultivar responses. Huang et al. (2018) found that changing maize
planting dates considerably increased intercropped maize grain production, reducing
yield discrepancies between single maize crops. Sanford et al. (2021) ran a 26-year
experiment to discover variables that improve system stability in North Central US
agriculture systems. These studies provide insights into crop management tactics,
intercropping benefits, and agricultural system resilience in tough climates.

3.6. Modeling for Agricultural Resilience Using Sustainability Paradigms and

Crop Diversification

Science, based on observation, has not fully facilitated understanding of nature.

Physical and digital models have been used to depict real-world objects and
processes, using abstraction to create abstract representations (Box et al. 1979).
Nomothetic research focuses on model creation in plant and soil sciences using policy
research and action research. Advancements in computing, software, and data have
reduced agricultural technological constraints (Jones et al. 2016). International
collaboration and politics have influenced crop and cropping system models. This
work examines science and software models for global change, focusing on gene
banks and breeding for global sustainability through data-driven agricultural
diversification management (Keating et al. 2018).

Advanced machine learning and simulation crop modeling offer new agricultural
prediction opportunities, but their evaluation mainly focuses on specific components
(van Etten et al.2023). Simulation crop models are used to forecast yield, flowering
time, and water stress using pre-trained variables (Archontoulis, 2020; Bogard, 2020).
Machine learning outperforms simulation models in output prediction using a transfer
function, while residual neural network models predict yield and outperform stepwise

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multiple linear regression and projection pursuit regression (Ahmed et al.2016;

Shahhosseini et al. 2019). Mechanistic crop models simulate crop performance for
different inputs, but calibration is necessary to improve simulation output and match
observations (Shahhosseini et al.2021). The APSIM3, EPIC5, SWAP, DSSAT4,
WOFOST, FASSET6, SOYGRO, and crop modeling groups approximate
physiological equations and capture soil properties and cultivar effects.

Artificial Neural Network algorithms have been found to be more effective in

analyzing crop and animal data, particularly in the case of corn, wheat, cattle, and
livestock. Satellites and sensor-equipped unmanned ground and air vehicles provide
reliable data for analysis (Benos et al.2021; Liang et al.2016). A five-module model,
WHCNS, was developed to assess water and nitrogen management in northern China,
improving crop productivity and nitrogen usage efficiency. Sustainable intensification
maximizes crop productivity by optimizing irrigation and fertilizer (Cheng et al.
2023). Bilevel screening and optimization are suggested for accurate farm
administration, with top-level screening determining irrigation and fertilization dates
and lower-level optimization managing problem complexity (RattalinoEdreira et al.
2021). Recent technologies like remote sensing evapotranspiration estimates and
dynamic crop simulation models can improve irrigation management and predict
plant-water interactions. The European project Diver farming adapted the ECOSSE
ecosystem model to study cropping and soil management system diversifications for
sustainable agriculture (Begum et al. 2022).

Ziska et al. (2018) used a growing degree day model to analyze the impact of air
temperature changes on rice growing seasons in the lower Mississippi valley. They
found that ratooning, a method of adjusting rice seasons, depends on various factors
such as heat duress, water availability, and carbon dioxide levels. The study suggests
that more research is needed to develop adaptive techniques and holistically analyze
these variables. Taoumi et al. (2023) evaluated agricultural product sector strategies
and tools for economic, environmental, and social sustainability, emphasizing the
need for a multidisciplinary approach. Viguier et al. (2021) stressed the importance of
personalized approaches when adopting different systems, considering local factors
and adaptive management strategies. Liang et al. (2023) presented a framework for
compromise crop rotations, analyzing eleven sustainability variables in Quzhou,
China.

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Paut et al. (2020) explored the use of compromise rotations in agricultural landscapes,
focusing on economic, nutritional, and environmental concerns. It suggests that
policymakers should create balanced agricultural landscapes that consider these
aspects. International organizations support sustainable farming with low crop
rotations, soil disturbance, and permanent soil cover (Craheix et al. 2016). However,
the efficiency of these systems in France remains unknown. The MASC® model
found synergies between these aspects in 31 cropping systems, improving
sustainability. The study emphasizes the challenge of implementing conservation
agriculture concepts in varied cropping systems and the need for careful analysis and
a balanced strategy (Jiang et al. 2021; da Luz et al. 2019). The Denitrification
Decomposition model accurately predicted maize, oat, and alfalfa yields, nitrogen
uptake, soil characteristics, and N2O emissions. The study also highlights the
importance of bio-inspired optimization methods for land allocation in varied
agriculture (Vasileiadis et al. 2017). The Multi-objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA)
in India optimizes agricultural resource management and promotes crop variety,
achieving 103% increase in revenues, 97% increase in yield, and 5% reduction in
water usage. The research suggests that regional policies and advisory services should
promote integrated IPM techniques that fit regional conditions. Crop rotations impact
soil microbial characteristics and enzyme activity in agroecosystems, with continuous
wheat cultivation boosting carbon and enzyme activity in winter wheat, silage maize,
sugar beet, winter rape, and cereal pea(Hamer et al. 2021). Soil microbial dynamics
are also influenced by crop selection, with winter rape increasing soil microorganisms
during wheat production but decreasing enzyme activity and efficiency.
Understanding plant-microbial interactions improves nutrient consumption and
agroecosystem health and productivity (Angevin et al. 2017). The DEXiPM model,
originally created for arable cropping, has been applied to various agricultural
production systems to evaluate sustainability challenges. It helps stakeholders
communicate, researchers find information gaps, and policymakers design sustainable
policies. Ordikhani et al. (2021) evaluated the energy consumption, environmental
consequences, and cumulative exergy demand of four horticulture growing methods
in Qazvin, Iran, revealing that pistachio releases the most nitrogen. Future studies
should forecast goods and optimize energy use using modeling and fuzzy
optimization.

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Pelzer et al. (2012) used DEXiPM to assess arable cropping system sustainability
through integrated management and reduced pesticide use in France. Chopin et al.
(2015) used MOSAICA to study policy changes' impact on regional agricultural
systems and sustainability. MOSAICA generates cropping system mosaics that
optimize farmer utilities while considering biophysical, social, and policy constraints.
Bergez et al. (2022) developed a comprehensive framework for assessing agricultural
policy's environmental impacts, which included a variety of analytical methodologies
such as Life Cycle Assessment and Ecosystem Services Analysis. Lychuk et al.
(2021) discussed the effects of climate change on nutrient dynamics, emphasizing the
necessity of crop diversity in reducing NO3-N losses and sustaining soil phosphorus
levels. Reckling et al. (2016) proposed expanding and diversifying agricultural
systems in the Indo-Gangetic Plain to improve productivity and sustainability while
catering to both resource-rich and marginal growers. Carpani et al. (2012) used
Sensitivity Analysis to evaluate agricultural system sustainability, whereas Wang et
al. (2023) recommended water-efficient irrigation to combat groundwater depletion in
the North China Plain. Yong et al. (2022) and Reumaux et al. (2023) investigated the
advantages of crop rotation systems and organic farming for boosting sustainable
agriculture. Finally, Wang et al. (2022) used modeling approaches to estimate the
effects of management practices on crop productivity and greenhouse gas emissions,
offering ways to improve agricultural output and sustainability.
3.7. Biodiversity and Crop Diversification Promote Natural Pest Control

Worldwide agricultural yields depend on insect protection for wheat, rice, maize,
barley, potato, soybean, sugar beet, and cotton. Breeding, varietal selection, crop
rotation, soil management, biological control, and chemical pesticides are modern
methods (Oerke et al. 2006). The growing insect problem, limited pesticide use, and
need for sustainable agriculture have generated interest in biological control, which
uses live creatures as natural enemies to manage pests. This technique reduces pest
populations and improves agricultural outcomes by mitigating pests' direct and
indirect harmful effects (van Lenteren et al. 2018; Baker et al. 2020). Pest
management uses conservation biological control and habitat manipulation to protect
natural enemies. However, an official study is restricted globally. Native plant species
are ideal for conservation biological management because of their agronomic and
conservation benefits (Heimpel et al. 2017). Conservation agriculture (CA) has many

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benefits but makes weed control difficult. It bans pre-sowing tillage and in-crop
mechanical weeding because living or dead mulch can affect the weed community
and weeding tactics. CA systems use herbicides like glyphosate to control weeds and
kill cover crops (Derrouch et al. 2020). Cover crops can be eliminated non-
chemically, however resistant weed biotypes can evolve. CA encourages crop
rotations and cover crops to provide ecosystem services, but knowing how these
methods affect weeds in no-till systems is essential for sustainable and
environmentally friendly weed management.

Traditional intercropping enhances crop diversification and decreases disease and

insect populations (Ding et al. 2015). Intercropping, which plants multiple crops in
one field, prevents disease outbreaks and pests in agriculture. (Li et al. 2009). Crop
diversity-intercropping, relay cropping, and crop rotation can reduce disease and pest
problems caused by monoculture farming. Diversification helps agricultural
ecosystem disease and pest management, according to research. Advances in crop
interactions and microtopographic variation boost phytobiomes disease and pest
control (He et al. 2019). However, Meena et al. (2023) investigate how deep learning
detects agricultural weeds, diseases, and pests. Multiple deep convolutional neural
network designs were tested on plant disease pairs, pests, and weed photos. The fine-
tuned InceptionV3 model outperformed Mobilenet, DenseNet, Hyperparameter
Search, and VGG16 with 87.85% accuracy. This study shows how deep learning can
identify agricultural photos for weed, plant disease, and pest identification. Broad et
al. (2009) compares a broccoli and cereal rye cover crop system to standard
approaches and find fewer leaves, smaller plants, and lower yield. It needs a 2.2%
yield rise or 7% price premium to compete economically. Agatz et al.'s COMPASS
idea combines ecology, agricultural physiology, and chemical dispersion.
Intercropping cotton with other crops boosts productivity and profits without
sacrificing quality. It alters ecological conditions to increase natural enemies,
lowering pests and diseases. Cotton intercropping optimizes land usage and reduces
competition. However, improper procedures can increase labor and compromise pest
control (Chi et al. 2021).

Bowers et al. (2020) study how ecological farming improves agricultural

sustainability and economic stability. Habitat management reduces pests and
agricultural damage by supporting natural enemies. Rye and red clover boost habitat

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and support enemy communities in winter. Growing cotton using cover crops reduces
insecticide inputs and makes it profitable. Furthermore, Smagghe et al. (2023) explore
Global population, decreasing arable land, and worries about synthetic pesticides are
encouraging the adoption of environmentally friendly agricultural pesticides,
improving production and quality. Restoring plant diversity in agricultural landscapes
improves biological pest management and reduces insecticide use, according to
Jaworski et al. (2023). Crop variety increases natural pest populations and reduces
pest densities without diminishing cultivated areas. However, Li et al. (2019)
observed that duck-mixed and rice cultivar-monocropping reduced species richness,
diversity, and rice leaf roller pest abundance. This suggests that biodiversity-based
farming is healthier, safer, and produces higher-quality rice and duck meat while
encouraging ecological sustainability and weed and pest management. IPM strategies
use cultural control methods like trap cropping to suppress pest populations (Cotes et
al. 2018). To divert insects away from the main crop, use appealing host plants. A trap
crop for the carrot psyllid Triozaapicalis Förster targets appealing cultivars. On
mature carrots, female T. apicalis laid the most eggs. Sweden tested Bolero to
concentrate egg laying at field boundaries. Trap cropping effectiveness and ideal
spatial layout need further testing. Boinot et al. (2019) found that 55% of invertebrate
taxonomic groupings and sensitive carabids live in UVS, underlining the need for
agroforestry systems to conserve biodiversity and control pests.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) by Lechenet et al. (2017) reduces pest populations
and pesticide use by combining pest management methods. To evaluate IPM
interactions and sustainability, a European cropping system experiment network was
created. Different CS designs, procedures, and concepts affected experimental
techniques. Factorial and systemic techniques measure IPM component impacts and
assess CS consistency and performance, therefore distinguishing them is critical.
Ghosh et al. (2023) examine how agricultural intensification affects pest-regulating
frog populations. High and low frog density did not alter insect populations. Although
frogs prefer arthropod prey, low density limited their natural adversaries. Frogs used
bugs as prey due of intraspecific competition caused by high density. This shows the
intricate relationship between biodiversity loss and ecosystem services in multitrophic
systems.

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Colbach et al. (2010) found that crop pest control is difficult and that models help
understand pest dynamics. Two main methods are mechanistic and empirical.
Cropping system interactions and environmental factors are studied using mechanistic
and empirical models. Model objectives, scales, pest species, scientific fields, and
expertise determine the decision. Pest dynamics are best captured by combining both.
Furthermore, Furlan et al. (2021) examined how no-till agriculture affected wireworm
numbers and crop damage in northeastern Italy. Wireworm populations and damage
were similar in no-till and conventional tillage. Agriotes sordidus dominated captures
with approximately 90%. However, this dominant species responded similarly to both
tillage techniques. The data imply that no-till farming may not increase wireworm
damage, enabling sustainable farming. Otieno et al. (2020) developed that Land-use
changes can disrupt these beneficial creatures, emphasizing the necessity for habitat
conservation and sustainable farming. Integrated pest management and pollinator-
friendly methods can boost bean crop yields and food security. However, Perdikis et
al. (2011) developed a Conservation biological control that preserves agricultural
natural enemies to control crop pests. Protecting omnivorous heteropteran predators,
and crop enemies, is required. The focus is on non-crop host plants that sustain
predators and attract them to surrounding crops. Moreover, Skendžić et al. (2021)
Crop yields, food security, and economic losses depend on adaptive pest management
measures such as modified IPM, climate and pest monitoring, and prediction models.
Synthetic crop pesticides create health, environmental, and pesticide-resistant disease
issues (Lengai et al. 2020). Thus, botanical pesticides are popular because of their
efficacy, cost-effectiveness, biodegradability, and low non-target toxicity. The lack of
chemical data and positive controls makes manufacturing and commercialization of
botanical insecticides difficult. This review covers botanical pesticides, their efficacy
against insect pests, and their involvement in integrated pest control.

Sustainable food production relies on Pickett et al. (2014) push-pull system, a

stimulo-deterrent diversionary farming concept. This sub-Saharan African method
uses companion plants to emit semi-chemicals to control lepidopterous stem borers in
smallholder cereal production. New semi-chemical methods and delivery
mechanisms, including genetic alteration, are being added to boost effectiveness. This
technology overcomes compound volatility and instability to manufacture compounds
when needed, making it a promising pest management strategy. Almoussawi et al.

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(2020) studied how winter cover crops and reduced soil tillage affected weed species
recruitment and sunflower yields. Analysis of species richness, abundance, and
sunflower yield employed generalized linear models. Results indicated that reduced
tillage can improve weed species richness and annual species abundance. Winter
cover crop combinations lowered Echinochloa crus-galli and increased sunflower
seed output. Camelina sativa preferred beneficial weeds.

It was found that direct seeding with winter cover crops can reduce weeds and boost
cash-crop yields, supporting sustainable agriculture. Further research is needed to
confirm these results long-term durability and application to various crops and soil
and climate conditions. Alonso-Ayuso et al. (2020) optimized winter cover crop
termination for crop productivity to promote agroecosystem sustainability. It studied
barley/vetch CC and irrigated corn in Central Spain during three years. Comparing
three CC termination strategies, roller-crimper alone outperformed residue
incorporation in weed control and productivity. The roller-crimper conserved spring
soil water, lowered corn growing temperature, and saved energy. The roller-crimper
improved Mediterranean environmental sustainability despite economic hazards. The
study emphasizes the roller-crimper's promise as a sustainable agricultural technology
and advocates for more research to maximize tactics and termination effectiveness,
especially in Mediterranean regions. Busch et al. (2020) research Caterpillars reduced
HiDiv-IPM maize establishment by 10% in a no-till trial, but yields remained equal,
suggesting factors other than pest management, such as predation or soil conditions,
influenced to productivity. The study shows that high-diversity IPM can compete with
low-diversity preemptive pest treatment. This study suggests a paradigm change
toward more environmentally friendly insect management in maize production
systems to improve environmental and economic health. Guo et al. (2020) studied
how nitrogen and cropping patterns affect faba bean chocolate spot disease.

Disease incidence and severity rose with nitrogen application in both cropping
systems, with higher amounts having the most influence. Cross-cropping with wheat
improved canopy conditions and reduced disease severity. Intermediate nitrogen (90
kg N ha-1) controlled illness best. Over monocropping, faba bean-wheat intercropping
yielded 21.6%–46.7% more and had a land equivalent ratio (LER) of 1.28–1.42. This
study shows how intercropping and adequate nitrogen levels can manage chocolate
spot disease and boost faba bean output, promoting sustainable agriculture and food

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security. However, Ju et al. (2019) investigate strip intercropping in organic peanut

cultivation to increase crop biodiversity and reduce insect damage. Over 90% of
predators preferred maize and ladybeetle density was associated to peanut aphid
density. Gut-content analysis showed that maize ladybeetles suppressed peanut
aphids, increasing peanut yields in intercropping systems over monocultures. This
study shows that strip intercropping can improve biological management and insect
control in organic peanut production. Mayerová et al. (2018) observed that synthetic
auxins did not affect yield losses compared to tailored herbicide combinations.
Treating plots increased yields, especially at productive spots. The mean treatment
effect rose from 4.9% in 1972-1985 to 76.9% in 2006-2016. Herbicide treatments
boosted crop yields by 13% to 50%, demonstrating the value of integrated weed
management. Żelazny et al. (2018) investigated several orchard floor management
options for apple trees, including living and synthetic mulch. Living mulches
increased soil porosity, humus, and pH. Due to water competition, they reduced yield
significantly. The study also suggested stronger strategies to control understory
vegetation and rootstocks with improved competition resilience to reduce production
losses. Synthetic mulch had benefits but affected leaf nutrition ratios. The study
emphasizes context-specific techniques for sustainable orchard management and a
multidisciplinary approach to transition to sustainable practices.

Uchino et al. (2016) investigate using feed soybean and living mulch (LM) systems to
control weeds without herbicides. Eight soybean varieties were tested for LM systems
using Italian ryegrass. Intercropping white clover with organic soft winter wheat may
boost yield and quality while addressing nitrogen deficit and weeds (Vrignon-Brenas
et al. 2018). In organic settings, simultaneous and relay intercropping were tested.
Results revealed simultaneous intercropping increased white clover shoot dry matter
and nitrogen buildup. Wheat grain yield was maintained, however protein content
decreased. Both intercropping methods suppressed weed shoot dry matter. These data
imply that intercropping with white clover may increase nitrogen availability and
reduce weeds while maintaining wheat production and quality. Cover crops can
improve sustainability by eliminating synthetic inputs and tillage while maintaining or
increasing yields in Swiss agricultural systems. The study found that hairy vetch
increased nitrogen uptake the most of the four maize cover crops (Wittwer et al.
2020). For delayed nitrogen availability in reduced and no-tillage systems, legume

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cover crops improved nitrogen uptake and crop development later in the season. The
research shows that cover crops can be used in cropping systems for profitable,
resource-efficient, and ecologically friendly agriculture.

The study on living mulches highlighted their impact on soil qualities such as
porosity, humus, and pH, while also indicating a considerable yield drop due to water
competition. Strategies for controlling understory vegetation and rootstocks with
better competition resilience were proposed to reduce output losses. Despite its
benefits, synthetic mulch had an impact on leaf nutrient ratios, emphasizing the
importance of context-specific strategies in sustainable orchard management. Uchino
et al. (2016) investigated the use of feed soybean and live mulch systems to manage
weeds without herbicides. Vrignon-Brenas et al. (2018) explored how intercropping
white clover with organic soft winter wheat improved yield, quality, and nitrogen
management while reducing weeds. Wittwer et al. (2020) discovered that cover crops,
particularly hairy vetch, might increase nitrogen uptake and help to sustainable
agriculture by lowering synthetic inputs and tillage.

3.8. Promoting Resource Efficiency through Crop Diversification for Sustainable

Agriculture

Climate change necessitates conservation management to enhance water usage

efficiency, soil storage capacity, and runoff and drainage in agricultural systems
(White et al. 2011). This is crucial for food security and climate resilience by
promoting sustainable farming (Kaspar and Singer, 2011). System Water Use
Efficiency measures water loss variables, yield production, and environmental quality,
addressing factors like carbon dioxide concentration, temperature, and rainfall
(Dietzel et al. 2016). Eastern India uses energy audits to improve natural resource
management, tillage, and soil health through Conservation Agriculture (CA). Energy
efficiency and sustainable tillage methods can minimize fossil fuel use and contribute
to a sustainable future (Mo et al. 2009). Diversification, reduced tillage, and residue
retention are suggested solutions. A Quzhou County, China study supports a
sustainability and efficiency trend in Chinese agriculture, focusing on a double wheat-
maize rotation system to balance crop productivity and reduce environmental
consequences (Kumar et al., 2020; Yadav, 2020). Drip irrigation, an alternative to
surface flood irrigation, enhances water and fertilizer use efficiency, improving crop

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quality and output in water-scarce India (Jat et al. 2019; Soni et al. 2018). Sub-surface
drip irrigation (SSDI) has higher water efficiency and precision than surface flood
irrigation, reducing nitrogen leaching, volatilization losses, and fertilizer use
efficiency, and increasing crop yields (Rana et al. 2019; Yadav, 2018).

A study in Quzhou County, China, explores a double wheat-maize rotation system to

balance crop productivity and reduce environmental consequences (Wang et al. 2014).
This approach improves agricultural sustainability by increasing grain yields, nutrient
usage efficiency, soil quality, and resource and environment management (Shen et
al.2013). It also promotes food security and sustainable farming by combining
productivity and sustainability. In India, drip irrigation enhances water and fertilizer
use efficiency, improving crop quality and output (Wang et al. 2013a; Chen et al.
2015; Kaur and Brar, 2016). Sub-surface drip irrigation (SSDI) has higher water
efficiency and precision than surface flood irrigation, reducing nitrogen leaching and
volatilization losses (Wang et al. 2022). Innovation and efficiency in agriculture are
essential to boost productivity and reduce environmental damage. The Delta region's
"three minus three" green fertilizer technology can boost yields and sustain Malaysian
paddy output (Adnan et al. 2020; Yao et al. 2018; Sun et al. 2018). Methyl 3-(4-
hydroxyphenyl) propionate root zone fertilization reduces ammonia volatilization and
boosts rice output (Vjekoslav et al.2011; Singandhupe et al. 2003; Raina et al. 2013).
In China, optimizing nitrogen fertilizer management in rice farming boosts
productivity and reduces environmental impact. Gong et al. (2020) explore how Proso
millet and mung bean intercropping boost crop output. The study recommends a
2P4M layout for best land-use efficiency in Northwest China's arid regions,
emphasizing plant height and shading. Ratoon rice (RR) is a potential cropping
system that can increase rice production and resource utilization(Ling et al. 2019).

Martins et al. (2014) found that moderate grazing in integrated crop-livestock systems
in southern Brazil enhances soil health while leaving potassium utilization efficiency
unaltered. Sujatha et al. (2015) investigated the profitability and sustainability of
merging agriculture and animal systems in arecanut plantations, finding constant
yields but lower intercropped yields than single crops. Rathore et al. (2022) called for
deep tillage and farmyard manure to increase productivity and resource efficiency,
especially in water-scarce areas. Biswas et al. (2006) discovered that higher cropping
intensity led to increased production and energy efficiency in the Indo-Gangetic Plain.

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Li, et al. (2022) suggested a cooperative optimization model for sustainable

agriculture in Heilongjiang Province. Khatri-Chhetri et al. (2023) emphasized crop
production efficiency to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Karunaratne et al. (2015)
presented CropBASE, a digital platform for underutilized crop decision-making.
Hayatu et al. (2022) proved that organic manure substitution improves rice
productivity and carbon sequestration. Li et al. (2021) emphasized cover crops'
importance in minimizing climatic consequences. Kumar et al. (2021) proposed
partially mechanized tillage for rice-based systems in Eastern India. Yu et al. (2021)
investigated the benefits of ratoon farming. Liang et al. (2020) talked about the CMBI
system for agricultural sustainability. Peramaiyan et al. (2023) found favorable
locations for pulse and oilseed farming in Odisha, India, and enhanced nitrogen cycle
efficiency in African crop-livestock systems (Rufino et al., 2006). Jat et al. (2020)
focused on enhanced manure management for nitrogen cycling in resource-poor
agricultural systems. Riccetto et al. (2020) compared conservation and conventional
tillage systems, suggesting organic mulch as an efficient alternative. Feng et al. (2020)
observed input-output disparities in high-yield fields in China's High-Fertility
Farming Region. Wang et al. (2014) and Zhu et al. (2000) highlighted factors
influencing nitrogen usage efficiency (NUE).
Smart irrigation solutions, such as subsurface drip irrigation, offer dynamic
scheduling potential for maize crops, considering environmental and economic
constraints (Shi et al.2021; Dhayal et al. 2023). Andrade et al. (2015) demonstrated
that double-cropping soybean systems enhance farmland productivity through
efficient resource utilization, while single-crop maize systems are more resource-
efficient. Williams et al. (2020) suggested specific crop adoption under low
precipitation conditions to increase productivity and water conservation. Harbo et al.
(2022) observed sustained crop yield growth in organic arable farming, noting
differences in light interception and biomass between organic and conventional
legume-based systems. Zhong et al. (2021) found that machine-transplanted rice with
side-deep fertilization reduces NH3 loss and improves nitrogen use efficiency in
double-cropping rice fields in Southern China. Chen et al. (2021) demonstrated the
benefits of rational nitrogen application with higher planting density (RNHD) on rice
yield and nitrogen utilization efficiency in double-rice cropping systems. Deng et al.
(2020) highlighted the advantages of replacing fallow periods with fodder crops in

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China's Loess Plateau, improving precipitation and water use efficiency for crude
protein yield while maintaining economic net income.

3.9. Optimizing Water Resources through Strategic Crop Diversification for

Sustainable Agriculture

Water is essential for life and ecological equilibrium, yet demand exceeds supply,
causing water shortages. China's Loess Plateau has 12.2% cultivated land and 1.8%
resources. Arid regions' rapid economic and population growth has aggravated water
scarcity, especially in China's northwest. Improved management of freshwater
resources, especially for agricultural irrigation, is needed (Li et al.2016a; Ren et al.
2019c). The UN's sustainability development goals are threatened by land
degradation, urbanization, salt, droughts, and floods, which reduce worldwide arable
land. Climate change makes it worse. To adapt to climate change, employ all water
resources, conventional and non-conventional, to reduce droughts (Setter and Waters,
2003). Additionally, Salinity degrades land, disrupts ecosystems, and lowers
agricultural productivity worldwide. It is worse in dry, semiarid, and coastal places
where high saline levels influence a lot of land (Hussain et al. 2015; Pitman and
Läuchli, 2002). Researchers are studying ways to feed 9 billion people by 2050,
including diversifying crop kinds, harnessing unconventional water, and restoring
marginal regions. Climate-smart agriculture, agroecology, and crop management can
make these places productive and profitable. Crop diversification systems with
drought- and salt-tolerant cultivars will be vital to agricultural and economic progress.
Hussain et al. (2020) Two models optimized irrigation water allocation and multi-crop
planning. The discrete cropping area variables in the mixed-integer linear model
affected reservoir operation and area allocation.

An integrated optimization strategy using two-stage stochastic programming and

inexact quadratic programming improved irrigation water consumption efficiency.
This method can improve water resource management, boost economic growth, and
reduce system failure risk (Noory et al. 2012; Huang, 2012; Maroufpoor et al. 2021).
The methodology offers 400 management options to reduce water footprints and
agricultural area, allowing arid and semi-arid decision-makers to promote food
security. But Emami et al. (2018) developed Iran’sZarrine River Basin used a
sequential hydro-economic model to optimize agricultural water use due to climate

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change and unsustainable demands. The model models crop yields, surface and
groundwater resources, and climate. Distributing water resources with MODSIM
improves agro-economic water productivity, net economic benefit, and irrigation
water needs. Helal et al. (2021) offers Agricultural Drainage Water Reuse (ADWR) to
solve Egypt's water scarcity, but it requires careful management and a statistically
based quality control approach for assessment and correction. In a 9-year field
experiment in northern Germany, Huynh et al. (2019) showed that tillage, irrigation,
and crop rotation explained 35% of maize biomass yield variance. Irrigation increased
output immediately, especially in dry sandy soil. Legumes boost soil nitrogen and
carbon, which sustains production improvements after repeated rotations. Tillage
benefits take years to appear. Rotation, tillage, and irrigation interacted most during
exceptionally dry years. In dry regions, irrigation and crop rotation boost yields, but
the study underscores the need for a longer-term view. Da Silva et al. (2021) examines
ecological intensification of cropping systems, incorporating consorted perennial
grasses and crop rotation, to improve soil coverage, reduce water erosion, and reduce
soil, water, and nutrient losses.

Even with no-till, soybean monoculture wastes and reduces yields. Ecological
intensification improves soil quality, conserves resources, boosts yields, and is
environmentally and agronomically beneficial. This strategy solves acute water
constraint and soil degradation and provides a sustainable path for Brazilian Cerrado
agricultural practices, ensuring food security and ecosystem health. Compared to
surface flood (SF) irrigation, Singh et al. (2022) found that subsurface drip fertigation
(SSDF) saves 32% and 37% of water for cotton and wheat crops. Improved input
utilization efficiency through irrigation and fertilization led to these savings. The
study stresses the need of distinguishing green, blue, and grey water components in
total water footprint assessment. SSDF at 80% ETc and 100% nitrogen dosage
reduces WF without affecting yields. Advanced irrigation methods like SSDF are
needed to solve water constraint and improve agricultural sustainability in semi-arid
regions. In the North China Plain wheat-maize double cropping system, Zhang et al.
(2022) found that irrigation management greatly affects wheat yields while tillage
strategies predominantly affect energy use and productivity. Research finds ideal
combinations like W3PT for high returns and net income. In the context of carbon
peaking and neutrality, the findings offer practical advice for cleaner production and

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sustainable development. Long-term agricultural sustainability requires integrated

approaches, according to study. Han et al. (2023) also performed systematic analysis
to China's Loess Plateau during 2014-2018 to measure economic input, agricultural
production, and environmental impact in dry farming environments. It emphasizes
unsustainable farming practices in counties and opportunities for sustainable crop
production. Maize and sorghum are environmentally sustainable and productive
crops, while counties with high grey-water footprints and soil erosion are less
sustainable. Crop switching can improve crop output, sustainability, and the
environment. This technique helps ecologically sensitive dryland regions balance
agricultural productivity and environmental stewardship and address food security
challenges.

3.9.1. Crop Diversification Practices for Enhancing Soil Health and Ensuring
Sustainability

The worldwide agricultural sector is struggling with deforestation, pesticide use, and
biodiversity loss due to rising food demand and wealth. Food production may double
by 2050 and 840 million people may go hungry by 2030 (FAO, 2021). Agronomic
degradation makes many agricultural lands unsuitable for farming. Sustainable
farming, soil conservation, land management, resilient crop research, food waste
reduction, and fair food distribution are needed to address these issues (Food Security
Information Network, 2017). Due to population growth and changing lifestyles, soil is
under unprecedented pressure for agriculture, food, fiber, energy, and infrastructure.
Food output must increase 70% between 2005 and 2050 to feed 9.8 billion people.
Pressure is degrading soils, endangering their ability to support agriculture and deliver
important services. For sustainable agriculture and the environment, this issue must be
addressed (Livi Bacci et al. 2017; UN, 2017; ELD, 2015). Plants, animals, and
humans depend on soil health as an ecosystem. It links agricultural sciences, policy,
stakeholder requirements, and sustainable supply-chain management. To measure soil
health, use chemical markers (Lehmann et al. 2020). Due to intensive management,
poor conservation, and climate change, soil fertility decreases, degrading fields (Giller
et al. 2021). Intensive annual crop production degrades soil through plowing, lack of
year-round plant cover, shallow roots systems, restricted crop diversity, and uneven
nutrient management. Climate change accelerates soil degradation, especially in

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flood- and drought-prone areas. Topsoil loss can reach 1% per year due to
overgrazing, tillage, and extreme weather (IPCC, 2019; Montgomery et al. 2007).

Long-term agricultural land sustainability requires soil health. Agroecosystems

depend on soil health for biodiversity, nutrient and water cycling, disease control, and
pollution abatement. These functions are measured by biological, physical, and
chemical indicators of soil health. These indicators should directly connect to soil
function, be simply interpretable, and adapt dynamically to management techniques.
Keeping soil healthy is essential for agricultural productivity and ecological integrity
(Doran et al. 2002; Wander, 2019; Stewart, 2018). The soil microbiome responds
effectively to management approaches and predicts soil conditions, making it an
important tool for soil health monitoring. However, soil microbial ecology and roles
are poorly understood. Bridging this knowledge gap will improve soil health
monitoring and microbiome data use (Gibbons et al. 2016; Trivedi, 2016; Rieke,
2022). Figure 3.4. shows that crop diversity improved soil microbial community,
nutrient cycling, soil health, and sustainability.

Sustainable cropping systems can optimize crop yields and soil multifunctionality,
promoting biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Soil microbial diversity, a
significant part of Earth's biodiversity, plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, carbon
storage, and structure development. However, it's unclear if increasing microbial
diversity can enhance crop yields (Delgado-Baquerizo et al. 2016; Tautges et al. 2016;
Degani et al.2019).

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Figure 3.4. Crop diversification enhances soil microbial populations and interactions, improving
organic matter breakdown, nutrient cycling, fertility, and soil structure for sustainability.

Promoting microbial diversity involves modifying plant communities, increasing

taxonomic and functional diversity in natural ecosystems and cropping systems. This
can enhance plant yield, but most studies compare cover crops versus bare soils or
diverse crop rotations (Kim et al. 2020; Bardgett et al. 2010; Vukicevich et al. 2016;
Bacq-Labreuil et al. 2019). However, Crop diversification strategies such as crop
rotation, cover cropping, agroforestry, intercropping, and utilizing climate-resistant
cultivars, as shown in Table 3.2. provide critical benefits for responding to changing
climate conditions.

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Table 3.2. Crop diversification practices and their associated specific benefits in changing climate conditions.

Sl. Crop diversification Crop diversification practices and associated specific benefits Location Reference
No. practices Environmental protection Climate change mitigation and Sustainable production
adaptation
1 Almond (Prunus Almond intercropping system Combined effect of crop Increased the soil water retention Murcia, Almagro et al.
dulcis Mill)+ combat soil erosion and diversification practices with no capacity, soil organic carbon, improved Spain 2023
Capparis spinosa L degradation as well as potential tillage enhanced the soil quality the soil physicochemical properties and
cropping system practice for land management without hampering the food security agroecosystem productivity in semi-
under semi-arid region arid region
2 Corn- millet- wheat Corn based crop rotation increased Increasing the crop rotational Microbial community stabilize the Canada Mooshammer
/Corn- pea- wheat- the below ground microbial diversity that enhanced the SOC, improved the soil quality and et al. 2022
Soybean cropping community that enhanced soil enzymatic activity for degradation function, enhanced the corn
system health of soil organic matter productivity in adverse condition
3 Cash crop based Crop diversification practices Diversified cropping system Improved the economic performance South- Alletto et
cropping system reduced the pesticide use 20-60% reduced the mean energy and overall environmental Western al.2022
and control the high level of pest consumption, greenhouse gas sustainability of diversified cropping France
and weed pressure emission, irrigation water system as compared to monocropping
consumption up to 30 %, 36% and system
43 % respectively
4 Alley cropping Increased the biodiversity and Increased the former revenue while Increased the soil organic matter, Murcia, Sánchez-
Mandarin+ Barley / resilience of agroecosystem in increasing the land productivity as carbon storage, soil fertility, water Spain Navarro et
Fava bean Mediterranean region well as decreasing the greenhouse retention capacity and overall al.2023
gas emission biodiversity
5 Corn-soybean-winter Vital strategies for land Diversified crop rotation practices Increased the soil organic carbon, total Canada Chahal et al.
wheat cropping management and regulating the decrease the inorganic fertilizer nitrogen, crop productivity up to 32%, 2021
system carbon and nitrogen dynamics in input and overall enhancing the 16% respectively to developing
temperate-climate agroecosystem sustainability resilience agriculture system in cold
region.
6 Maize–black gram– Protection and restoration of Minimum soil disturbance and Diversified cropping system combined India Babu et al.
toria, Maize–black ecosystem services as well as residues retention cover enhanced with conservative tillage practices 2023
gram–buckwheat combating the desertification and the carbon sequestration and soil enhanced the soil carbon dynamics,

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arresting the biodiversity loss. functionality crop productivity in hilly ecosystem.

7 Rice–wheat– Diversified rice based cropping Combined with reduced tillage Enhanced the soil microbial activity, India Kar et al. 2021
greengram, system enhanced the nutrient practices increased the recovery system productivity, nutrient uptake,
Rice–Lathyrus– uptake, reduced the N2O emission, efficiency of nutrient as well as and reduced the greenhouse gas
greengram cropping as well as improve the soil sustainability for food production in emission in rice-based agroecosystem.
system physical properties alluvial soil of eastern India
8 Mung bean–summer Multi-crop rotation practices Enhanced the ground water table Decreased evapotranspiration rate, China Wang et al.
millets pring potato– increased the water use efficiency level and balance the water security Greenhouse gas emission and increased 2023
summer millet and show the resilience against and food production in semi-arid the economic benefits in water stress
abiotic stresses region agricultural region
9 Maize–wheat– Long term impact of diversified Help in management and Enhanced the soil microbial function India Borase et al.
chickpea cropping system plays vital role in monitoring on ecological function and soil enzymatic activity, SOC, 2020
Pigeonpea–wheat nutrient management, and as well as supporting the biological nutrient transformation and nutrient
Maize–wheat– sustainable strategies to ensure the assessments of soil health and availability, resource use efficiency to
mungbean soil fertility ecosystem function plant
10 Rice-wheat– Diversified cropping system is the Long term pulse based diversified Increased the water holding capacity, India Nath et al.2023
mungbea sustainable soil management cropping system with integrated soil organic carbon, alkaline
Rice–wheat–rice– strategies for restoration of nutrient management practices phosphatase, β-glucosidase up to 20-
chickpea degraded cultivated soil enhanced the 5 to 8 % soil quality 48%, 13- 19.6 Mg C ha-1, 50% and
Rice–chickpea index 60% respectively
11 Rice-wheat- Enhanced the soil aggregation, Zero tillage and residues Long term conservation agriculture India Jat et al. 2019
mungbean system reduced the soil erosion as well as management with diversified practices increased the soil organic
maize-wheat- improved the soil habitat and soil cropping system show the vital carbon, soil aggregation capacity,
mungbean system physicochemical properties impact on soil quality system productivity 14% and over all
enhanced the soil functional activity
12 Corn + Soybeans + Crop rotation practices improved Diversified cropping system Addition of organic matter, increased South Wang et
Small grains the soil retention, nutrient cycling, improved the agricultural the soil microbial community, soil Dakota, al.2021
Corn + Soybeans + water provision, pest control as productivity and reduced the organic C and N pools that play USA
Alfalfa/clover well as reduced the top soil inorganic fertilizer and pesticides significant role in soil fertility
erosion consumptions improvement
13 Maize–wheat– Retention of corban in arable soil Legume based crop rotation Increased resource use efficiency, soil Indo- Hazra et al.
mungbean enhanced the active and passive enhanced the aggregate carbon, soil aggregation, soil carbon sequestration, Gangetic 2019

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Maize–wheat– carbon pool that promotes the organic carbon stability and reduce organic matter decomposition that Plain. India
maize–chickpea carbon sequestration the synthetic fertilizer pressure maintain the sustainability of agro-
ecosystem
14 Tomato- corn- Tomato based diversified cropping Crop rotation with reduced tillage Regulating the microbial activity and Turkey Kayikcioglu et
mustard system is ecofriendly approach to increased the natural resource enhancing the basal soil respiration, al. 2020
Tomato-corn-wheat- manage the soil erosion, utilization and pest and disease soil enzymatic activity that increased
mustard desertification, of Western Turkey control the fertility of soil
15 Rice–chickpea Reduced the soil erosion and Long term practices of zero tillage Improved the soil aggregation and soil India Kumar et al.
Rice–chickpea– increased agriculture importance and crop residues management organic carbon retention, 2019
mung bean microbial community that enhanced the soil aggregation, macroaggregate formation, carbon
Optimized the ecosystem carbon pool, carbon sequestration as density in aggregate in subtropical
functioning compare to conventional cropping humid climate
system.
16 Groundnut– pea Ecofriendly and sustainable Adaptation of ground-based Increased energy use efficiency, energy Manipur – Ansari et al.
Maize – toria production technology for cropping system reduced the productivity, carbon use efficiency, India 2021
Groundnut–lentil Restoration of soil, enhancing fertilizer, pesticides, and other on enzymatic activity 27%, soil quality
resource use efficiency, reduced renewable energy input, and show index up to 36% and reduced 25 % of
the carbon emission in eastern the farming resilience by stabilizing cost production
Himalaya region of India the farmer income.
17 Pea + oat + canola Adaptation of cover cropping vital Enhanced the AMF colonization, High biomass cover crop increased the USA Thapa et al.
Pea + oat + canola + for soil health assessment and residues decomposition, nutrients microbial proliferation, arbuscular 2021
hairy vetch improved the soil aggregation and mineralization that regulate the C mycorrhizal fungi, soil enzymatic
soil water storage capacity in and N nutrient cycling activity, ultimately improve the soil
semi-arid region fertility in semi-arid cropping system
18 Maize cow pea Resorted the soil structural Adaptation of suitable fertilization Enhanced the carbon sequestration Pakistan Roohi et al.
intercropping stability in degraded soil through regime with diversified cropping (0.17 Mg C/ha yr− 1) and increased the 2022
adaptation of suitable land system enhanced the biomass yield, mineral associated and particulate
management practices in low grain yield, as compared to mono associated organic carbon, water stable
fertility soil cropping system aggregate in degraded soil
19 Maize-lentil Application of cover crop and Conservation agriculture based on Effective practices for enhancing the Tripura, Yadav et al.
Maize-mustard mulching enhance the microbial no tillage, reduced tillage enhanced field productivity and increasing the India 2021
activity, moderate the soil the soil fertility, improved maize soil organic carbon, water holding

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temperature, reducing the soil productivity under changing capacity, carbon management index
moisture loss climatic condition that improved the soil health
20 Barley-Clover – Crop diversification practices Adoption of conservation Increased the aggregate stability, water United Larkin et
Potato increase the resistance and agriculture practices reduced the availability, microbial biomass carbon, States al.2021
Barley- Timothy - resilience of soil, minimizing pest and pathogen population, total carbon and nitrogen, reduced the
Potato disturbance, maintaining living disease suppression, increased the bulk density and maintain overall soil
plant and regulating multiple agricultural productivity and physical chemical and biological
ecosystem services mitigate the environmental stress properties
21 Avena sativa and Increased the reservoir of Application of reduced tillage and Increased microbial biomass, change Murcia, Özbolat et al.
Vicia sativa biodiversity, biomass production, green manure is the sustainable soil the microbial community structure and Spain 2023
reduced the soil erosion and management practices for enhancing the soil enzymatic activity,
enhanced the multiple ecosystem improving the soil physicochemical dynamics of soil organic carbon and
services properties nitrogen pool
22 coriander-cucumber Crop rotation practices balancing Plastic greenhouse vegetable Adoption of cropping system change China Ali etal. 2021
leafy lettuce- the soil quality with respect to cultivation is a ecologically sound the rhizosphere ecosystem functioning,
cucumber organic matter input, soil structural crop management practices for metabolic activity of microbes, organic
cabbage-cucumber stability, disease suppression and higher vegetable production without compound decomposition and
spinach-cucumber nutrient cycling hampering the soil fertility ultimately regulate the Nutrient cycling
23 Rice-toria cropping Crop residues management vital Improve the imbalance nutrient Improved the soil pH, available India Choudhary et
system for supply essential nutrient, management, increasing the soil nitrogen, available phosphorus, labile al. 2020
provides microhabitat for the organic carbon, , greenhouse gas potassium 6%, 11%, 22%, 12%
bacteria, suppress the disease and emission, and help in mitigating the respectively that lead to restore the soil
ultimately reduced the soil erosion changing climatic condition health and promote the environmental
sustainability
24 Rice and Maize Shifting from rice monocropping Rice straw incorporation with catch Integrated cropping system reduced the Philippines Janz et al. 2019
Rice straw + to rice diversified cropping system crop impaired the greenhouse gas global worming potential and irrigation
mungbean decrease greenhouse gas emission foot print reduced the irrigation water and increasing yield, biomass
and soil erosion water demand in lowland upland under changing climatic condition
rice cropping system

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Crop diversification doesn't affect soil microbial diversity, suggesting environmental

and management factors are important (Yao et al. 2006; Tiemann et al. 2015). Borg et
al. (2018) explore wheat cultivar mixes to promote agricultural diversification, with
overyielding being the main indicator of success. Disease pressure raises global
overyielding to 6.2%, and heterogeneous disease resistance or phenology mixes
overyield more. Carpinelli et al. (2020) study highlights residue release patterns in
integrated crop-livestock systems (ICLS) to enhance fertilizer management and
nitrogen cycling efficiency. Guo et al. (2020) popularized live mulch to improve
orchard soil quality and tree productivity, but its effects on soil organic carbon, total
nitrogen, and total phosphorus ratios are unknown. Couëdel et al. (2018) investigated
the use of crucifers and legumes in cover crop mixes to provide nitrate catch crop and
nitrogen green manure services. The study explores the impact of crucifer-legume
mixes and sole crucifer cover crops on soil mineral nitrogen, revealing their
compatibility and complementarity, enhancing sustainable agriculture and nitrogen
recycling ecosystem services (Davinic et al. 2013). It also highlights the importance
of fungi in integrated crop and livestock agroecosystems, highlighting the interaction
between vegetation, grazing, and fungal communities. White clover living mulch
(LM) encourages arbuscular mycorrhiza colonization, increasing phosphorus uptake
and corn yields (Deguchi et al. 2017). Research comparing no-till (NT) and
conventional tillage (CT) on root growth and root characteristics helps optimize
sustainable agriculture (Fiorini et al. 2018; Fu et al. 2019). The study also highlights
the complex relationship between tillage, root growth, and soil dynamics,
emphasizing the importance of cover crop-tillage dynamics in cropping systems
(Ginakes et al. 2018).The study highlights the importance of nutrient cycling, soil
quality, and crop productivity in agricultural systems. It highlights the need for
adequate tillage and cover crops to optimize these processes (Gura et al. 2019). Crop
rotations and residue management under no-till conditions have been found to
improve Haplic Cambisol soil quality in South Africa, underscoring the importance of
soil quality for sustainable agriculture (Marro et al. 2020). The study also highlights
the impact of soil biota composition and management tactics on soybean yield and
quality. It emphasizes the need for holistic methods that incorporate microbial
interactions and management practices to improve crop yields and sustainability
(Nevins et al. 2020; Qian et al. 2015). The study also highlights the need for adaptive
nitrogen management systems that account for nitrogen immobilization during
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important crop growth stages, especially after cereal rye cover crop residues (Singh et
al.2018). The study also suggests that living mulch practices can improve soil health
and quality, with crown vetch being a suitable choice for Loess Plateau apple
orchards. The study concludes that sustainable methods may increase soil health in
rainfed agricultural systems.

White et al. (2017) found that adding non-legume species to cover crop mixes on
Pennsylvania organic farms improved nitrogen retention but decreased corn yield,
indicating a nitrogen shortage. This suggests that farmers can benefit from strategic
environmental and cover crop management that balances nitrogen and supply
services. Zhong et al. (2018) found that long-term mulching in persimmon orchards in
China affected soil chemical characteristics and bacterial taxonomic abundance,
underscoring the need for sustainable soil management practices. Górska et al. (2022)
studied how farming affects soil microbiomes, revealing significant changes in
microbial abundance and taxonomic groups. The study helps build resilient and
productive agricultural systems while protecting the environment. Roohi et al. (2022)
investigated how legume-cereal intercropping and balanced fertilizing can boost crop
yields and soil health on low-fertility soils. The study found that intercropping
significantly increased maize biomass production under NPKEC fertilization,
especially with NPKEC fertilizer.

A study reveals the importance of good land management, soil structure repair, and
soil quality in promoting sustainable agriculture. Composting, intercropping, and soil
structure can enhance soil organic carbon storage and crop productivity, highlighting
the need for holistic approaches (Jat et al. 2019). Traditional agriculture, partial CA-
based rice-wheat-mung bean, complete CA, and maize-wheat-mung bean have shown
significant gains in soil organic carbon and water-stable aggregate stability. CA
techniques, particularly Sc3 and Sc4, can reduce soil degradation, strengthen carbon
reservoirs, and improve sustainable agriculture. Kayikcioglu et al. (2020) found that
sustainable farming practices like CR4 and CR2 with less tillage can improve soil
conditions and productivity, supporting economic and environmental goals. Ali et al.
(2021) found significant microbial succession differences between rotation systems,
affecting energy and carbohydrate metabolism. Cover crops, such as oats and legume
combinations, can improve soil health and biogeochemical cycling in semiarid
limited-irrigation winter wheat-sorghum-fallow rotation (Thapa et al.2021).

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Leguminous living mulch systems in rainfed agricultural areas also boost

productivity, carbon management, and soil health (Yadav et al. 2021).

A 13-year field experiment in India by Hazra et al. (2019) demonstrated that carbon
retention in arable soils is crucial for climate change mitigation and agro-ecosystem
resilience. Legume-inclusive crop rotations, particularly pigeon pea-wheat and maize-
wheat-mung bean, and integrated nutrient management improved soil aggregation and
carbon storage. These systems can support sustainable agriculture in various
locations. Ansari et al. (2021) investigated groundnut-based cropping systems as a
sustainable alternative to energy-intensive grain monocultures. These systems reduced
non-renewable energy inputs by 25.5% over four years, improving energy
consumption, productivity, and carbon efficiency. They also improved soil quality,
enzymatic activity, and carbon concentration, making them a potential sustainable
option for the Eastern Himalayas and similar environments. Kumar et al. (2019)
studied the impact of zero tillage, crop residue management, and crop variety on soil
aggregation and carbon sequestration. Nunes et al. (2018) found that no-till (NT)
farming can improve soil health and crop yields sustainably, meeting environmental
and productivity goals (Larkin et al.2021).

A 13-year Indian experiment found that legume-based crop rotations increased soil
organic carbon, microbial biomass carbon, and microbial biomass nitrogen compared
to continuous maize-wheat rotations (Borase et al.2020). These rotations also
increased enzyme activity, indicating enhanced soil biological activity. Integrated
nutrient management improved soil metrics more than recommended inorganic
fertilizers or no fertilizers (Nath et al. 2023). In rice-centric Indo-Gangetic Plains,
pulse-based crop rotations and integrated nutrient management improved soil health
by increasing water retention, organic carbon stock, and nutrient availability. Usowicz
et al. (2022) found that soil-improving cropping systems (SICS) and Soil
Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) improve topsoil MBC, SOC, BG, and
AS values. Nunes et al. (2020) validated SMAF's soil health assessment utility and
showed conservation actions improve soil quality. Léonidas et al. (2023) found mixed
cropping methods improve soil organic carbon, maize biomass, and grain yields more
than monocropping systems. Saurabh et al. (2021) found zero-till direct seeded rice
and wheat improved soil stability, organic carbon content, and enzyme activity.

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3.9.2. Innovation in Crop Diversification for Higher Yield and Sustainable

Productivity
Alternate intercropping (AIC) can increase cotton output by 21% without affecting
peanut yield, enhancing physiological markers, nutrient uptake, and economic returns
without additional inputs (Chi et al.2019). Pulse crop-based rotations, such as pea-
wheat, outperform wheat monoculture in yield, soil quality, and system stability (Liu
et al.2020). Hill farmers can benefit from VL Gehun 829, an ICAR-Vivekananda
Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan wheat variety, and improve livestock
husbandry. Ratoon-specific yield-boosting techniques are more promising (Mondal et
al.2020). Conservation Agriculture (CA) can improve India's North-western Indo-
Gangetic Plains rice-mustard rotation system, increasing system productivity and
profitability (Wang et al. 2019; Wendling et al. 2019; Das et al. 2020). These
strategies can improve sustainability and productivity in ecological settings.
Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a profitable and resource-efficient method for
improving sustainability and productivity in tropical and subtropical agro-ecologies
(Nascimento et al. (2023). It lowers weeds, improves water use, and sequesters soil
carbon. Studies suggest CA's use in North-western IGP and similar agro-ecologies
worldwide can boost production and sustainability (Sun et al. 2021). Mediterranean
irrigated winter crop systems can improve wheat performance through varied crop
rotations and fertilization methods. Maize-soybean intercropping and rotation can
reduce energy output and economic yield, demonstrating environmental sustainability.

Studies have shown that various cropping patterns and fertilization methods can
enhance dry matter production, essential oil content, and soil health. Intercropping
dragonhead and fenugreek can increase essential oil yield and quality (Nasiri et al.
2021). In India's Eastern Himalayas, cowpea intercropping and winter crops can boost
maize production by 6.2% to 23.5%. Diversified crop rotations, including maize and
peas, can improve water conservation and efficiency (Singh et al. 2021). Double
mulching with maize stover mulch and fresh biomass from white hoary pea and
ragweed can enhance soil moisture and leaf-relative water content (Sainju et al. 2021;
Ngangom et al.2020). Precision laser-assisted field leveling and permanently elevated
broad bed-furrow seed planting can improve soil quality, crop yield, productivity, net
returns, and water use efficiency (Yang et al. 2015; Singh et al., 2021). Conservation

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agricultural strategies, including zero tillage and crop rotations, can increase rice-
wheat belt soil quality and system sustainability (Jat et al. 2019;Siddique et al. 2021).

Choudhary et al. (2018) found that conservation agriculture, precision irrigation

management, and replacing water-intensive rice with maize saved 79% of water,
increased crop and water production, and lowered groundwater levels. Omodara et al.
(2023) examined cassava productivity in Nigeria, finding that factors like farmer age,
education, gender, and income significantly influence climate change adaptation.
Fang et al. (2021) found that crop insurance significantly affects agricultural green
productivity, suggesting the Chinese government should increase crop insurance
subsidies. Nath et al. (2021) argued that traditional tillage in rice-wheat cropping
systems is unsustainable, leading to the adoption of climate-resilient agro-techniques
like zero tillage (ZT) to mitigate risk and adapt to sustainable agriculture (Hegewald
et al. 2018; Kolapo et al. 2023; Bado et al.2021).

Millet grain yields were highest with NPK fertilizer alone or in combination with
farmyard manure. Ziziphus trees increased millet yields and water efficiency but
decreased NPK fertilizer consumption. 80 Ziziphus trees per hectare can boost
agricultural output and income, making it cost-effective and consistent with low-input
farming. Sarwar et al. (2021) found that integrating organic and inorganic fertilizers
with biofertilizers at 50% improved root biomass, soil organic carbon, crop yields, net
benefits, and SOC content. Alam et al. (2017) found more productive and profitable
rice-based systems with less manpower and irrigation water. Senghor et al. (2023)
examined the agronomic performance of escalating millet-cowpea intercropping in
Senegal under climate change, finding increased Land Equivalent Ratios (LER),
suggesting grain and biomass production efficiency.

Intercropping is a sustainable farming method that increases millet aboveground

biomass, particularly in irrigated experiments (Marcos-Pérez et al.2023). It also
boosts biodiversity and land use efficiency, preserving organic carbon and increasing
key nutrients in the soil (Liu et al.2019). It reduces synthetic fertilizer use by 30%
without affecting crop yields, saving farmers money and reducing runoff.
Intercropping doubles crop yields, increasing biodiversity and land use efficiency
(Mhlanga et al. 2021). Lentil in crop rotation systems significantly enhances
productivity, with 9 3-year rotations from 2013 to 2016 showing a 24% productivity

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improvement over spring wheat and 78% over fallow systems. Conservation
agriculture (CA) vs. conventional tillage (CP) in southern Africa showed that CA-
based systems had the highest infiltration rate and were highly responsive to rainfall
and moisture due to enhanced water availability and water stress [Link] et al.
(2021) examined the impact of narrow-row agroforestry systems on dryland
microclimate, crop quality, productivity, and revenue. Both devices reduced PAR and
air temperature in microclimate, resulting in decreased wheat and alfalfa hay yields
and protein content. PAS was more productive than JWI, as tree yields were
unaffected. Agroforestry system trade-offs between crop productivity, quality, and
economic returns were also examined (Wieme et al.2020). Quinoa has been found to
increase inorganic nitrogen in post-harvest surface soil compared to wheat, but crop
sequencing had little effect on soil microbial biomass and activity. Quinoa also had
substantial arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus colonization, which led to finer soil
structure after cultivation (Williams et al. 2020). Studies have shown that
conventional and reduced tillage summer fallow-winter wheat can improve water
infiltration rates and efficiency in low-precipitation areas of the inland Pacific
Northwest (PNW). Spring barley and carinata sequences show potential for
sustainable agriculture in water-limited PNW locations (Baath et al.2021).
Agroforestry systems have shown economic viability, provided ecological services,
and promoted sustainable farming(Staton et al.2022;Harbo et al. 2022). Organic
arable farming systems have shown potential but have not significantly increased
cereal crop yields. Leguminous living mulch systems can improve agricultural
sustainability and production in rainfed habitats, coinciding with the Sustainable
Development Goals (Yadav et al. 2021). Oduor et al. (2021) examined the impact of
low soil moisture and poor soil management on crop yields in Nitisol-based farming
systems, highlighting the need for using organic and inorganic resources with crop
residue mulch to boost water productivity and crop yields(Naeem et al. 2021). Mishra
et al. (2022) found that zero-till direct-seeded rice reduced weed species but
marginally lowered grain yield. Monitoring and pest control are essential for triple
zero-tillage to reduce weed density and boost crop yield.

3.9.3. The Social Impact of Crop Diversification in Changing Climates

Sub-Saharan African smallholder mixed crop-livestock crop residue allocation. Since

arable land is replacing grazing land, crop wastes are crucial cattle feed. These

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systems must be sustainable because unreturned biomass can harm soil quality and
productivity. Farmers prioritize wastes for livestock feed, yet soil fertility grows with
productivity, according to studies. Smaller farms minimize animal traction needs,
boost livestock output, employ more inputs, and rely less on on-farm activities for
livelihoods. However, expanding animal production may diminish agricultural residue
allocation to soils, affecting long-term soil productivity. Sustainable smallholder
systems in the region require measures that balance agricultural intensification,
animal output, and soil health (Duncan et al. 2016). Rusinamhodzi et al. (2017)
examine ways to lower crop establishment costs and boost yield for resource-
constrained eastern Tanzanian smallholder farmers. Ratooning pigeon pea in maize-
pigeon pea intercropping systems was studied, including cropping system, tillage, and
height. Intercropping maize and pigeon pea yielded more grain than their sole crops,
demonstrating their complementarity. Ratooning, especially at specific heights,
reduced costs and increased intercropping productivity. Smallholder farmers with
minimal seed funds may profit greatly from this. Ratooning pigeon pea in maize-
pigeon pea intercropping could improve food security, sustainable agriculture, and
smallholder farmer livelihoods, fostering resilience in the face of limited resources
and changing climates. According to Cameroon survey data, land fragmentation
increases crop diversification (Ndip et al. 2023). Farmers with dispersed land
diversify more. This shows that strategic land fragmentation can encourage diversity
to meet problems. This study helps explain sub-Saharan African agriculture's
fragmentation and diversification and its effects on sustainability. Furthermore, Nong
et al. (2021) investigate the study examines smallholder farmers' cover crop patterns,
adoption length, and sustainable farm management technical support in northwest
China's Hexi Corridor and west Loess Plateau. Age, income, agricultural labor, and
livestock inputs affect adoption. The findings can inform sustainable farm
management policy. Chen et al. (2023) analyze how climate change affects
Mediterranean-type dryland wheat cultivation in Western Australia. Continuous wheat
growing will reduce yield and economics. Integrating strategically planned fallow
periods into agricultural systems with flexible sowing rules can reduce these losses
and increase yields and gross margins. This adaptation technique, applicable beyond
Western Australia, shows how fallow integration can help agriculture adjust to climate
change. Farmers in Mediterranean Western Australia may use long fallow periods to
adapt to hot temperatures and lower rainfall. No rotation plan works for all cropping
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systems to integrate protracted fallow. An adequate 'not sowing' rule with flexible
parameters can maintain wheat yield and economic return. Dumenuet al. (2016)
explores societal vulnerability, climate change consequences, and adaptation methods
in rural Ghana's Sudan and Guinea Savanna zones. Low-income diversification, high
illiteracy, and climate-sensitive jobs are factors. Crop diversification, non-farm
secondary employment, and rural-to-urban migration are adaptations. A holistic
strategy is needed.

McCord et al. (2015) examine how crop variety protects semi-arid smallholder
farmers. It implies that favorable climate conditions may increase crop diversification
at higher elevations. Household income, field size, agricultural extension services, and
environmental compatibility affect crop diversification. This affects semi-arid
ecosystem climate change response. The study also emphasizes how wealth,
agricultural extension staff, field size, and precipitation affect semi-arid crop variety
levels. It implies that agricultural extension officers with institutional assistance can
promote crop diversification and sustainability. Lower income and fewer extension
officers are common in distant locations. Farmers can overcome their disadvantages
with good growing conditions and reliable irrigation during dry seasons. The study
stresses targeted assistance and interventions for semi-arid agriculture systems.
Makate et al. (2022) examines how climate and socioeconomic shocks affect
Ethiopian smallholder farmers' crop variety use and diversification. It shows that dry
shocks promote seed variety improvement, while long-term rainfall and lag flood
shocks boost crop species diversity. Smaller, less resource-rich farmers use local, less
modified seeds during droughts. Socioeconomic shocks are less severe. The study
emphasizes the need for access to official and informal seed networks and economic
inequality policies to help resource-poor farmers adapt to agricultural shocks. Crop
diversification helps Sub-Saharan African smallholder farmers adapt to climate
change. Policies to reduce vulnerability and improve seed security must address seed
systems and social inequities in vital resource access. However, Brosseau et al. 2021
investigated. Rice production is crucial for Senegal River Valley smallholder farmers'
food security and profitability.

Scognamillo et al. (2021) found that Malawi Social Action Fund (MASAF)
involvement improves household productivity and well-being by promoting climate-
smart agriculture techniques. Alemu et al. (2023) found that crop and livestock

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production account for 97.74% of rural families' livelihood diversification in

Ethiopia's south Gondar zone. To improve rural households' welfare, the research
suggests expanding access to agricultural inputs, promoting irrigation systems,
investing in infrastructure, and supporting off-farm activities. Silchenko et al. (2022)
found three links between social protection measures and climate-induced migration:
alleviating financial barriers, addressing migratory causes, and supporting community
residents. More empirical research is needed to enhance social protection for
disadvantaged groups and voluntary migration. Nkurunziza et al. (2020) studied the
complex interactions between organic farming systems and conventional farming,
revealing that organic farming requires more holistic management than conventional
ones. The PLS method helps farmers understand crop performance and identify
opportunities for system changes, promoting sustainable farming. Leite et al. (2015)
assessed castor bean and sunflower biodiesel crops in Brazil's semi-arid and humid
regions, finding low economic benefits but greater environmental consequences.
Biodiesel crops don't enhance rural income as much as beans and soybean/grass seed
(Maru et al. 2022). Crop diversity is positively associated with farm size, animal
ownership, income, and altitude, but road infrastructure and market access limit
farmers' options. Diaz et al. (2022) evaluated 200 Agricultural Production Units in
northern Colombia, finding education, agricultural income, farmer cooperative
membership, and credit as key adoption factors. Non-agricultural income did not
worsen household well-being. Non-agricultural income did not worsen household
well-being. Farmers have limited credit and loans and poor extension services,
according to the report. These elements must be understood to design successful
interventions to improve these communities' livelihoods and sustain their human,
social, agricultural, and financial resources. The study stressed the importance of
extension services in influencing agricultural practices, notably fertilizer use. Due to
fragmented and qualitative literature on socioeconomic factors of agricultural
practices, the study also stressed the need for further quantitative research. In Ghana's
Tolon district, Anang et al. (2022) discovered that socioeconomic characteristics
including herd size and farm size favorably influence smallholder soybean farmers'
adoption of rhizobium inoculant and mineral fertilizer technology, with female
producers more likely. Bellon et al. (2020) in northern Ghana sought to the study
examine how crop diversity affects smallholder farmers' self-consumption and
monetary income in 637 families. The typical household had 3.2 crops, indicating
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substantial crop diversity. The study implies that crop diversity boosts self-
consumption and gives smallholder farmers market options.

3.9.4. Policy and Institutional Support for Crop Diversification

The enterprise structure (ES) method to crop diversification considers portfolio size
and variety. 33 ESs were found and examined for profitability and crop revenues
using Zambia's survey data. Cassava ES increases gross margin per hectare by
77.89%, challenging the assumption of additional crops, affecting profitability and
revenues differently across agroecological zones. Recognizing crop variation in ESs
helps design more targeted effective sustainable and profitable agriculture methods.
This work helps generate more targeted and lucrative agriculture methods by
identifying crop variation in Ess (Mzyece et al. 2023). However, Maaz et al. (2018)
analyze the problems and prospects of diversifying semi-arid, cereal-based
agroecosystems in the Australian wheat belt, Canadian prairies, and inland Pacific
Northwest USA. It examines 50 years of crop diversification in these locations and
emphasizes the role of public policy in fostering alternative crop adoption through
research spending, extension services, and market incentives. Grower perceptions,
resource use, and market access also influence crop diversification decisions,
according to the study. Adaptive economic strategies, thorough risk management, and
multi-commodity groupings for market-oriented diversification could optimize
diversification in the iPNW, where wheat dominates. The findings show how
economic, policy, and social forces shape semi-arid agricultural systems. The study
underlines the need for specific economic, policy, and social methods to promote
sustainable and resilient semi-arid agriculture.

The "More Crop per Drop" plan under the National Water Policy (NWP) bans flood
irrigation and promotes high-efficiency irrigation systems to improve agricultural
water use efficiency (Drew et al. 2023). Pakistan disputes the efficacy and
repercussions of these actions. Delphi examines the strategy's roots, water efficiency
concepts, rebound effects, and water security. The prevalent paradigm is the
"irrigation efficiency paradigm," which may ignore basin-level implications and water
security. According to Gunathilaka et al. (2018), 50 tea estate managers identified
adaptation options like crop diversification, soil conservation, and shade tree
management, influenced by climate change knowledge, company size, and
temperature changes, but faced financial constraints and limited support. It implies

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that greater temperatures encourage cooling adaptations and rainfall encourages shade
management. Joint tea and fuelwood tree production is also suggested for climate
study. In addition, Carrer et al. (2020) examine the link between rural credit access
and ICLS adoption in São Paulo, Brazil. ICLS adoption, transaction costs perception,
agricultural income dependency, local credit supply, and city distance affect rural
credit access. Rural credit policy boosts ICLS uptake, raising operational expenses
and fixed capital investments. The paper analyzes China's MCE and PMCI using
remote sensing data and econometric modeling. It divides China into seven sections
and suggests measures for northern and southwestern China. Policymakers can use the
research to design region-specific grain production policies. Additionally, Birthal et
al. (2020) employs the study shows that household and regional factors, especially at
state and village levels, significantly affect high-value crop land use. These
consequences vary by crop and farm. Sustainable agricultural growth requires
effective targeting and coordination, according to the study. Furthermore, Yuan et al.
(2021) the study analyzes how farmers' behavior affects crop selection and water use.
The Heihe River Basin in China is studied using an agent-based model. Farmers with
high tolerance (Type I) choose high-profit crops, whereas those with low tolerance
seek consistent profits. Location-specific water management policies are stressed in
the study.

Zhi et al. (2022) study China's grain production from 1952 to 2017 and found that
fertilizers and electricity enhance yields. However, technology's contribution has
declined due to agro-environmental conditions and administrative region structure.
Yield gaps can be closed by better water and fertilizer use, agricultural restructuring,
and farmer education. Sapino et al. (2022) examine Agricultural Economics Water
Programming Models (WPM) and their weaknesses, such as the absence of deficit
irrigation. Pan et al. (2014) examines government policies on agricultural land use in
Quzhou County, China, and proposes continuing subsidies for at least a decade to
sustain groundwater management. Mack et al. (2023) analyze pesticide-free, non-
organic crop production in Switzerland and emphasize the need for flexible
regulations to bridge conventional and organic farming practices. Holmelin et al.
(2021) contrast the government's push for commercialization with rural peasants'
subsistence agricultural techniques in Nepal, highlighting the complexity of Nepalese
agriculture. Yami et al. (2017) assess Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda's SCI policy

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assistance, highlighting poor incentives, low agricultural extension system capacity,

mistrust, and insufficient emphasis on farmers' rights and local variety. The report
offers incentive mechanisms, enhancement of extension services, open conversations,
prioritizing farmers' rights, and empowering farmer groups to increase SCI support.
These measurements are essential for SCI, crop yield, and rural livelihoods. Mahy et
al. (2015) explore the European Common Agricultural Policy change, which required
arable farmers to grow a minimum number of crops. Non-parametric simulation
models forecast land cover changes and self-selection. The study shows a crop
diversity-policy impact trade-off. Also, Martin et al. (2010) developed a DIAR model
to forecast runoff risk in loamy soils in northwestern European loess belts. Spreading
winter cover crops like mustard in Normandy, France, reduces runoff by 10-20%,
depending on the year. The study proposes improving the mustard cover planting site
because the cost of infiltrating cubic meters of water per hectare of mustard cover
falls with higher coverage.

3.9.5 Conclusion

Crop diversification is a critical approach for long-term agriculture in changing

climates. It improves soil health, water retention, and nutrient cycling while
interfering with insect cycles and lowering reliance on chemical inputs. This approach
also contributes to the preservation of ecological balance and the viability of agro-
ecosystems. Crop diversification not only benefits the environment, but it also has a
socioeconomic impact, enhancing diets, assuring food security and nutritional
diversity, and supporting healthier communities. It also contributes to economic
stability by protecting farmers from the hazards connected with monoculture and
climate change. Crop diversity represents innovation and adaptation, as modern
agricultural techniques, precision instruments, and advanced breeding procedures
collide with ancient wisdom, resulting in a mosaic of sustainable farming practices.
This integration boosts agricultural productivity while also increasing resistance to
climate change and conserving environmental integrity. Crop variety is an essential
component of sustainability, as it connects ecological health, agricultural resilience,
and societal well-being. The present study underscores the extensive significance of
crop diversification, placing particular emphasis on its capacity to strengthen
sustainable agriculture, foster food security, contribute to economic stability, and
fortify communities.

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