BOTANY

PLANT LEAF SYSTEM

LEAF
The term leaf refers to the organ that forms the main lateral appendage on the stem of vascular plants. In general, leaves
are thin, flat organs responsible for the photosynthesis of the plant. Although photosynthesis typically only occurs on the
upper surface of the leaf. It can occur on both sides in some plant species. Leaves are typically comprised of a distinct
upper and lower surface, stomata for gas exchange, waxy coating, hairs and venation. Each side of the leaf differs in
regarding the level to which these features are expressed. Although leaves are typically located above ground, some
species have leaves which reside underground (e.g., bulb scales) or underwater (e.g., aquatic plant species). Moreover, the
leaves of some plants may not be associated with photosynthesis (e.g., cataphylls). Leaves are typically oriented on a plant
to avoid blocking the sunlight of the leaves situated underneath.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LEAF

As one of the most important constituents of plants, leaves have several essential functions:
Photosynthesis
The primary function of the leaf is the conversion of carbon dioxide, water, and UV light into sugar (e.g., glucose) via
photosynthesis (shown below). The simple sugars formed via photosynthesis are later processed into various
macromolecules (e.g., cellulose) required for the formation of the plant cell wall and other structures. Therefore, the leaf
must be highly specialized to combine the carbon dioxide, water, and UV light for this process. Carbon dioxide is diffused
from the atmosphere through specialized pores, termed stomata, in the outer layer of the leaf. Water is directed to the
leaves via the plant’s vascular conducting system, termed the xylem. Leaves are orientated to ensure maximal exposure to
sunlight and are typically thin and flat in shape to allow sunlight to penetrate the leaf to reach the chloroplasts which are
specialized organelles that perform photosynthesis. Once sugar is formed from photosynthesis, the leaves function to
transport it down the plant via specialized structures called the “phloem” which run in parallel to the xylem. The sugar is
typically transported to the roots and shoots of the plant to support growth.
Transpiration
Transpiration refers to the movement of water through the plant, and subsequent evaporation via leaves. When the stomata
open to accommodate the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the plant for photosynthesis, water flows out. This process also
serves to cool the plant via evaporation of the water from the leaf, as well as regulate the plant’s osmotic pressure.
Guttation
Guttation refers to the excretion of xylem from the edges of leaves and other vascular plants due to increased levels of
water in the soil at night, when the stomata are closed. The pressure caused at the roots results in the leakage of water
from the xylem out of specialized water glands at the edges of leaves.
Storage
Leaves are a primary side of water and energy storage since they provide the site of photosynthesis. Succulents are
particularly adept at water storage, as evidenced by the thick leaves. Due to the high levels of nutrients and water, many
animal species ingest the leaves of plants as a source of food.
Defense
Some leaves have also evolved defense mechanisms to avoid being eaten or damaged. Some examples include the spines
of cacti, cones of gymnosperms, respectively. In addition, hairs found on leaves prevent water loss in dry climates and
sting animals that detour herbivores (e.g., Urticaceae). Moreover, the waxy coatings found on leaves serve to protect
against water loss, rain, and form of contamination. Oils and other secreted substances also detract from being consumed
by herbivores.

MAJOR TYPES OF LEAF

In general, the types of leaf can be divided into six major types, although there are also plants with highly specialized
leaves:
 Conifer Leaf
 Conifer leaves are needle-shaped or in the form of scales. Conifer leaves
are typically heavily waxed and highly adapted to colder climates, arranged
to dispel snow and resist freezing temperatures. Some examples include
Doughlas firs and spruce trees.

 Microphyll Leaf
 Microphyll leaves are characterized by a single vein that is unbranched.
Although this type of leaf is abundant in the fossil record, few plants
exhibit this type of leaf today. Some examples include horsetails
clubmosses.

 Megaphyll Leaf
 Megaphyll leaves are characterized by multiple veins that can be highly
branched. F

 Angiosperm Leaf
 Angiosperm leaves are those found on flowering plants. These leaves are
characterized by stipules, a lamina, and a petiole.

 Fronds
 Fronds are large, divided leaves characteristics of ferns and palms. The
Blades can be singular or divided into branches.

 Sheath Leaf
 Sheath leaves are typical of grass species and monocots. Thus, the leaves are long and narrow with a
sheathing surrounding the stem at the base. Moreover, the vein structure is striated and each node contains
only one leaf.

Leaves: Morphology, Types & Modification

Plants are an essential part of the ecosystem. Every life on the earth is directly or indirectly dependent on plants. Among
the different part of a plant, the leaf is the most essential. Primarily, leaves have two functions: photosynthesis and
transpiration. In some plants, it takes up the responsibility of reproduction also.
 Structure of a leaf
Leaves are thin, flat organs responsible for photosynthesis in the plants. It develops laterally at the node. It is an important
part of the shoot system and it originates from shoot apical meristems.

Parts of a Leaf
Generally, leaf base, petiole, and lamina, together form the main parts of a leaf.
Leaf Base
This is the part where a leaf attaches to the stem. Leaf base has two small leaf-like structure called stipules. In plants like
paddy, wheat, and other monocotyledons. This leaf base is wide and masks the stem.
Petiole
Petiole is the long, thin, stalk that links the leaf blade to the stem.
Lamina
Also known as leaf blade. It is the green, flat surface of the leaves. It consists of a small branched vein and veinlets. The
vein that runs along the middle of the lamina is called midrib. Midrib divides the surface of the lamina into two. These
veins and veinlets give rigidity to the leaf blade and help in the transportation of water and other substances.

Types of Leaves as to Venation

Venation is defined as the arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the leaves. Different plants show different type of
venation. Generally, there are two types of venation:
Reticulate venation
In a reticulate venation, the veinlets are randomly arranged and form a complex network of veinlets. Ex: Dicotyledonous
plants like a rose plant.
Parallel venation
In a parallel venation, the veinlets run parallel to each other. Ex: In monocotyledons like paddy.

Types of Leaves as to number of leaflets

There are two broad categories of leaves – simple and compound, which are further classified into different groups based
on their shape, size, their arrangements on the stem, leaves of flowering and non-flowering plants, and various other
physical attributes. The two different types of leaves found in plant are:

1. Simple Leaf
When a single lamina is connected to the main stem by a petiole, the leaf is said to be simple. A simple leaf may be
incised to any depth but not down to the midrib or petiole. (Eg., Guava leaves)

2. Compound Leaf
A compound leaf is a leaf made up of two or more leaflets. In a compound leaf, the midrib of the leaf is branched into
different leaflets and is connected by a single petiole. (For ex. Pea, palm leaves).

The compound leaves are further sub-divided into the following types of leaves:
Palmately Compound Leaf
In a palmately compound leaf, the leaflets are attached at the tip of the petiole. (Eg., Silk cotton.) These can be
differentiated into:

1. Unifoliate

These type of leaves have only one leaflet. (Ex. Citrus)

2. Bifoliate

These leaves have two leaflets. (Ex. Balanites)

3. Trifoliate

These leaves have three leaflets emerging from the same point (Ex. Oxalis)

4. Quadrifoliate

These leaves have four leaflets arising from the same point. (Ex. Marsilea)

5. Multifoliate
This type of leaf has many leaflets arising at a common point. (Ex. Bombax)

Pinnately Compound Leaf

In a pinnately compound leaf, the midrib of the leaf is divided into numerous leaflets and all connected by a common axis.
Eg., Neem. These can be further differentiated into:
1. Pinnate: A compound leaf that has an axis on each side of the midrib is known as a pinnate leaf.
2. Unipinnate: The leaf with leaflets on each side of the axis. (eg., cassia)
3. Bipinnate: Here, a secondary axis bearing the leaflet is produced by the central axis. (eg., acacia)
34. Tripinnate: Here, a tertiary axis bearing leaflets emerges from the secondary axis. (eg., moringa)
5. Decompound: Leaf with more than three pinnate. (eg., old leaves of coriander)
6. Parapinnate: A leaf without a terminal leaflet. (eg., pea)

Types of Leaves as to Phyllotaxy

The patterns of arrangement of leaves on the stem are called Phyllotaxy. Plants show three types of phyllotaxy- alternate,
opposite and whorled types of phyllotaxy.
1. Alternate
When only a single leaf develops at each node alternatively, it is an alternate type of phyllotaxy. (eg., China rose).
2. Opposite
When a pair of leaves develops at each node opposite to each other, it is called phyllotaxy. (eg., Guava plants).
3. Whorl
When more than two leaves develop at the nodes to form a whorl of leaves, it is called whorled phyllotaxy. (eg., Alstonia).
 MODIFICATION OF LEAVES
We know leaves are specialized to perform photosynthesis. In addition, they also have other significant roles to play, such
as support, storage of food, defense, etc. For each of these functions, they have been modified into different forms.
For example, tendrils of peas, spines of cacti, onion bulb, leaves of insectivorous plants, etc. are different modified leaves.
Let us have a detailed look at some of the modification of leaves:
1. Storage Leaves
The xerophytic plants and plants belonging to the Crassulaceae family have thick and succulent leaves that store water in
their tissues. The parenchymatous cells of these leaves have large vacuoles filled with hydrophilic colloid. This
modification helps the plant to resist desiccation.
2. Leaf Tendrils
Leaf tendrils exist in plants with weak stems. The leaves get modified into thread-like structures called tendrils. These
tendrils climb a nearby stick or wall and provide support to the plant. For eg., In Lathyrus aphaca, the whole leaf is
modified into tendrils, The upper leaflets of Pisum sativum get modified into tendrils.
3. Leaf Spines
A few plants have their leaves modified into needle-like structures known as spines. The spines act as defensive structures.
They also reduce water loss due to transpiration. For eg., in Opuntia, the leaves are modified into spines.
4. Scale Leaves
These are thin, membranous structures, without stalks, brownish or colourless in appearance. They protect the auxiliary
bud present in their axil. Scale leaves in onion are fleshy and thick and store food and water. Casuarina and Asparagus
also contain scale leaves.
5. Leaflet Hooks
In some plants, the terminal leaflets of leaf get modified into hook-like structures that help them in climbing. Eg.,
Bignonia unguiscati.
6. Leaf Roots
In a few plants, one of the leaves present at the nodes gets modified into adventitious roots which helps them to float over
the water surface. Eg., Salvinia.
7. Phyllode
In some plants, the petiole becomes flattened, taking the shape of a leaf and turns green in colour. This is known as
phyllode, For eg., Australian Acacia.
8. Insectivorous Leaves
Few plants require nitrogen for their development. In such plants, the leaves are modified to catch and digest insects. Few
of the modifications are mentioned below:
Leaf Pitcher- In a few plants like Nepenthes, the leaf-lamina is modified into a pitcher-like structure. The insect is
digested into the inner walls of the pitcher which secretes a digestive fluid into the pitcher cavity.
Leaf Bladder- In such plants, the segments of the leaves are modified into bladders. These plants are found in water. The
inner wall is provided with digestive glands which helps in digesting the trapped insect. (For eg., Utricularia)
In Drosera- The lamina possesses numerous hair with a sticky globule at its tip containing digestive enzymes. The
moment an insect sits on the lamina, the hair covers the insect completely.

Leaf Anatomy
Leaves can be found in a variety of shapes and sizes. Most leaves are broad, flat and typically green in color. Some plats,
such as conifers, have leaves that are shaped like needles or scales. Leaf shape is adapted to best suit the plant’s habitat
and maximize photosynthesis. Basic leaf features in angiosperms (flowering plants) include the leaf blade, petiole, and
stipules.

Blade - broad portion of a leaf.

Apex – leaf tip.
 Margin – leaf edge boundary area. Margins can be smooth. Jagged (toothed), lobed, or parted.
 Veins – vascular tissue bundless that support the leaf and transport nutrients.
 Midrib – central main vein arising from secondary veins.
 Base – area of the leaf that connects the blade to the petiole.
Petiole - thin stalk that attaches the leaf to a stem.
Stipules - leaf-like structures at the leaf base.
Leaf shape, margin, and venation (vein formation) are the main features used in plant identification.
Leaf Tissues
Leaf Cross Section Showing Tissues and Cells.
Leaf tissues are composed of layers of plant cells. Different plant cells types form three main tissues found in leaves.
These tissues include a mesophyll tissue layer that is sandwiched between two layers of epidermis. Leaf vascular tissue is
located within the mesophyll layer.
Epidermis
The outer leaf layer is known as the epidermis. The epidermis secretes a waxy coating called the cuticle that helps the
plant retain water. The epidermis in plant leaves also contains special cells called guard cells that regulate gas exchange
between the plant and the environment. Guard cells control the size of pores called stomata (singular stoma) in the
epidermis. Opening and closing the stomata allows plants to release or retain gases including water vapor, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide as needed.
Mesophyll
The middle mesophyll leaf layer is composed of a palisade mesophyll region and a spongy mesophyll region. Palisade
mesophyll contains columnar cells with spaces between the cells. Most plants chloroplasts are found in palisade
mesophyll. Chloroplasts are organelles that contain chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight for
photosynthesis.
Spongy mesophyll is located below palisade mesophyll and is composed of irregularly shaped cells. Leaf vascular tissue
is found in the spongy mesophyll.
Vascular Tissue
Leaf veins are composed of vascular tissue. Vascular tissue consists of tube-shaped structures called xylem and phloem
that provide pathways for water and nutrients to flow throughout the leaves and plant.
Specialized Leaves
The leaves of the Venus flytrap are highly modified with a trigger mechanism to trap insects. Some plants have leaves that
are specialized to perform functions in addition to photosynthesis. For example, carnivorous plants have developed
specialized leaves that work to lure and trap insects. These plants must supplement their diet with nutrients gained from
digesting animals because they inhabit areas where the soil quality is poor. The Venus flytrap has mouth-like leaves,
which close like a trap to snare insects inside. Enzymes are then released in the leaves to digest the prey.