Foundations of Geography Type Description Example

 First person to use the word “geography”: Living organisms that can
ERATOSTHENES (276-194 BC) Animals Wildlife in a forest, pets
move on their own
He invented the discipline of geography and the
Grow in a fixed location using
terminology used today. Plants Trees in a forest, grass
sunlight
 Geographers: Scholar whose area of study is geography,
the study of earth’s natural environment and human
Key Aspects of Geography
society.
1. Physical Geography: Natural processes and patterns
 Geography: A field of science dedicated to the study of
(climate, landforms, water bodies, ecosystems).
the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the
2. Human Geography: Human interaction with
phenomena of the earth.
environment (population, culture, economics,
Land and Inhabitants
urbanization).
Land:
3. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Technology to
The solid part of the earth covered by water. Includes continents,
collect, analyze, visualize spatial data.
islands, and everything on them.
Urban and Urban Geography
Key Aspects of Land:
Urban: Related to city or town; opposite of rural.
1. Natural Resources: land contains valuable resources like
Key Characteristics of Urban Areas:
minerals, forests, and water.
1. High population density
2. Agriculture: it’s essential for farming and producing food.
2. Built environment (buildings, roads)
3. Ecosystems: land supports a variety of ecosystems, from
3. Economic activity (industry, commerce)
deserts to rainforest.
4. Diverse population
4. Human Settlement: people build cities, towns, and homes
5. Complex social structure
on land.
Urban Geography:
5. Economic Value: land is a valuable asset and plays a
 Study of the site, evolution, morphology, spatial pattern
crucial role in economics.
and classification of towns.
Inhabitants:
 Study of areas where most economic activities are in the
Living things that reside in a particular place – humans, animals,
secondary and tertiary sectors.
plants, microorganisms.
 Sub-discipline of human geography overlapping with
Type Description Example
cultural geography.
Citizens of a country, Historical Development
Humans People who live in a place
residents of a city
  Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens: Nomadic  Botswana (5,000), Ethiopia (2,000), Argentina (2,000),
hunter-gatherers. Israel (2,000)
 Neolithic Revolution (1000 BP): Shift to agriculture and Criteria of an Urban Place:
settlement. Sites: Catal Huyuk, Jericho. 1. Administrative status
 Fertile Crescent: Early domestication (wheat, barley, 2. Minimum population
cows, goats, sheep, pigs). 3. Minimum population density
 Other early civilizations: Indus Valley (India/Pakistan), 4. Contiguity of settlement
Yangtze (China). 5. Non-agricultural occupations
 Civilization: From Latin civis – citizen of a city. 6. Functional character
Characterized by social hierarchy and permanent Qualities of a City or Town
settlements. 1. Greater scope of social organization than rural areas.
Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution 2. Represents a distinct stage of civilization.
 Started in Britain (late 18th century): Spread to 3. Historical origin with myth and ritual.
Europe and North America. 4. Created through commerce and politics (e.g. Babylon,
 Cities became centers of production as manufacturing Athens, London, Paris, Delhi).
increased and agricultural employment decreased. Urban Geography Sectors:
Urban Geography Definitions:  Residential
 Griffith Taylor: Includes site revolution, pattern,  Industrial
classification of towns.  Commercial
 Dudley Stamp: Intensive study of towns and their Migration and Movement of People
geographical aspects.  Globalization involves movement of people across state
UN Demographic Year Book: boundaries.
“There is no point in the continuum from large agglomerations to Travel History:
small clusters or scattered dwellings where urbanity disappears  18th century: Atlantic crossing – 5 weeks
and rurality begins..."  20th century: 8 days
Urban-Rural Difference:  Today: Few hours (aviation)
 Urban: Engaged in non-agricultural activities Reasons for Migration:
 Rural: Engaged in agricultural operations  Pull factors: health care, peace, education, money, food,
UNO Urban Definition: city life, job
Permanent settlement with minimum population of 20,000  Push factors: disasters, poverty, war, farmer’s life
Other Country Criteria: Types of Migration
1. Internal Migration: A. Involuntary/Forced Migration:
Within the country.  Movement against will
A. Rural-Urban Migration:  Involves refugees fleeing persecution (race, religion,
 From countryside/farms to towns/cities politics, etc.)
 Most prone: Male, 20s–30s, able-bodied, economically A BRIEF HISTORY OF URBAN GEOGRAPHY
active Urban geography, the study of cities and urban processes, has a
 Common in developing countries (Brazil, India) rich and complex history that mirrors the evolution of cities
Main reason: themselves.
 Rural areas can't support rapid population increase EARLY BEGINNINGS AND CLASSICAL INFLUENCES
Symptoms of rural overpopulation: Ancient Civilization
 Reduced food supply Early urban planners and geographers in ancient civilizations
 Decreased jobs like Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece recognized the
 Land shortage importance of city location, layout, and infrastructure.
 Farm mechanization → joblessness THE CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION: MESOPOTAMIA
B. Seasonal/Labor Migration: Mesopotamia, often referred to as the “land between two rivers,”
 Temporary search for livelihood was one of the earliest civilizations to emerge in the world.
 Ex: farmers to pastures, apartheid system Located in modern-day Iraq, between the Tigris and Euphrates
C. Planned Migration: rivers.
 Government-initiated Civilizations of Mesopotamia:
 Example: Transmigration Programme in Indonesia 1. Sumerians:
o Relieve population pressure in Java, Madura, Bali, Lombok o Earliest known civilization
o Raise standard of living o Developed complex system of writing, irrigation, city-states
o Increase crop production o Cities: Ur and Uruk, known for ziggurats and architecture
2. International Migration: 2. Akkadians:
Cross-border movement o Led by Sargon the Great
Five Groups: o Conquered Sumerians, established first Mesopotamian
1. Immigrants (permanent move) empire
2. Temporary workers (min. 6 months/year) o Contributions: art, literature, law
3. Illegal migrants 3. Ur:
4. Petitioned family members o Major Sumerian city-state in Southern Mesopotamia
5. Refugees/asylum-seekers o Founded around 3800 BCE
o Thrived over 2000 years  Contributions: Philosophy, democracy, art, literature,
4. Uruk: science
o One of the oldest cities in the world  Geography: Mountains, valleys, islands (Southeastern
o Emerged around 5000 BCE Europe)
o Known for early writing systems and monumental MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN URBAN GEOGRAPHY
architecture Urban Geography has undergone significant transformations in
5. Babylonians: recent decades due to urbanization and technological
o Led by Hammurabi advancements.
o Created powerful empire 1. Globalization and Urbanization
o Known for Hammurabi’s Code (legal history milestone)  Global Cities: New York, London, Tokyo – critical roles in
6. Assyrians: global economy and culture
o Known for military prowess and conquests  Urban Networks: Cities connected via trade, transport,
o Empire stretched from Mediterranean Sea to Persian Gulf
communication
2. Urban Inequality and Social Justice
Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations:
 Gentrification: Displacement of low-income residents
 Architecture: Ziggurats, temples, palaces
due to property value increase
EGYPT
 Urban Poverty: Spatial distribution and contributing
Developed along the Nile River in North Africa. Known for
factors studied
monumental architecture, hieroglyphs, and culture.
4. Urban Big Data and GIS
Egyptian Civilization: Key Periods
 Data Analysis: Census data, satellite imagery, social
 Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BCE):
media used to study cities
Construction of Great Pyramids at Giza
 GIS: Tool for visualizing and analyzing urban data
 Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BCE):
5. Urban Governance and Planning
Cultural and economic resurgence
 Participatory Planning: Involves communities in
Expansion and development of bureaucracy
sustainable planning
 New Kingdom (1550–1069 BCE):
 Urban Resilience: Ability of cities to withstand disasters
Golden age under pharaohs like Amenhotep III,
and crises
Akhenaten, Tutankhamun
NEW URBANISM
Conquests and construction of temples and tombs
An urban planning and design movement from the 1980s,
GREECE
started in the USA.
Ancient Greece: A cradle of Western civilization
Goals:
  Reduce car dependency  Economic Activities: Jobs in manufacturing, services,
 Promote walkable neighborhoods retail
 Mixed housing, jobs, commercial sites  Cultural Experiences: Museums, theaters, concerts,
History of New Urbanism festivals
 19th century American cities were compact and mixed-  Physical Environment: Buildings, infrastructure,
use public/natural spaces
 Streetcars and later automobiles led to suburban  Social Challenges: Poverty, crime, inequality,
sprawl environmental degradation
Influences and Origins: Urban Life Characteristics:
 City Beautiful Movement: Early 20th century focus on  Diversity: Mix of backgrounds and cultures
design, boulevards, public parks  Fast-paced: Quick life tempo
 Garden City Movement: By Ebenezer Howard,  Opportunity: Education, jobs, culture
promoted planned communities  Challenges: Overcrowding, pollution, social inequality
 Jane Jacobs’ Critique: Criticized modernist, large-scale CITY
developments in “The Death and Life of Great American  An urban area with large population and specific
Cities” legal/administrative status
The Rise of New Urbanism  Population: 10,000–100,000
 Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU): Founded 1993,  Systems: Sanitation, utilities, land use, housing,
core organizing body transportation
 Seaside, Florida: Model community designed by Andres  May include suburbs, often part of metropolitan areas
Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk Importance of Studying Cities
 Charter of the New Urbanism (1993): 1. Understanding Urban Challenges:
o Principles: Walkability, Mixed-use o Tackle poverty, inequality, crime, environmental
Development, Transit-Oriented Development, issues
Community focus 2. Promoting Sustainable Urban Development:
URBAN SOCIOLOGY o Make cities more livable
A subfield of sociology focusing on urban life, cities, and social 3. Preserving Urban Heritage:
processes. o Protect historical and cultural legacies
Urban Life includes: URBAN STRUCTURE
 Social Interactions: Family, friends, colleagues, Refers to how cities are organized spatially, reflecting social,
neighbors economic, political, and environmental factors.
URBAN STRUCTURE MODEL economic activities, and residential areas, connected by
1. Concentric Zone Model – Ernest Burgess (1920s) highways.
Structure: • Traditional CBDs lose their dominance as suburban realms
This model presents a city as a series of concentric rings that become more autonomous.
grow outward from a central point (Central Business District, or • Edge cities and smaller urban hubs arise at the peripheries.
CBD). 5. Latin American City Model
2. The Sector Model (1939) – Homer Hoyt Many Latin American cities follow a structure that combines
Proposed by Homer Hoyt in 1939, this model suggests that cities European influences with indigenous patterns.
develop in sectors or wedges, rather than rings. Sectors extend • The CBD is dominant, surrounded by zones of elite housing
outward from the CBD, often following major transport routes. along a “spine” of commercial development.
• High-rent residential areas might develop along a specific • As you move outward from the center, poorer housing and
sector, expanding outward. informal settlements (favelas, slums) predominate.
• Low-income housing might be confined to a sector, often near • The CBD is highly accessible and central to the economy.
industrial areas or railways. • Informal housing often occupies the periphery, where services
• Commercial and business centers might follow main may be lacking.
transportation lines (like roads or railways). MODERN FACTORS INFLUENCING URBAN STRUCTURE
3. Multiple Nuclei Model – Harris and Ullman Model • Globalization: Cities now often have international roles, with
In 1945, Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman suggested that global CBDs and specialized zones dedicated to multinational
cities do not develop around a single core (CBD) but instead have corporations and industries.
multiple centers (nuclei). These nuclei might include industrial • Transportation: Highways, rail systems, and public transit
areas, shopping districts, or residential zones, each with its own networks reshape how cities grow and sprawl.
functions. • Technological Innovation: The rise of telecommuting and e-
• A city might develop multiple business districts, specialized commerce is transforming traditional commercial and residential
commercial areas, or various industrial parks. areas, blurring the lines between work and home.
• These different centers compete and coexist, leading to • Sustainability Concerns: Eco-friendly urban planning, green
complex urban forms. spaces, and the promotion of public transit are reshaping urban
4. Urban Realms Model structures to be more sustainable and livable.
This model, developed in the 1960s, focuses on how Urban Systems
suburbanization and the rise of edge cities have changed urban Introduced by Brian J.L. Berry in 1964 through “Cities as
structures. It argues that large metropolitan areas consist of Systems within Systems of Cities.”
several "realms" or independent zones, each with its own CBD,
  Suggests that urban areas are not isolated but are  Water Supply: Reservoirs, treatment plants, and
interconnected through relationships with other cities. networks for safe water.
Population Growth and Urbanization  Waste Management: Includes sewage, recycling, and
1. Population growth increases migration to urban areas. hazardous waste control.
2. Leads to the development of megacities (10+ million  Gas Supply: Network for cooking, heating, industrial use.
people), which stress infrastructure and resources.  Telecommunications: High-speed internet and mobile
3. Causes urban sprawl, consuming land and resources network.
without proper planning.  Transportation Utilities: Fuel stations, EV charging,
Urban Infrastructure and Services maintenance centers.
Public Transit Urban Livability Features
 High-capacity (buses, subways, trains) reduce congestion  Clean Air & Water: Pollution reduction and quality
and provide affordability. water treatment.
 Reliable schedules and extensive coverage are crucial.  Green Spaces: Parks for health, recreation, and climate
Integrated Systems mitigation.
 Seamless transition between transport modes (bus train,  Safe Housing: Affordable, well-located, meeting safety
bike-sharing). standards.
 Includes pedestrian pathways.  Community Services: Access to health, education,
Infrastructure emergency support.
 Well-maintained roads, bridges, tunnels.  Social Inclusion: Equal access and support for
 Dedicated lanes improve efficiency and safety. vulnerable populations.
Technology  Emergency Preparedness: Disaster plans, early
 Smart traffic systems, real-time tracking, and contactless warning, education.
payment improve convenience and congestion Types of Urban Settlements (Hierarchy)
management. 1. Megacities
Sustainability o 10+ million (e.g., Tokyo, New York)
 Promoting cycling, walking, EVs, and pedestrian zones o Economic, cultural global hubs; face congestion,
to lessen environmental impact. pollution, sustainability challenges.
Utilities & Essential Services 2. Metropolises
 Electricity: Robust power grid, backup systems, o A few million (e.g., Los Angeles, Paris)
renewables. o Regional hubs with modern infrastructure and
cultural vibrancy.
 3. Regional Cities  A chain of adjacent metropolitan areas, forming a
o Hundreds of thousands to few million (e.g., Portland, supercity.
Frankfurt)  Term used by Patrick Geddes (1915) and others.
o Important for admin, commerce, linking smaller  Example: BosWash (Boston to Washington, D.C.)
towns. Examples:
4. Small Cities  Mexico City Megalopolis
o Tens of thousands to a few hundred thousand.  Calgary–Edmonton Corridor
o Offer essential services, local economies, and high  Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
quality of life. Characteristics:
5. Towns  High population density
o <50,000  Economic integration
o Local hubs serving rural populations with fewer  Extensive transportation
services.  Cultural richness
6. Villages New Urbanism
o Under a few thousand. Origins:
o Provide basic services and maintain traditional  Started: Early 1980s, USA
lifestyles.  Why: Reaction to post-WWII suburban sprawl (low-
Metropolitan: Definition & Structure density, car-dependent)
 A core city + surrounding suburbs/exurbs forming Charter developed (1993–1996) by architects, planners,
one economic and social region. citizens.
 Linked through economy, transportation, and shared Three Scales:
services. 1. Region (Metropolis, City, Town)
Characteristics: 2. Neighborhood, District, Corridor
1. Economic Hub 3. Block: Street and Building
2. Transportation Networks Principles:
3. Residential Zones (dense core, low-density suburbs)  Walkability: Accessible daily needs.
4. Cultural Diversity  Mixed-Use: Homes, jobs, recreation in one area.
5. Public Services  Diverse Housing: For all income levels.
Challenges:  Quality Design: Human-scaled spaces.
 Traffic, urban sprawl, inequality, infrastructure strain.  Sustainability: Lower ecological footprint.
Megalopolis Streets:
  Safe, engaging, and walkable.  Defined by UN-HABITAT using 5 criteria:
 Buildings close to sidewalks for cohesive urban edge. o Durable housing
Criticisms of New Urbanism: o Sufficient space
 Lack of privacy, inauthentic feel, exclusion of low- o Safe water
income groups. o Adequate sanitation
 Still influential in promoting Smart Growth and solving o Security of tenure
multiple urban issues. Common Issues:
Town vs. City Comparison  Disease, unemployment, drug use, malnutrition.
Towns: Causes:
 Few thousand to tens of thousands. 1. Decentralization
 Local services for rural areas. 2. Economic Conditions (poverty)
 Close-knit community, lower stress lifestyle. 3. Lack of Education
Cities: 4. Improper Land Use
 Hundreds of thousands to millions. 5. Industrialization
 Centers of industry, culture, and government. 6. Migrants
 Dense, diverse, fast-paced but with challenges like 7. Weak Local Authorities
congestion. 8. Poor Maintenance
How Urban Areas are Defined Globally Characteristics:
 Definitions vary by country.  Overcrowded, deteriorated appearance
Examples:  Fire hazards
 Sweden/Denmark: Urban = 200+ people  Poor sanitation
 Japan: City = 50,000+ people  Low income, moral issues, crime
 Canada: 1,000+ citizens  Social isolation
 US/Mexico: 2,500+ citizens Notable Slums
 Philippines (RA No. 11683): Dharavi (Mumbai, India)
o 150,000 pop.  1 million people, 2.39 sq. km.
o ₱100M income (last 2 yrs)  Thriving informal economy ($1B)
o 100 km² land  Severe sanitation issues, diverse community
Urban Slums Kibera (Nairobi, Kenya)
 Areas lacking basic living conditions for safety and  250K to 1M population
health.  Overcrowded, lacking water & sanitation
  Informal trade prevalent
Rocinha (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)
 70,000 residents
 Some sanitation, high crime
 Thriving informal economy, tourism, and NGOs