CHAPTER SEVEN

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

7.1 Introduction

Generally, pavement is an on-ground horizontal surface structure used for riding, parking,
and walking. With regard to highway, it is part of a road designed and constructed to
withstand the weight or load exerted by traffic. Its structure comprises of superimposed
layers of processed materials above the native soil or subgrade, mainly to bear and safely
distribute the applied wheel loads to the subgrade. Its design involves the study of the
properties of the soils along the selected road alignment, identification and selection of
construction materials for the various layers, and determinations of the thicknesses of
constituent pavement layers for the estimated traffic loads and environmental conditions
expected to prevail during the design life of the structure.

A pavement structure may be flexible, rigid or composite, depending on the materials

making it up. Whatever type, its main functions are:

• To bear and distribute wheel loads over an area so that the bearing capacity of the
subgrade is not exceeded.

• To provide smooth, skid resistant (adequate coefficient of friction between tyre and road
surface to prevent vehicle’s skidding), and non-dusty surface over which the wheels
move.

• To protect the substructure against the adverse effect of weather condition, especially
water.

7.2 Design Methods

There are various types of flexible pavement design approaches. They include, Nigerian-
CBR, Road Note 31, Road Note 29, TRRL 1132, and AASHTO design methods. The
methods are not limited to the listed ones. The choice of a particular method depends on the
analyst’s familiarity and compatibility with environment upon which designed pavement
structure is to be constructed. Hence, only few methods will be treated for the purpose of
this course. However, students can explore more on other design methods.

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7.2.1 Nigeria CBR Design Method

This is an empirical-based design approach that uses the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
and expected traffic volume as the primary design inputs. The technique uses a set of
design curves (A to F as shown in Figure 1) for the determination of pavement’s layers
thicknesses. Each of the curves; A to F is associated with a particular range of traffic class.
The thicknesses of the pavement structure’s layers depend on the anticipated traffic load,
subgrade’s material strength, as well the strengths of the material to be used for sub-base
and base layers. The CBR method considers traffic loading in terms of commercial vehicles
per day exceeding 3 tonnes loaded weight. To determine the anticipated traffic load
(number of vehicles exceeding 3 tonnes) over the design life of the structure, the anticipated
traffic is adjusted using the traffic adjustment factors shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Traffic Adjustment Factor

Design Annual growth rate, r (%)
Period
2 4 6 8 10
(yrs)
1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
2 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
4 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23
6 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.39
8 0.43 0.46 0.50 0.53 0.57
10 0.55 0.60 0.66 0.72 0.80
12 0.67 0.75 0.84 0.95 1.07
14 0.80 0.92 1.05 1.21 1.40
16 0.93 1.09 1.28 1.52 1.80
18 1.07 1.28 1.55 1.87 2.28
20 1.21 1.49 1.84 2.29 2.86
25 1.60 2.08 2.74 3.66 4.92
30 2.03 2.80 3.95 5.66 8.22
35 2.50 3.68 5.57 8.62 13.55

Subsequent to the adjustment of the traffic load and evaluation of the constituent layers
materials’ CBR, the thicknesses of the pavement layers are then determined from Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Flexible Pavement Design Curve (CBR Method)

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 The method recommends the following as the minimum thicknesses for granular layers
(sub-base and base) and asphalt surfacing:

• Sub-base and base = 150 mm (6 in.)

• Surfacing:
o Light traffic (Curves A, B, and C) = 50 mm (2 in.)
o Medium traffic (Curves D and E) = 75 mm (3 in.)
o Heavy traffic (Curve F) = 100 mm (4 in.)

Example

Use the following information to estimate the thicknesses of a flexible pavement’s

constituent layers:

• Current traffic volume = 3000 veh/day

• Proportion of vehicles exceeding 3 tons = 40%
• Design period = 20 years
• Traffic growth rate = 4%
• Subgrade’s CBR = 7%
• Sub-base’s CBR = 30%
• Base’s CBR = 80%

Solution

• No. of vehicles exceeding 3 tons. = 40% of 3000 veh/day = 1200 veh/day

• For 4% traffic growth rate and 20 years design period, traffic adjustment factor = 1.49
• Anticipated traffic = 1.49 1200 = 1788 veh/day (corresponding to traffic class F)
• For a subgrade’s CBR of 7%, the entire pavement thickness above the subgrade = 16
inches (400 mm).
• For a sub-base’s CBR of 30%, the pavement thickness above the sub-base layer = 6.5
inches (162.5 mm).
• For a base’s CBR of 80%, the pavement thickness above the base layer = 3.5 inches
(87.5 mm).
• Hence, the estimated layers’ thicknesses are as follows:
o Sub-base = (400 – 162.5) mm = 237.5 mm
o Base = (162.5 – 87.5) mm = 75 mm

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 o Surfacing = 87.5 mm
• In order to satisfy the minimum requirements based on the design method’s
recommendations, the thicknesses are adjusted as follows:

o Sub-base = 237.5 mm ≈ 250 mm (rounded)

o Base = 150 mm (minimum thickness for granular base layer)
o Surfacing = 100 mm (minimum surfacing thickness for traffic class F)

7.2.2 Road Note 31 Design Method

Road Note 31 (RN31) provides a guide for structural design of bituminous surfaced roads
for tropical and subtropical countries. The method considers traffic loading in terms
cumulative number of equivalent standard axles on the basis of which the type of surfacing
and thicknesses of sub-base and base are selected. It is important to note that the damaging
effect caused to a pavement structure by vehicles depends on the axle loads of these
vehicles. For pavement design purposes, the damaging effect of the various axles is related
to a standard axle of 8.16 tonnes (8160 kg) using equivalence factors derived from empirical
studies. In order to determine the cumulative axle load damage that a pavement will sustain
over its design life, it is essential to express the total number of heavy vehicles that will use
the road over this period in terms of the cumulative number of equivalence standard axle
(esa). The equivalence factor can be determined using Equation 1.

4.5
 Axle load (kg ) 
Equivalence factor =   (1)
 8160 

Subsequent to the evaluation of subgrade’s CBR value and estimation of cumulative

number of standard axles expected to be carried by the pavement over the design period, the
required pavement thickness is then obtained from RN31 design chart shown in Figure 2.
The design chart is prepared on the basis that a standard thickness of base thickness of 150
mm (6 inches) with variable thickness of sub-base to allow for different subgrade’s
strengths. This method is considered economical for flexible pavements required to carry up
to 0.5 million standard axles in one direction over a design period of ten years or more.

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 Figure 2: Road Note 31 Design Chart

If at the time of construction it is required to provide a pavement capable of carrying up to

2.5 million standard axles in one direction, either a 150 mm (6 in.) base with a 50 mm (2
in.) bituminous surfacing or a 200 mm (8 in.) base with a double coat surface dressing can
be used. Selection of sub-base thickness is based on the subgrade’s CBR and cumulative
number of standard axles to be carried, which can be obtained from Figure 2.

If the CBR of the subgrade is 25% or more, no sub-base is required. However, if the
subgrade’s CBR is less than 25% (8 to 24%), a minimum thickness of 100 mm (4 in.) of
sub-base is required and a higher thickness for CBR values less than 8%.

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Example

Use the data shown in Table 2 to estimate the thicknesses of a flexible pavement’s
constituent layers using RN31 design method. Use subgrade’s CBR of 20%, traffic growth
rate of 4%, and design period of 15 years.

Table 2: Axle Load and Repetitions

Axle load (kg) No. of passes per day in
one direction
6,350 120
7,260 90
8,160 40
9,070 40
9,980 15
10,890 10
11,700 7
12,700 5
Solution

The computation for the equivalence axle load factors and number of standard axles per day
is shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Computation of Equivalence Axle Load

Axle load (kg) Equivalence factor No. of Passes / day Standard axles / day
6,350 0.32 120 38.82
7,260 0.59 90 53.19
8,160 1.00 40 40.00
9,070 1.61 40 64.37
9,980 2.47 15 37.12
10,890 3.66 10 36.65
11,700 5.06 7 35.43
12,700 7.32 5 36.60
Total 342 std. axles
• No. of standard axles per year = 342  365 = 124,830 standard axles

• Cumulative no. of standard axles during 15 years design period at traffic growth rate of


4% = 124,830  1.040 + 1.042 + 1.043 + ............ + 1.0414 
= 124,830  20.024 = 2.4996 106  2.5 106 standard axles

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 • From Figure 2, the pavement’s layers thickness are determined as follows:

o Surfacing = 50 mm
o Base = 150 mm
o Sub-base = 100 mm

• Alternatively, the pavement’s layers thickness would be:

o 200 mm of Base plus surface dressing, and

o 100 mm of Sub-base.
For axle load beyond the one covered by RN31, other design methods can be used to
establish the pavement’s layers thickness.

It is worthy to note that some pavement structures, particularly for new roads (unlike for
improvement of existing road where traffic data can be easily generated), traffic data are
usually not available to serve as guide for the estimation of anticipated load to be carried by
the structure. In such instances, the following design approach can be used. The method
involves the use of three guidelines for the design. These include Road Note 6, Road Note
31, and TRRL 1132.

7.2.3 Pavement Design for New Road

The two basic features affecting pavement thickness requirements are the bearing capacity
of subgrade and pavement materials, and the future traffic loads. The soil bearing properties
are obtained from the soil tests on the existing materials along the proposed road’s
alignment and from burrow pit. The traffic load is usually estimated from the records of
AADT values if available or a traffic count instituted to generate the data directly.

For areas that are not developed and do not attract sufficient traffic to justify a traffic count
to estimate the vehicular loads required for the pavement design, the traffic characteristics
of the neighbouring areas could be used as a basis. In a situation where the neighbouring
communities do not have existing traffic, the basis for the design will therefore be the
functional classification of the road when completed. Road note 6 “A guide to geometric
design of highways” classified roads based on their functions as follows:

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1. Arterial roads: These are the main routes connecting national and international centres.
Traffic on them is derived from those generated at the urban centres and from the inter-
urban areas through the collector and access road systems. Trip lengths are likely to be
relatively long and levels of traffic flow and speeds relatively high.

2. Collector roads: These have the function of linking traffic to and from rural areas, either
direct to adjacent urban centres, or to the arterial road network. Traffic flow and trip
lengths are of intermediate level.

3. Access roads: These are the lowest level in the network hierarchy. They are usually
streets or roads mainly for access to residences, business areas, or other abutting
property. Vehicular flow for this class of roads is very light and is aggregated in the
collector road network.

The earlier mentioned three classes of roads are further classified into six design classes; A
through F. These classes have associated bands of traffic flow as shown in Table 4. The
range of flows extends from less than 20 to 15,000 or more motorized vehicles per day,
excluding motorcycles.

Table 4: Roads Classification and Design Classes

Road Function Design Class Traffic Flow (AADT) Surface Type

A 5,000 – ≥15,000 Paved

Arterial B 1,000 – 5,000 Paved

C 400 – 1,000 Paved

Collector
D 100 – 400 Paved/unpaved

Access E 20 – 100 Paved/unpaved

F  20 Paved/unpaved

After selecting the appropriate design class and its corresponding traffic (AADT) from
Table 4, the design AADT for the road can then be determined based on the proportion of

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 commercial vehicles that are likely to use the facility. The summary of the design steps are
as follows:

i. Select the appropriate design class of the road and its associated ADT on the basis of its
function.

ii. Establish the design AADT based on the proportion of commercial traffic.

iii. Select a design period and traffic growth rate.

iv. Convert the design AADT to cumulative number of commercial vehicles over the design
life of the road and the selected traffic growth rate using the relation:

 (1 + r )n − 1
Tn = 365 Fo  
 r 
v. Convert (iv) above to cumulative number of equivalence standard axles (esa) using the
relation:

Cumulative number of esa = Tn  D

 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −     Fo  
0.93 + 0.082  0.92 + 0.082    1550 
t t

 3.9   
Where,
Tn =Cumulative number of commercial vehicles
Fo = Initial daily flow for the design year (proportion of commercial traffic)
r = Traffic growth rate (%)
n = Design life (years)
D = Vehicle damaging factor
t = Difference between the commissioning year and base year (1945)

vi. Determine the subgrade CBR.

vii Design the pavement structure using Road note 31 (A guide to the structural design of
bitumen-surfaced roads).

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The design criterion for Road note 31 is based on the following categories of traffic (in
terms of esa) and subgrade strength (CBR).

Traffic Classes (106 esa) Subgrade Strength Classes, CBR (%)

T1 =  0.3 S1 = 2
T2 = 0.3 – 0.7 S2 = 3 – 4
T3 = 0.7 – 1.5 S3 = 5 – 7
T4 = 1.5 – 3.0 S4 = 8 – 14
T5 = 3.0 – 6.0 S5 = 15 – 29
T6 = 6.0 – 10 S6 = 30+
T7 = 10.0 – 17.0
T8 = 17.0 – 30.0

Once the cumulative number of equivalence standard axles and subgrade CBR are
estimated, the thicknesses of the various pavement layers are then obtained from the
appropriate Road Note 31 design charts. The charts are designed on the basis of type of
construction materials with three different classes of surfacing namely; surface dressing,
semi-structural and structural surfaces.

Example 1

It is intended to commence the construction of a new road as an urban collector which is

expected to be completed and open to public in December, 2021. The AADT of the road
has been decided to be 665 vehicles per day of which 12% are commercial vehicles. A soil
test along the proposed alignment reveals that the average subgrade CBR is 6% and a
granular material is to be used as sub-base and road base courses. Design the pavement
structure to serve for a period of 15 years at a traffic growth rate of 4 percent per annum.

Solution

Based on the AADT value and function of the road, the road is to be designed as collector
class “C”.

• Proportion of commercial vehicles, Fo = 0.12  665  80 commercial veh/day

• Cumulative number of commercial vehicles over the design life of the pavement at a
growth rate of 4% is determined as,

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  (1 + r )n − 1
Tn = 365 Fo  
 r 
 (1 + 0.04 )15 − 1
Tn = 365  80    = 584,689 Commercial vehicles
 0 .04 

 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −     Fo  
0.93 t + 0.082  0.92 t + 0.082    1550  
 3.9   
 
0.35  0.26   1  = 1.175 1.18
D= − 
0.9376 + 0.082  0.9276 + 0.082    155080  
 
 3.9 


Thus, the cumulative number of equivalence standard axles = Tn  D

= 584,689 1.18 = 0.690 106 esa

The cumulative number of equivalence standard axles of 0.690 106 corresponds to traffic
class T2. The estimated subgrade CBR of 6% corresponds to S3 subgrade strength class.

From chart 1 of Road Note 31, for traffic category of T2 and subgrade strength of S3, and
using granular material as sub-base and road base courses, the appropriate pavement layers
thicknesses are:

• Surfacing = Surface dressing

• Road base = 150 mm
• Sub-base = 250 mm

Example 2

(a) Design a pavement structure with a semi-structural surface using the following
information:

• Current AADT = 3000 veh/day

• Proportion of commercial traffic = 15%
• Design life = 20 years
• Subgrade CBR = 16%

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• Traffic growth rate = 4%
• Road to be opened to traffic in 2022
• Granular sub-base and base material

(b) What would have been the design thicknesses of the pavement layers if the road is to be
designed with a structural surface and a subgrade CBR of 8%?

Solution

(a) Based on the current AADT value, the road is to be designed as arterial class “B”.

• Proportion of commercial vehicles, Fo = 0.15  3000 = 450 commercial veh/day

• Cumulative number of commercial vehicles over the design life of the pavement at a
growth rate of 4% is determined as,

 (1 + r )n − 1
Tn = 365 Fo  
 r 
 (1 + 0.04 ) − 1 
 20

Tn = 365  450    = 4,891,049 Commercial vehicles

 0.04 

 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −     Fo  
0.93 + 0.082  0.92 + 0.082    1550  
t t

 3.9   
 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −     450   = 1.987 1.99
0.93 + 0.082  0.92 + 0.082    1550  
77 77

 3.9 

Thus, cumulative number of equivalence standard axles = Tn  D

= 4,891,049 1.99 = 9.73 106 esa (T6 traffic class)

The estimated subgrade CBR of 16% corresponds to S5 subgrade strength class.

From chart 3 of Road note 31, for traffic category of T6 and subgrade strength of S5, and
using granular material as sub-base and road base courses, the recommended pavement
layers thicknesses are:

• Surfacing = 50 mm Flexible bituminous surface

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 • Road base = 200 mm
• Sub-base = 175 mm

(b) If the subgrade CBR is 8%, the design will now be based on S4 subgrade strength class
and T6 traffic class. From chart 5 of Road Note 31, the design thicknesses of the pavement
layers would be:

• Surfacing = 100 mm Bituminous surface (Base course + Wearing course)

• Road base = 200 mm
• Sub-base = 175 mm

Exercise

As a result of unavoidable circumstances, a proposal was made to redesign the pavement

structure in example 2 using composite road base for both semi-structural and structural
surfaces. Estimate the new thicknesses of the pavement’s constituent layers as a result of
the above change. How does the change affect the overall thickness of the pavement in both
cases?

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