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EC : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS

Module 8 : Electromagnetics

INDEX
Sr. Pg.
Contents Topics
No. No.
1. Vectors
Introduction 1
Vector Addition and Subtraction 1
Vector Multiplication 3
Co-Ordinate System 5
Del Operator 10
Notes Divergence of a Vector and Divergence Theorem 12
Curl of a Vector and Stokes’s Theorem 13
Laplacian of a Scalar 15
Vector Identities 15
List of Formulae 17
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 17
Assignment1 Questions 19
Test Paper1 Questions 22
2. Electrostatics
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity 25
Electric Field Due to Continuous Charge Distribution 26
Electric Flux Density 30
Gauss’s Law 31
Notes
Electric Potential (V) 34
Relationship Between E and VMaxwell’s Equation 35
An Electric Dipole 36
Electric Field in Material Space 38
Sr. Pg.
Contents Topics
No. No.
Types of Media (DIELECTRIC) 40
Continuity Equation 41
Boundary Conditions 41
Energy Density 44
Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equation 45
Resistance and Capacitance 47
List of Formulae 51
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 52
Assignment2 Questions 53
Test Paper2 Questions 56
3. Magnetostatics
Introduction 58
Biot- Savart’s Law and Magnetic Field Intensity 58
Ampere’s Circuital Law 62
Magnetic Flux Density 66
Vector Magnetic Potential 67
Forces in Magnetic Field 68
Notes
Magnetization and Permeability 72
Magnetic Boundary Conditions 74
Inductors and Inductances 75
Magnetic Circuits 77
List of Formulae 80
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 81
Assignment3 Questions 82
Test Paper 3 Questions 85
4. Waves and Applications
Introduction 88
Maxwell’s Equations for Static Fields 91
Maxwell’s Equations for TimeVarying Field 92
Notes
Maxwell’s Equation for Harmonically Varying Fields 93
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation 93
Wave Propagation in Lossy Dielectrics 95
Sr. Pg.
Contents Topics
No. No.
Plane Wave in Lossless (Good) Dielectrics 97
Wave Propagation in Free Space 98
Plane Waves in Good Conductors 99
Electromagnetic Wave Polarization 101
Poynting Theorem 104
Reflection of Plane Waves 104
List of Formulae 110
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 110
Assignment  4 Questions 112
Test Paper 4 Questions 115
5. Transmission Lines, Waveguides and Antennas
Introduction 117
Transmission Line Equations 119
Characteristic Impedance 120
Input Impedance of a Transmission Line [zin ] 122
Reflection 122
Standing Wave Ratio (S) 123
Smith Chart 126
Transmission Lines at High Frequency 133
S or Scattering Parameters 134
Line Distortion 135
Waveguides 135
Notes
Rectangular Waveguides 136
Transverse Magnetic (TM) Modes 138
Transverse Electric (TE) Modes 140
Dominant Mode 141
Wave Propagation in a Waveguide 141
Power Transmission and Power Losses in Waveguides 142
Waveguide Resonators 142
Introduction to Optical Fiber 144
Antennas 147
Reciprocity Theorem 152
Dipole Antennas 156
Sr. Pg.
Contents Topics
No. No.
Antenna Arrays 157
Antenna Types 163
List of Formulae 167
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 169
Assignment5 Questions 171
Test Paper 5 Questions 174
Practice Problems 176
SOLUTIONS
Answer Key 192
Assignments
Model Solutions 194
Answer Key 218
Test Papers
Model Solutions 220
Answer Key 235
Practice Problems
Model Solutions 236
 Topic 1 : Vectors

INTRODUCTION
The term scalar refers to a quantity whose value may be represented by a single real
number. A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a direction in space.
An example of a vector is shown below: B
Vector AB indicates that the direction is from point A to AB
point B. Hence, any vector can be written as
Vector = (magnitude or length) u direction

i.e. AB AB u a AB A
where, | AB | is the magnitude or length of vector and a AB is the unit vector in the
direction AB. If point A has coordinates (x1, y1, z1) and point B has coordinates (x2, y2,
z2) then
AB x 2  x1 a x  y 2  y1 a y  z2  z1 a z
…[ a x ,a y and a z are unit vector along x-axis, y-axis, z-axis
respectively]
Then the magnitude of AB is
2 2 2
AB x 2  x1  y 2  y1  z2  z1

AB
Any unit vector a AB can be obtained as a AB
AB
Any vector divided by its magnitude gives unit vector.

VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

Two vectors A and B can be added to give another vector C such that C A  B . This
vector addition is carried out component by component.
If A = A x a x  A y a y  A z a z and
B = Bx a x  By a y  Bz a z then
C = A x  Bx a x  A y  B y a y  A z  Bz a z
Similarly one vector can be subtracted from the other as
A B D
? D A x  Bx a x  A y  B y a y  A z  Bz a z

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.1
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Graphically vectors can be added or subtracted using 2 methods:

i) Triangle Law or Head to Tail rule.
ii) Parallelogram law.
These methods are shown in the figure below:

diagram

Parallelogram law Triangle law

The three basic laws of algebra obeyed by any given vectors A,B and C are
Law Addition Multiplication
Commutative A B BA kA Ak
Associative A BC A B C k AA kA A
Distributive k(A  B) kA  kB
Where, k and A are scalars.

A field may be defined mathematically as some function of that vector which

connects an arbitrary origin to a general point in space.

Both scalar and vector fields exists.

A vector field is said to be uniform or constant if it does not depend on space variables x,
y and z.
eg. B 10a x  a y  3a z is a constant or uniform vector field whereas
A 2xya x  3a y  4xza z is a nonuniform vector field.

Position and Distance Vectors

z
A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be
represented by (x, y, z). The position vector
rP (or radius vector) of point P is defined as
the directed distance from the origin O to P,
P(3, 4, 5)
that is,
rP OP xa x  ya y  za z
rP z=5
The position-vector of point P is useful in
defining its position in space. Point (3, 4, 5), y
for example, and its position vector
x=3
3a x  4a y  5a z are shown in the above
y=4
figure. x
Illustration of position vector
rP 3a x + 4a y  5a z

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.2
 Notes on Vectors

The distance vector is the displacement from one point to another. If two points P and Q
are given by (xP, yP, zP) and (xQ, yQ, zQ), the distance vector (or separation vector) is the
displacement form P to Q given as.
rPQ rQ  rP
x Q  xP a x  y Q  yP a y  zQ  zP a z

VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

When 2 vectors are multiplied the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how
they are multiplied. Thus there are 2 types of vector multiplication:

1. Scalar or dot product : A ˜B

2. Vector or cross product : A u B

When 3 vectors A,B and C are multiplied the result can be either

3. Scalar triple product : A ˜ BuC

4. Vector triple product : Au BuC

x Dot Product:
The dot product of two vectors A and B , written as A ˜ B , is defined geometrically as
the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle between them.
Thus: A ˜B AB cos TAB
where, TAB is the smaller angle between A and B .
The result of A ˜ B is called either the scalar product because it is scalar or the dot
product due to the dot sign. If A { A x ,A y ,A z and B { Bx ,By ,Bz then

A ˜B A x B x  A y B y  A zBz

Dot product obeys the following

i) A ˜ B B ˜ A Ÿ Commutative law
ii) A˜ BC A ˜B  A ˜ C Ÿ Distributive law
iii) a x ˜ a x ay ˜ ay az ˜ az 1
iv) a x ˜ a y ay ˜ az az ˜ a x 0

Note: If A ˜ B 0, then vector A and B are said to be orthogonal

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.3
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

x Cross Product:
The cross product of two vectors A and B written as A u B
A u B = AB sin TAB an
A uB
where, an is a unit
vector normal to the
an B
plane containing A
and B . The direction Right handed
of an is that of the screw TAB
advance of a right
handed screw as A A
is turned into B as
shown below.
The cross product A u B can be calculated as
ax ay az
A u B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
Some properties of cross product are: ax
i) A u B z B u A not commutative
ii) A u B B u A anti commutative
iii) A u B u C z A u B u C not associative
az ay
iv) A u B  C A u B  Au C distributive
v) A u A 0
vi) a x u a y a z , ay u az ax , az u ax ay

The area of the parallelogram formed by any 2 vectors A and B is given by

A u B and area
1
of triangle is A uB
2

x Scalar Triple Product

Given three vectors A,B and C , we define scalar triple product as

A˜ BuC B˜ Cu A C ˜ A u B . Thus if A { A x , A y, A z , B { Bx ,By ,Bz

and C { Cx ,Cy ,Cz

Ax Ay Az
then A˜ BuC Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz
Since the result is a scalar, it is called scalar triple product.

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.4
 Notes on Vectors

x Vector Triple Product

For A,B and C we define vector triple product as

Au BuC B A ˜C  C A ˜B

Components of a Vector

Given a vector A , we define the scalar component AB of A along vector B as [see figure
(a) below] AB A cos TAB A aB cos TAB

or AB A ˜ aB …(1)

The vector component AB of A along B is simply the scalar component in equation (1)
multiplied by a unit vector along B ; that is,
AB AB aB A˜aB aB …(2)

Both the scalar and vector components of A are illustrated in the following figure.
A A

A  AB
T AB T AB
B B
AB AB
(a) Scalar component AB (b) Vector component AB
Components of A along B

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

(1) Orthogonal Co-ordinate System:

The co-ordinate system in which axes are mutually perpendicular to each other is
called as Orthogonal Coordinate system.
(2) Non-orthogonal Co-ordinate System:
The co-ordinate system in which axes are not mutually perpendicular to each other is
called as Non Orthogonal Coordinate system.

x Types of Orthogonal Coordinate System

(A) Cartesian Coordinate system
(B) Cylindrical Coordinate system
(C) Spherical Coordinate system

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.5
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

(A) Cartesian Coordinate System (x, y, z)

In cartesian system point. P can be represented as (x, y, z) as shown is figure
below.
The ranges of co-ordinate variable z
y < x < y
y < y < y
y < z < y P(x, y, z)
az
A vector A can be represented
ay
as A A x ax  A y ay  Az az ax y
Dot Product and Cross Product
ax ˜ ax ay ˜ ay az ˜ az 1 x ay
ax ˜ ay ay ˜ az az ˜ a x 0
ax u ax ay u ay az u az 0 az
ax u ay a z a y u a x a z ax
ay u az a x a z u a y a x
az u ax a y a x u a z a y

(B) Cylindrical Coordinate System

In cylindrical system same point p can be represented as (U, I, z)

Point P and unit vectors in the cylindrical coordinate system

U Ÿ Radius of cylinder (from zaxis)

I Ÿ Angle made by xaxis with projection of ‘U’
z Ÿ distance of point ‘p’ from xy plane.
The ranges of coordinate variables
0dUdy
0 d I d 2S
y < z < y

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.6
 Notes on Vectors

The vector A can be represented as.

o
A = AU. aU + AI. a I +Az. a z aI
Dot Product and Cross Product
aU ˜aU  a I ˜a I  a z ˜a z = 1 aU ua I  a z
aU az
aU ˜a I  a I ˜a z  a z ˜aU = 0 a I ua z  aU
aU uaU  a I ua I  a z ua z = 0 a z uaU  a I
Thus from above, the vector in cartesian can be transformed in cylindrical and
vice-versa, using following transformation.
In matrix form, we write the transformation of vector A from (Ax, Ay, Az) to
A U, A I, A z as
ª AU º ª cos Isin I0 º ª A x º
« » «  sin Icos I0 » « A »
«AI » « »« y» …(3)
«A » «¬ 00 1 »¼ « A »
¬ z¼ ¬ z¼

The inverse of the transformation A U, A I, A z o A x, A y, A z is obtained as

ªAx º ª cos I sin I0 º ª A U º
« » « sin Icos I0 » « A » …(4)
«Ay » « »« I»
«A » «¬ 00 1 »¼ « A »
¬ z¼ ¬ z¼

(C) Spherical Coordinate System (r, T, I)

In Spherical system same point p can be represented as (r,T, I)
z

ar
aI
P
aT
T r

y
I

x
Point P and unit vectors in spherical coordinates
In this figure:
r Ÿ radius of sphere (from origin)
T Ÿ angle made by zaxis with r.
I Ÿ angle made by xaxis with projection of r on x-y plane [r z rc] [rc = U]

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.7
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Ranges of coordinate variables

0 d r < y
0 d T d S
0 d I d 2S
The vector A can be represented as.
o
A Ar .ar  A T .a T  A I .a I
Dot product and Cross product aT
ar ˜ ar  a T ˜ a T a I ˜ a I 1 ar u a T aI
ar
ar ˜ a T  a T ˜ a I a I ˜ ar 0 aT u aI ar
a r u ar  a T u a T aI u aI 0 a I u ar  a T aI
Here also a vector in cartesian can be transformed in spherical and vice-versa,
using following transformation
In matrix form, the (Ax, Ay, Az) o (Ar, AT, AI) vector transformation is performed
according to

ª Ar º ªsinT cos Isin T sin Icos T º ª A x º

« » «cos T cos Icos T sin I sin T » « A »
«AT » « »« y» …(5)
«A » «¬  sin Icos I0 »¼ « A »
¬ I¼ ¬ z¼

The inverse transformation Ar ,A T ,A I o (Ax, Ay, Az) is similarly obtained as,
ªAx º ªsinT cos Icos T cos I sin I º ª Ar º
« » «sin T sin Icos T sin Icos I » « A » …(6)
«Ay » « »« T»
«A » «¬cos T sin T0 »¼ « A I »
¬ z¼ ¬ ¼

x Relation between Cartesian Coordinate System and Cylindrical Coordinate

System
From the figure shown,
x = U cos I
y = U sin I
z=z p(U, I, z)
The conversion is as follows: p(x, y, z)

U = x2  y2
§y·
I = tan1 ¨© x ¸¹

z=z
x = U cos I

y = U sin I

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.8
 Notes on Vectors

x Relation between Cartesian Coordinate System and Spherical Coordinate

System z
From the figure shown,
U = r sin T
r x 2  y 2  z2
x2  y2 P(x, y, z), (r, T, I) (U, I, z)
T tan1
z z = r cos T
1 § y · z
I tan ¨ ¸
©x¹ T r
y
The conversion is as follows: y
x = r sinT. cosI U
2A I
y = r sin T. sin I
x = U cos I = r sin T cos I
z = r cos T
x y = U . sin I
y = r sin T . sin I

x Relationship between cylindrical and spherical co-ordinate System

Between cylindrical and spherical coordinates is obtained using
U
r U2  z2 T tan1 ,I I
z
or U r sin T,z r cos T, I I
Vector transformation between cylindrical and spherical coordinates is obtained using
ª Ar º ª sinT  cos T º ª A U º
« » « »« »
« A T » « cos T0 sin T » « A I »
« A » « 0 » « A »
¬ I¼ ¬ ¼¬ z¼

ª AU º ª sinTcos T0 º ª Ar º
« » « »« »
«AI » « 00 1 » « A T »
«A » «¬ cos T sin T0 »¼ « A I »
¬ z¼ ¬ ¼
z
x Differential Length, Area and Volume
az
1. Cartesian Coordinate System:
2 dz
a) Differential Length
JG
dl dx ˜ a x  dy ˜ a y  dz ˜ a z 1 3 ay
ax
dx
b) Differential Area dy
JJJG y
ds1 dy ˜ dz ˜ a x , x = constant
JJJJG z
ds 2 dx ˜ dy ˜ a z , z = constant x
JJJJG
ds3 dx ˜ dz ˜ a y , y = constant x
y
c) Differential Volume dv = [Link]

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.9
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

2. Cylindrical Coordinate System:

a) Differential Length
G
dl [Link]  UdI.a I  dz.a z
b) Differential Area
JJJG
ds1 dU ˜ dz ˜ a I , I = constant
JJJJG
ds2 UdU ˜ dI ˜ a z , z = constant
JJJJG
ds3 UdI ˜ dz ˜ aU , U = constant

c) Differential Volume dv = [Link] [Link]

3. Spherical Coordinate System:

a) Differential Length
G
dl = dr ˜ ar  r ˜ dT ˜ a T  r sin TdI ˜ a I

b) Differential Area
JJJG
ds1 r 2 sin TdT ˜ dI ˜ ar , r = constant
JJJJG
ds 2 r sin Tdr ˜ dI ˜ a T , T = constant
JJJJG
ds3 rdr ˜ dT ˜ a I , I = constant

c) Differential Volume
dv = r2 [Link]

DEL OPERATOR
The del operator written as ’, is the vector differential operator.
In Cartesian coordinates,
w w w
’ ax  ay  az
wx wy wz
The Del operator is useful in defining:
1. Gradient of a scalar V, written as ’ V
2. Divergence of a vector A , written as ’ ˜ A
3. Curl of a vector A, written as ’ u A
4. Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ’ 2 V
In cylindrical coordinate system ’ can be expressed as,
w 1 w w
’ aU  aI  az
wU U wI wz

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.10
 Notes on Vectors

In spherical coordinate system ’ can be expressed as,

w 1w 1 w
’ ar  a T  aI
wr r wT r sin T wI
x Gradient of a scalar:
By definition, the gradient of a scalar V is a vector that represents both the magnitude
and direction of maximum space rate of increase of V.
The fundamental properties of the gradient of a scalar field V are:
(i) The magnitude of ’V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distances.
(ii) ’V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V
(iii) ’V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface which passes through
that point.
(iv) The projection (or component) of ’V in the direction of a unit vector a is ’V ˜ a
and is called the directional derivative of V along a . This is the rate of change of
V in the direction of a .
(v) If A ’V , then V is said to be the scalar potential of A .
Some formulae concerned with gradient are:
(i) ’(V  U) ’V  ’U
(ii) ’(VU) V’U  U’V
§ V · U’V  V’U
(iii) ’ ¨ ¸
©U¹ U2
(iv) ’Vn nVn1’V
where, U and V are scalars and n is an integer.
Example:
Given W= x2y2 +xyz. Compute gradient of W and the directional derivative dW/d A in
the direction 3a x  4a y  12a z at the point (2, 1, 0).
Solution:
wW wW wW
’W ax  ay  az
wx wy wz
’W (2xy 2  yz)a x  (2x 2 y  xz)a y  (xy)a z
At the point (2, 1, 0)
’W 4a x  8a y  2a z
dW
Hence, ’W ˜ a A
dA
3a x  4a y  12a z 3a x  4a y  12a z
aA
32  42  122 13

dW 3a x  4a y  12a z
4a x  8a y  2a z ˜
dA 13
dW 44

dA 13

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.11
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR AND DIVERGENCE THEOREM

The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a closed surface s is obtained from the
integral v³ A ˜ ds . Then the divergence of A is defined as the net outward flow of flux per
unit volume over a closed incremental surface. In other words, the divergence of A at a
given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
Hence,
v³s A ˜ ds
divA ’˜A L im …(7)
’Qo 0 ’Q
where, ’Q is the volume enclosed by the surface s is which P is located.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure (a) shows that the divergence of a vector field at point P is positive because the
vector diverges (or spreads out). In figure (b) the vector field has negative divergence (or
convergence) at P. In figure (c) the vector field has zero divergence at P.
The expression for divergence in different coordinate systems can be stated as follows:
wA x wA y wA z
’˜A   [For Cartesian coordinate]
wx wy wz
1 w 1 wA I wA z
’˜A (UA U )   [For Cylindrical co-ordinate]
U wU U wI wz
1 w 2 1 w 1 wA I
’˜A (r Ar )  (A T sin T)  [For Spherical coordinate]
r wr
2
rsinT wT r sin T wI

Some properties of divergence are

(i) It produces a scalar field
(ii) ’ ˜ (A  B) ’ ˜ A  ’ ˜ B
(iii) The divergence of a scalar V, div V makes no sense.
In a given field, divergence is always positive at the source and negative at the sink
points. If a point is neither a source nor a sink, then divergence at that point is zero.

If ’ ˜ A 0 , it means A is solenoidal or divergenless.

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.12
 Notes on Vectors

from the definition we can also show that

v³S
A ˜ dS ³ ’ ˜ A dv
v
…(8)

This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as the GaussOstrogradsky

theorem.
Thus, the divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A
through the closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A .

Gauss’s divergence theorem is applicable only for closed surfaces.

CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES’S THEOREM

Curl of vector A is defined as an axial vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is normal
direction of the area when the area is oriented so as the make the circulation maximum.
§
¨ v³L A ˜ dA ·¸
’uA ¨ 'lim ¸ anmax …(9)
¨
s o0 's ¸
© ¹
where, the area 's is bounded by the curve L and an is the unit vector normal to the
surface 's and is determined using righthand rule.

In Cartesian coordinate system if

A A x ax  A y ay  Az az

ax ay az
then ’uA w / wx w / wy w / wz
Ax Ay Az

In the cylindrical coordinate system,

aU Ua I az
1
’uA w / wU w / wU w / wU
U
AU UA I Az

In spherical coordinate system,

ar ra T r sin Ta I
1
’uA w / wr w / wT w / wI
r 2 sin T
Ar rA T r sin TA I

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.13
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Some properties of curl are:

(i) The curl of a vector field is another vector field
(ii) The curl of a scalar field V, ’ u V , makes no value.
(iii) ’ u (A  B) ’ u A  ’ u B
(iv) ’ u (A u B) A(’ ˜ B)  B(’ ˜ A)  (B ˜ ’)A  (A ˜ ’)B
(v) The divergence of the curl of a vector field vanishes, that is ’ ˜ (’ u A) 0
(vi) The curl of the gradient of a scalar field vanishes, that is, ’ u ’V 0

x Physical significance of Curl:

The curl of a vector provides the maximum value of circulation of the field per unit
area and indicates the direction along which this maximum value occurs
Following figure (a) shows that the curl of a vector field around P is directed out of the
page, whereas figure (b) shows a vector field with zero curl.

P
P

(a) Curl at P points out of the page (b) Curl at P is zero

Illustration of a curl

dS

L Closed path L

Surface S

dl

Determining the sense of d l and dS involved in stokes’s theorem

Also, from the definition of the curl of A in equation (9), we may expect that

v³
L
A˜d l ³ S
’ u A ˜ dS …(10)

This is called Stokes's theorem.

Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed) path
L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by
L, as shown in the above figure, provided A and ’ u A are continuous on S.

A vector field A is said to be irrotational (or potential) if ’ u A 0

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.14
 Notes on Vectors

That is is, a curlfree vector is irrotational. From Stokes’s theorem

³S
’ u A ˜ dS v³
L
A˜d l 0

Thus in an irrotational field A , the circulation of A around a closed path is identically

zero. This implies that the line integral of A is independent of the chosen path.
Therefore, an irrotational field is also known as a conservative field. Examples of
irrotational fields include the electrostatic field and the gravitational field.
Thus, an irrotational field A can always be expressed in terms of a scalar field V; that is,

if ’uA 0
then v³ L
A˜d l 0 and A ’V

For this reason, A may be called a potential field and V the scalar potential of A .

LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR

The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as ’ 2 V , is defined as the divergence of gradient

of V.
In Cartesian coordinates
w2 V w2 V w2 V
’2 V  
wx 2 wy 2 wz2
In cylindrical coordinates
1 w § wV · 1 w 2 V w 2 V
’2 V ¨U ¸ 
U wU © wU ¹ U2 wI2 wz2

In spherical coordinates
1 w § 2 wV · 1 w § wV · 1 w2 V
’2 V ¨ r ¸  ¨ sin T 
r 2 wr © wr ¹ r 2 sin T wT © wT ¸¹ r 2 sin2 T wI2

If ’ 2 V 0, then the scalar field V is called harmonic in a given region.

We have for a vector field A that ’ 2 A ’(’ ˜ A)  ’ u ’ u A

VECTOR IDENTITIES

1. ’uA 0 means A is irrotational vector field

2. ’ u A z 0 means A is vortex field

3. If v³ A ˜ dA 0 then A is said to be conservative field

4. If ’ 2 V 0 then V is said to be a harmonic scalar field.

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.15
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

x Some of the important vector identities are:

1. ’(V  U) ’V  ’U
2. ’(VU) V’U  U’V
§ V · U’V  V’U
3. ’¨ ¸
©U¹ U2
4. ’Vn nVn1’V (n = integer)
5. ’(A ˜ B) (A ˜ ’)B  (B ˜ ’)A  A u (’ u B)  B u (’ u A)
6. ’ ˜ (A  B) ’ ˜ A  ’ ˜B

7. ’ ˜ (A u B) B ˜ (’ u A)  A ˜ (’ u B)

8. ’ ˜ (’V) ’ V
9. ’ ˜ (VA) V(’ ˜ A)  A ˜ ’V
10. ’ ˜ (’ u A) 0
11. ’ u (A  B) ’ u A  ’ uB
12. ’ u A u B A ’ ˜ B)  B(’ ˜ A)  (B ˜ ’)A  (A ˜ ’)B
13. ’ u ’V 0
14. ’ u (VA) ’V u A  V(’ u A)
15. ’ u (’ u A) ’(’ ˜ A)  ’2 A
16. v³ A ˜ dA ³ (’ u A) ˜ ds
L s

17. v³ V ˜ dA
L
 ³ ’V u ds
s

18. v³ A ˜ ds ³ ’ ˜ Adv
s v

19. v³ V ˜ ds ³ ’Vdv
s v

20. v³ A u ds
s
 ³ ’ u Adv
v

where AandB are vectors and U and V are scalars.

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.16
 Notes on Vectors

LIST OF FORMULAE

x Any unit vector a AB can be obtained as

AB
a AB
AB

x Some formulae concerned with gradient are:

(i) ’(V  U) ’V  ’U

(ii) ’(VU) V’U  U’V

§V· U’V  V’U

(iii) ’ ¨ ¸
©U¹ U2

(iv) ’Vn nVn1’V

where U and V are scalars and n is an integer.

x ³³³ (’ ˜ A)dv w
V
³³ A ˜ dss

x v³ A ˜ dA ³³ (’ u A) ˜ ds
L s

LMR (LAST MINUTE REVISION)

x Any vector divided by its magnitude gives unit vector.

x A field may be defined mathematically as some function of that vector which
connects an arbitary origin to a general point in space.
x A vector field is said to be uniform or constant if it does not depend on space
variables x, y and z.
x If A { A x ,A y , A z and B { Bx ,By ,Bz then
A ˜B A x B x  A y B y  A zBz
Dot product obeys the following
i) A ˜ B B ˜ A Ÿ Commutative law
ii) A˜ BC A ˜B  A ˜ C Ÿ Distributive law
iii) a x ˜ a x ay ˜ ay az ˜ az 1
ax ˜ ay ay ˜ az az ˜ a x 0

x For A,B and C we define vector triple product as

Au BuC B A ˜C  C A ˜B

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.17
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

x The area of the parallelogram formed by any 2 vectors A and B is given by A u B

1
and area of triangle is A uB
2
x The del operator is useful in defining
1. Gradient of a scalar V, written as ’ V
2. Divergence of a vector A , written as ’ ˜ A
3. Curl of a vector A, written as ’ u A
4. Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ’ 2 V
x The divergence of A is defined as the net outward flow of flux per unit volume over a
closed incremental surface.
x If ’ ˜ A 0 , it means A is solenoidal or divergenceless.
x The curl of a vector provides the maximum value of circulation of the field per unit
area and indicates the direction along which this maximum value occurs.
x Some Vector Identities:
1. ’ u A 0 means A is irrotational vector field
2. ’ u A z 0 means A is vertex field
3. If v³ A ˜ dA 0 then A is said to be conservative field
4. If ’ 2 V 0 then V is said to be a harmonic scalar field.

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GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.18
 Assignment on Vectors

ASSIGNMENT  1

Duration: 45 mins Marks: 30

Q 1 to Q 6 carry one mark each

1. The cross product of 3 a x and 4 a z is

(A) 12 a y (B) 12 a y
(C) az (D) ay

2. In a scalar triple product given by A ˜ (B u C) if any 2 vectors are same then the
result is
(A) BuC (B) A ˜B
(C) A (D) None of these

3. ’ u (’ ˜ A) is
(A) always a vector (B) always is a scalar
(C) meaningless (D) can be either a vector or a scalar

4. If v³ A ˜ dA 0,thenA is called
(A) conservative field (B) vortex field
(C) harmonic field (D) irrotational field

5. Statement 1: Gauss’s divergence theorem cannot be applied to open surfaces.

Statement 2: Stoke’s theorem can be applied to closed surfaces only
Statements 1 and 2 are respectively
(A) True, True (B) True, False
(C) False, True (D) False, False

6. v³ V ˜ dA is equivalent to
L

(A) v³ ’V u ds
s
(B)  v³ ’V u ds
s

(C) v³ ’Vdv
V
(D)  v³ ’Vdv
V

Q7 to Q18 carry two marks each

7. The direction of the unit vector of A where A 2a x  3a y  5a z is given by

(A) r a x  a y  az (B) r 2a x  3a y  5a z / 6.16

2a x  3a y  5a z 2a x  a y  a z
(C) r (D) r
38 6.16

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.19
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

8. If the position vectors of A and B is given by a 3a x  4a y  9a z and

b a x  7a y  3a z , then the magnitude of vector AB is
(A) 169 (B) 157
(C) 61 (D) 49

9. Which of the following pair of vectors are orthogonal?

(A) A a x  2a y  a z ; B 3a x  a y  a z
(B) A 3 a x  2a y  a z ; B 2a x  3a y  a z
(C) A  4 a x ;   B 4a y
(D) A  3 a x  2a z ;  B 4a y  6 a z

10. If A is a divergenceless vector then ’2 A is equal to

(A) ’u’uA (B) ’ u ’ u A
(C) ’uA (D) ’ u A

11. If the coordinate of a point P in spherical coordinates are (8, S/6, S/3) then the
Cartesian coordinates are
(A) (2, 2 3 , 4) (B) (2, 2 3,4 3 )
(C) (2,2 3 , 3) (D) (2,2 3,2)

12. Consider A 3a x  4a y and B 7a y  2a z .

The smaller angle between the two vectors A and B will be,
(A) 39.72D (B) 41.9D
(C) 19.4D (D) 27.93D

13. Consider a vector field, P yz a x  zx a y  xy a z .

Statement 1: The vector p is irrotational.
Statement 2: The vector P is solenoidal.
Which of the above statement (s) is/are true?
Codes:
(A) Both the statements are true
(B) Statement 1 is true but statement 2 is false
(C) Statement 2 is true but statement 1 is false
(D) Both the statements are false.

14. If the vector V x  3y  pz a x  qx  2y  z a y  6x  ry  2z a z is irrotational,

the constant p, q and r will be
(A) 3, 1, 6 (B) 6, 3, 1
(C) 3, 6, 1 (D) 6, 3, 1

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.20
 Assignment on Vectors

15. If the angle between the vectors A 3a x  2a y  4a z and B a x  a y  Bz a z is

45q, the value of Bz will be
i. 27.3
ii. 1.25
iii. 0.101
(A) Both 1 and 3 (B) Only 2
(C) All of the above (D) Only 1

16. Find the angle at which line x = y = 2z intersects the ellipsoid x2 + y2 + 2z2 = 10
(A) 50 q (B) 63.5q
(C) 34.42q (D) 74.21q

17. In spherical coordinates A kr n ar , then what will be ³ ’.Adv, where dv is the

vol

elemental volume of sphere of radius ‘a’ with centre at the origin.

(A) 2Skan+1 (B) 4Sk/an+2
n+2
(C) 4Ska (D) 2Sk/an+1

18. If a triangle is defined by three points A (2, 4, 1), B (3, 2, 4) and C = (0, 4, 2),
then what will be the unit vector perpendicular to the plane in which the triangle is
located
(A) 18a x  a y  28a x (B) 18a x  a y  28a x
(C) r 0.54a x  0.03a y  0.84a z (D) 0.54a x  0.03a y  0.84a z

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GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.21
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

TEST PAPER  1

Duration: 30 mins Marks: 25

1. The result of A. B u C is
(A) Scalar (B) Vector
(C) depends on C (D) depends on A

2. We say that scalar field V is harmonic only if its _______ is zero.

(A) gradient (B) curl
(C) divergence (D) laplacian

3. Which of the following vector fields is a uniform vector field.

(A) 2x a x  3a z (B) 3x2z a z
(C) a x  2a y (D) 5za z

4. Match the column A with its equivalent in column B.

Column A Column B
(i) ’ ˜ (VA) (p) ’V u A  V(’ u A)
(ii) ’ ˜ (’ u A) (q) V(’ ˜ A)  A ˜ ’V
(iii) ’ u ’V (r) meaningless
(iv) ’ u (’ ˜ A) (s) 0
(t) ’(’ ˜ A)  ’ 2 A
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(A) p t s r
(B) p s r t
(C) q s s r
(D) q t r s

5. The equivalent coordinate of A 2a x  2a y  3a z in cylindrical coordinate

system is
(A) 17,S / 4,3 (B) 17,S / 4,3

(C) 8,S / 4,3 (D) 8,S / 4,3

Q6 to Q15 carry two marks each

6. The scalar triple product A ˜ (A u B) has the value

(A) A uB (B) 0
(C) A ˜B (D) None of these

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.22
 Test paper on Vectors

Consider the following for Q7  Q8 questions. Let the position vectors of A,B
 andC are
a 3a x  2a y  5a z b a x  a z ,c 3a y  2a z
7. The area of parallelogram formed by ABandAC is
(A) 14 (B) 28
(C) 20 (D) 40

8. The area of triangle formed by ABandAC is

(A) 14 (B) 28
(C) 20 (D) 40

9. Which of the following pair of vectors are not orthogonal?

(A) A a x  2a y  a z ; B 3a x  a y  a z
(B) A 3a x  2a y  a z ; B  2a x  3a y
(C) A  4a x ; B 4a y
(D) A  3a x  2a z ; B 4a y  6a z

10. Statement 1: Dot product is commutative

Statement 2: Cross product is associative
Statements 1 and 2 are respectively
(A) True, True (B) True, False
(C) False, True (D) False, False

11. In cylindrical coordinates Laplacian of a scalar V can be expressed as

1 w § wV · 1 w 2 V w 2 V
(A) ’2 V ¨ ¸ 
U wU © wU ¹ U wI2 wz2
1 w § wV · 1 § w2 V · 1 w2 V
(B) ’2 V ¨U ¸ ¨ 2 ¸
U wU © wU ¹ U © wI ¹ U wz
2

1 w § wV · 1 § w2V · w2V
(C) ’2 V ¨U ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 2
U wU © wU ¹ U © wI ¹ wz
1 w § wV · 1 § w 2 V · w 2 V
(D) ’2 V ¨U ¸ ¨ ¸
U wU © wU ¹ U © wI2 ¹ wz2

12. Statement 1: | ’V | gives the minimum rate of charge per unit distance
Statement 2: If A ’V,thenV is said to be scalar potential of A
Statements 1 and 2 are respectively
(A) True, True (B) True, False
(C) False, True (D) False, False

13. If A is a vector orthogonal to B then A u (B u C) is equal to

(A) (A ˜ C)B (B) (A ˜ C)B
(C) A(B ˜ C) (D) (B ˜ C)A

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.23
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

ID QUESTION

14(a). If the points given are A (3, 5, 2)m, B (4, 1, 3)m and C (2, 3, 1)m, the length
of projection of R AB on R AC will be
(A) 35.7 m (B) 3.57 m
(C) 0.357 m (D) 3.57 cm

14(b). For the above determine the vector projection of R AB on R AC

(A) 0.81a x  0.32a y  0.49 a z (B) 0.81a z  0.32a y  0.49a z
(C) 2.9a x  1.16a y  1.74a z (D) 2.9a x  1.16a y  1.74a z

‰‰‰‰‰‰

GATE/EC/EEM/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.24