6

2.2 What is Meant by a Clefted Sentence?

Crystal (1993:313) defines a sentence as “the largest
structure unit in terms of which the grammar of a language is
organized”. Most linguists agree on classifying sentences
according to their internal structure and their functional/grammar
type. The basic sentence types that are classified according to
their internal structure are: declarative sentences, interrogative
sentences, imperative sentences, clefted sentences, pseudo-
clefted sentences, passive sentences, and exclamatory sentences.
The basic sentence types that are classified according to their
structure types are: simple, complex and compound
sentences. (ibid)

Users of any human language have many options when they

compose a sentence. English, for example has been gifted with an
enormous variety of sentence types in which each sentence has its
own subtitles of emphasis and meaning. (Baker, 1978:101)

Quirk et al., (1998:88) argue that there are many

considerations of grammatical structures which are related to the
speaker’s or writer’s need to present the message in a form
adopted to the addressee’s requirements as interpreter. One of
these constructions is referred to as “clefted sentence”.
Generally, a clefted sentence is grammatically a distinct
construction whose members are characteristically derivable from
 7

more elementary clauses by dividing them into two parts: one of

which is highlighted “the focal element” and the other is
subordinated in the form of a relative clause which has the
highlighted element as an antecedent (Huddleston, 1988:185).

The clefted sentence is used to help the speaker to focus on

a particular part of the sentence and to emphasise what the
speaker wants to say by introducing it or building up to it with a
kind of a relative clause. The word “cleft” is derived from the
base “cleave” which means divided into two. (ibid: 186) as in:
(2-1) My brother bought his new car from our next-door
neighbour last Saturday.
(2-2) It was my brother who bought his new car from our
neighbour last Saturday.
(2-4)a. It was last Saturday when my brother bought his new car
from our neighbour.
(2-4)b. It was a new car that my brother bought from our
neighbour last Saturday.
(2-4)c. It was our next-door neighbour that my brother bought
his new car from last Saturday.

So, the structure of a clefted sentence allows a writer to

emphasize a part of a sentence in the same way that a speaker can
emphasize part of a sentence using voice stress.
 8

The clefted sentence is a complex sentence in which a

simple sentence is expressed using a main clause and a
subordinate clause (Beeston, 1970: 42).

In clefted constructions, the highlighted element is the

complement of the verb be, with it functioning as subject. The
relative clause can be either of the non-WH class, or the WH-
class.

(2-5) A faulty switch caused the trouble.

(2-5)a. It was a faulty switch that caused the trouble.
(2-5)b. What caused the trouble was a faulty switch.

The relative clause can have a number of syntactic

functions: subject, direct object, complement of a preposition,
neutral PP complement, complement or adjunct of time or place.
(Huddleston, 1984:454).

To illustrate, consider the following examples:

(2-6) It is Tom who is responsible for the problem. (Subject)
(2-7) It is Tom I blame. Direct object
(2-8) It was Ed that she was referring to. Comp. of prep.
(2-9) It was to Ed that she was referring. neutral PP comp.
(2-10) It is tomorrow that he’s coming. Time Adjunct
 9

(2-11) It is tomorrow that she says he’s coming. Time Adjunct

within embedded
clause
(2-12) It was because he lied that he was dismissed. Reason
Adjunct

2.3 Clefted Sentence Formation

The process of forming clefted sentence is called
“clefting”, which is used to focus on a particular constituent in
the sentence. This process involves extracting a constituent from
its basic position in the sentence and putting it in a more
prominent position. (Wekker and Haegman, 1985:150).

It is often possible to form a number of different “cleft

sentences” from the same basic sentence. To illustrate this
consider the following examples in which the first sentence is the
basic sentence from which the following “clefted sentences” are
derived (Leech et al., 1982:126).
(2-13) John was wearing pink socks last night.
(2-13)a. It was John that was wearing pink socks last night.
(2-13)b. It was pink socks that John was wearing last night.
(2-13)c. It was last night that John was wearing pink socks.

It consists of the following general form: (It is /was + X +

that + y). It consists of it followed by a form of the verb to be,
 10

followed by some constituent X, followed by a clause introduced

by that from which X has been “extracted” as in the following
examples, (Akmajian and Heny, 1975:163):
(2-14) It was the burglar that ------------ broke the lamp.
(2-15) It was Mary that I want to meet ------------.
(2-16) It was under the mattress that we found the money -------.
(2-17) It is at three o’clock in the afternoon that they change
guards -------.

In the above examples, X is respectively the burglar, Mary,

under the mattress, and at three o’clock in the afternoon; Y is
broke the lamp, I want to meet, we found the money and they
change guards; and ------- is the site from which the material in
X has been “extracted”.

Leech et al., (1982:126) point out a rough approximation to

the rule for forming clefted sentences:
(a) "choose an element of the clause: it may be S, O, C, or, A, but
not P,
(b) move that element which we may call X into the initial
position, then prefix to it the “prop subject it, and the verb
to be, and
(c) introduce the rest of the clause by the relative pronoun that
following X.
 11

Nash (1986:30) shows that the clefted sentence has a

superficial resemblance to the extra position. From a single clause
like:
(2-18)a. The dog ate my dinner.

we may derive twin-clause forms.

such as:
(2-18)b. It was the dog that ate my dinner.
(2-18)c. It was my dinner (that) the dog ate.

Nash (ibid) also mentions that in the clefted sentence the

focus is on the element immediately following BE. Therefore, it
is possible to compose a clefted sentence indicative of a focus on
subject, object, complement or adverbial, as in the following
examples:

(2-19) It was Darwin who developed the theory of evolution. (=

Darwin developed the theory of evolution; focus on
subject)
(2-20) It was my money that you lost. (= ‘you lost my money’;
focus on object)
(2-21) It was here that the battle was fought. (= ‘the battle was
fought here’; focus on adverb)
(2-22) It was green that we painted the bathroom. (= ‘we painted
the bathroom green’; focus on complement)
 12

Radford (1988:493) states that a “clefted sentence” involves

a WH-movement, such as the following:
(2-23) It was JOHN [who she really loves].
(2-24) It was JOHN [that she really loves].

In these examples, the capitalized constituent is in a focus

position, while the bracketed constituent appears to be a relative
clause. This relative clause can be a WH-relative, or a That-
relative, or a Zero-relative.

Leech et al., (1982:126) illustrate that ‘cleft’ derives its

name from the fact that a single clause is “clefted” into two
separate clause-like parts. In general, it is analysed as a single
clause with two predicators, rather than two separate clauses.

Burchfield (1989:38) denotes that traditional grammarians

have respect for the insights of modern grammarians like Rodney
Huddleston. For example, Huddleston illustrates how the verb to
be has the power to highlight or focus attention on a particular
statement, producing ‘clefts’ and ‘pseudo-clefts’ constructions,
e.g.
(2-25) A faulty switch caused the trouble. (not highlighted)
(2-25)a. It was a faulty switch that caused the trouble. (clefted
construction).
 13

(2-25)b. What caused the trouble was a faulty switch. (pseudo-

clefted construction).

As the preceding examples show, the focus element is

surrounded by “it is/ was---that / who- clause”. Although these
that/who-clauses are, in appearance, similar to relative clauses,
but they are not quite the same. (Wekker and Haegeman,
1985:151)

2.4 Introductory “It” in Clefted Sentences

Many clefted sentences begin with the empty pronoun it.
The introductory part of a clefted sentence is generally restricted
to “it is / it was”, as shown in the following examples. (Quirk et
al., 1972:592)
(2-26) It was John that wore his best suit for the dance last night.
[focus on subject]
(2-26)a. It was his best suit that John wore for the dance last
night. [focus on object]
(2-26)b. It was last night that John wore his best suit for the
dance. [focus on adverb of time]

Rutherford (1968:541) denotes that various parts of a

sentence can be given emphasis by means of clefting. The
emphasized element is preceded by it + be and is followed by
 14

that plus the rest of the sentence. This emphasis is derived from
the need to contradict something previously stated.
(2-27) He does not have much of money.
(2-27)a. It is money that he does not have much of.

Thomson and Martinet (1986:78) point out that introductory

“it” can introduce sentences in clefted sentences and it can even
be used with a plural noun:-
(2-28) It is pilots that we need, not ground staff.

“It” is used as an ‘empty’ or prop subject, especially, in

expressions denoting time, distance, or atmospheric conditions.
(Quirk et al., 1972:348)
(2-29) What time is it? It’s half past five.
(2-30) How far is it to York? It’s a long way.
(2-31) It is warm today. It’s been fine weather recently.

In clefted sentences, it has less meaning, e.g.

(2-32) Isn’t it a shame that they lost the game?
(2-33) It must have been here that I first met her.

Swan (1995:116) explains that preparatory it can be used in

clefted sentences, in which the words to be emphasised are
usually joined to the relative clause by that. To illustrate,
consider the following examples:
(2-34)a. My secretary sent the bill to Mr. Harding yesterday.
 15

(2-34)b. It was my secretary that sent the bill to Mr. Harding

yesterday (not somebody else).
(2-34)c. It was the bill that my secretary sent to Mr. Harding
yesterday (not something else).
(2-34)d. It was Mr. Harding that my secretary sent the bill to
yesterday (not somebody else).
(2-34)e. It was yesterday that my secretary sent the bill to Mr.
Harding (not another time).

It should be noted also that me occurs informally in a

“clefted sentence” (Alexander,1988:75).
(2-35) Don’t blame Harry. It was me who opened the letter.

2.5 The “Relative Clause” in Clefted Sentences

The second part of a clefted sentence is somehow similar in
structure to a restrictive relative clause; and yet there are
considerable differences. Pronouns used in a relative clause (who,
that, zero pronoun ,etc ) , are also used to introduce clefted
sentences, as in,
(2-36)a. It is John who she really loves.
(2-36)b. It is John that she really loves.
(2-36)c. It is John she really loves.
(Quirk et al., 1998:1386)
 16

Quirk et al., (1972:953) explain that in clefted sentences the

use of Who-forms are rare in comparison with that and zero.
Whose is allowed in clefted sentences.
(2-37) It’s uncle Bill whose address I lost.

On the other hand, when and which are not always possible,
but it is impossible to use whom or which preceded by a
preposition. It is also important to notice that when the object is a
proper noun, that is more usual than who, as in the following
examples:
(2-38) It was Tom who helped us. (not Bill or Jack)
(2-39) It was Ann that I saw (not Mary).
(Thomson and Martinet , 1986:76)

In fact, that is the most correct form that is used with all
other objects, as in:
(2-40) It is the manager that we want to see.
(2-41) It was wine that we ordered (not beer).

Moreover, Thomson and Martinet (ibid) point out that that

is usual for non-personal subjects:
(2-42) It is speed that causes accidents, not bad roads.

In addition, Quirk et al., (1998:1387) note another

difference that is the ability of the clefted sentence to have its
 17

antecedent i. e., the first focused element not only an NP but also
an adjunct realized by a clause or a PP, e.g.:
(2-43) It was because he was ill (that) we decided to return.
(2-44) It was in September (that) I first met him.

Also, it should be noted that a WH-pronoun cannot be used

in clefted sentences where the focused element is an adjunct.
(2-45)* It was because he was ill which we decided to return.

Radford (1988:493) adds another difference between clefted

sentences and restrictive relative clauses. In restrictives, the
whole antecedent + relative structure forms a unit, while in
clefted sentences, this is not true, since the focused NP has the
ability to be preposed without the following clause, as in the
following examples:
(2-46) John it is [who she really loves].
(2-47)* John [who she really loves] it is.

Also, Wekker and Haegeman (1985:151) add that normal

relative clauses are used to postmodify heads of an NP, (i.e.,
Nouns, not PPs or an adjunct clause) while, the relative clauses in
clefted sentences can be used to “postmodify” PPs and adjunct
clauses.
(2-48) It was on Saturday that Jane gave this book to Bill (a PP)
 18

(2-49) It was because it was his birthday that Jane gave this
book to Bill on Saturday (an adjunct clause).
(2-50) The books which I ordered have finally arrived (A relative
clause postmodifying an NP).

Another difference between the restrictive relative clause

and the relative clause in clefted sentences is that the
that/who/which-element cannot be omitted if it is the subject of
the clause, while in clefted sentences that/who/which-element is
omissible in informal style even if it is the subject of the clause,
(Wekker and Haegeman, 1985:151 and Huddleston, 1988:186).
(2-51)a. The girl who gave the book to Bill is my sister.
(2-51)b.* The girl gave the book to Bill is my sister.
(2-51)c. It was John who did it.

Also, it should be noted that, the relative clause can be

passivised (Baker,1978:145), as in:
(2-52)a. John believes that Alice has flat feet.
(2-52)b. That Alice has flat feet is believed by John.

2.6 Elements Used in Clefted Sentences

Clefted sentences are used to focus on certain elements in
the sentence. A very important fact that should be noted about
clefted sentences in English is that the phrase that occurs in
 19

position X of the frame [it is / was X that….] is always (1) a

single constituent and (2) either an NP or a PP (James. 1980:164).

This observation is noted by many writers, especially,

Jacobs and Rosenbaum (1971:103) who illustrate it in the
following examples:
(2-53) It was a car that she bought. (NP)
(2-54) It was in the shop that I met her. (PP)

So there is a range of elements that can be selected for

highlighting or focusing: subject, complement and an adjunct of
a sentence. (Quirk, 1968:215; Huddleston, 1988;186), as in :
(2-55)a. It was John that bought the car in London.
(2-55)b. It was the car that John bought in London.
(2-55)c. It was in London that John bought the car.

Quirk et al., (1998:547,561-62) give some explanations

about adjuncts when they are used as the focus element in clefted
sentences. An adjunct can be focused in clefted sentences,
especially, when they are modified or are in negative or
interrogative focal clause.
(2-56) It is very frequently that he loses his money.
(2-57) It is not often that I have a chance to speak to him.
(2-58) Is it often that she drives alone?
 20

Quirk et al., (ibid:561) also argue that in the case of manner

adjuncts they cannot be the focus of a clefted sentence when they
are realized by adverbs, e. g.:
(2-59)* It was categorically that they were told that no more oil
would come from the wreck.

Sometimes they are accepted, especially, when they are

modified or the focal clause is in the interrogative or negative
case, as in:
(2-60) Was it categorically that they were told that no more oil
would come from the wreck?
(2-61)a. It is in the French style that they cook.
(2-61)b. It isn’t in the French style that they cook.
(2-62) It was with the almost care / precision/ caution that the
last girder was laid in place.

As far as it is concerned with means, instrument, and agent

adjunct, these can be the focus of a clefted sentence, even if they
are realized by single adverbs, e.g.:
(2-63) It was with a bullet that he was killed.
(2-64) It was by a terrorist that he was killed.
(2-65) It was intentionally that these linguistic units were
separated.
 21

Quirk et al., ([Link]) also point out that amplifiers

cannot be the focus of a clefted sentence, as in:
(2-66)* It was completely that he ignored your request.

But sometimes, they can be accepted to be the focal of a

clefted sentence, particularly, when they are modified or the focal
clause is in the interrogative or negative case, e.g.:
(2-67) Was it completely that he ignored your request?
(2-68) I know that it was not entirely that he agreed with us.

Emonds (1976:132-133) claims that there are elements

which cannot be the focus of a clefted sentence: adjectival or
adverbial phrase (AP), full sentences, infinitives, and other verb
phrases, e.g.:
(2-69)* It is very unhappy that Bill is.
(2-70)* It was useless that the meeting seemed.
(2-71)* It was too carefully that she spoke.
(2-72)* It is blow up some buildings that you should.
(2-73)* It was to report on time that we failed.

Also, that-clauses are excluded in the focus position of a

clefted sentence as in:
(2-74)* It was that you explain your motives that was important.
 22

In addition, VP introduced by V + ing that do not occur as

an NP like other gerunds, normally do not appear in clefted focus
position, as in the following examples:
(2-75)* It was throwing away some letters that John noticed
Bill.
(2-76)* It was stealing my money that she caught him.

On the contrary, Emonds (ibid:133) mentions that gerund

clauses that have the category NP, appear freely in the clefted
focus position:
(2-77) It was buying a new hat that I enjoyed.
(2-78) It is driving carelessly that upsets me.
(2-79) Was it Mary’s having cashed the check that Bill
regretted?

Huddleston (1988:186) denotes that the restriction on which

elements can be selected to be highlighted in clefted sentences is
partly a matter of function, and partly a matter of class. For
function, the predicator cannot be selected. * It’s cunning/an
agnostic that he is. Also, the Oi cannot be highlighted. * It was
Kim I gave the book. It is more natural to say It was Kim I gave
the book to, or It was to Kim I gave the book.

It should be noticed that the clefted sentence can be

used in questions, exclamations, and subordinate clauses as in the
 23

following examples, (Quirk et al., 1972:954):-

(2-80) Was it for this that we suffered and toiled?
(2-81) What a glorious bonfire it was you made!
(2-82) He told me that it was because he was ill that they decided
to return.

Swan (1995:116) shows that negative structures are also

possible in clefted sentences:
(2-83) It was not my husband that sent the bill.

2.7 The Importance of Clefted Sentences

Clefting is a process which has a stylistic value because it
enables the writer to demonstrate or contrast focus without having
to return to the hypographical shifts of underlining, bold type,
capitals, etc. (Swan, 1995:30).

Clefting is useful because of its unambiguous marking of

the focus of information in written English, where the clue of
intonation is absent (Quirk et al., 1972:951).

Clefting is very common in spoken English. But it is also

convenient in writing because it provides unmistakable guidance
to the reader in deciding appropriate prosody (Greenbaum and
Quirk , 1990:411-412).
 24

Greenbaum and Quirk (ibid) argue that which of the two

focused items in a clefted sentence is new will depend on the
content, as in the following examples:
(2-84) A:You should criticize his CALLousness.
B: No, it is his CALLousness that I shall ignore.
[callousness given; ignore new].
A: You should ignore his dishonesty
B: No, it is his CALLousness that I shall ignore.
[callousness new; ignore given].

Quirk et al., (1998:1384) state that clefting is a flexible

process in what it will permit to be fronted. Also the form of the
clefted sentence, in having the subject pronoun it as an “empty
theme” that is followed by the verb be, makes it very natural to
achieve focus on the item that follows. So, its importance comes
from its flexibility to admit different parts to be highlighted, as in
the following examples, (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990:412):
(2-85)a. John wore a white suit at the dance last night.
(2-85)b. It was JOHN [who] wore a white suit at the DAَNCE last
night. [subject as focus].
(2-85)c. It was a white SUIT (that) John wore at the DA َNCE last
night. [Od as focus]
(2-85)d. It was last NIGHT (that) John wore a white suit at the
DAَNCE. [Adverb of time as focus]
 25

(2-85)e. It was at the DAَNCE that John wore a white suit last
night. [adverb of position as focus]

Clefted sentences are useful in writing where one cannot

use intonation for purposes of focus or emphasis. They are
frequently used in speech.

2.8 Manifestations of Clefting

2.8.1 A Pseudo-Clefted Sentence
The pseudo-clefted construction can be used when the
material is known or expected. It keeps the focused element until
the very end of the sentence creating suspense (De Beaugrand,
1980:123).

The pseudo-clefted construction will frequently take the

verb of the sentence and put it into an initial noun clause:
(2-86)a. A massive typhoon off the east coast delayed the
invasion.
(2-86)b. What delayed the invasion was a massive typhoon off the
east coast.

It is important to notice that the pseudo-clefted sentence is

composed of three parts:
(i) the left-hand part, which takes the form of a WH-question
that lacks inversion,
 26

(ii) an AUX consisting of some form of the verb be, and

(iii) the right-hand part which seems to provide an answer to
the question “asked by” the left-hand part.
(Culicover, 1976:126).

So, the appearance of the “WH” items conveys an

impression of a question being placed and then answered. (De
Beaugrand, 1980:123).
(2-87)a. What the Syrian command did was ordered a cease-fire.
(2-87)b. What the Syrian command ordered was a cease fire.

It is important to notice that the pseudo-clefted sentence

has similar purpose to that of the clefted sentence, that is the
emphasized part comes at the end, while the first part is a nominal
relative clause introduced by what and the verb be links the two
parts (Greenbaum, 1991:112).

Fowler (1974:150) notes that the pseudo-clefted sentence

questions result when the speaker follows a different strategy in
formulating his question.

The pseudo-clefted transformation does focus the attention

on the particular NP shifted to the end, for example:
(2-88) What I’m going to do is see the principal.
(2-89) What I want is a good sleep.
(2-90) What I did was open my letters
 27

Huddleston (1984:462) shows that pseudo-clefting is a

special case of the identifying be-construction in which the
identified role is associated with a fused relative construction.
This relative element can have functions in the pseudo-clefted
construction. It can function as subject, object or complement of
a preposition, with a non-human NP as complement of be, as
shown in the following examples:
(2-91) What annoyed me was the delay.
(2-92) What she needs is a complete rest.
(2-93) What he’s looking for is a small bungalow

On the contrary, the clefted construction allows a human

NP as complement, because the fused relative clause does not
normally allow who:
(2-94) It was Max who wrote it.
(2-95)* Who wrote it was Max.

But, Huddleston (ibid:463) mentions two cases in which we

can have a human NP: in the reversed pseudo-clefted, who is
possible when the subject is that: That’s who I meant. And a
human NP can be used non-referentially, where the fused relative
has what and the relative element as predicative complement:
What your brother is is an unmitigated scoundrel. Radford
(1988:493) points that the clefted sentence is distinct from the
pseudo-clefted sentence, as shown in the examples below:
 28

(2-96) What I bought was a car.

(2-97) What I feel is that we should all try harder.

It is obvious that the pseudo-clefted sentence is related to

free relatives, in that the expressions [what I bought] and [what I
feel], in the previous examples, may be analysed as free relative
NPs.

Akmajian and Heny (1975:349) state that when the

complement of a verb can appear after be in a pseudo-clefted
construction, then it is supposed that the complement must be
dominated by an NP. Huddleston (1984:463) adds that the
pseudo-clefted construction can take a finite clause as
complement:
(2-98) What annoyed me was that she was so slow.
(2-99) What he said was that it was illegal.

Pseudo-clefted constructions are also used with

does/do/did and with the verb happen when we want to give
emphasis to the whole sentence, rather than a particular clause.
(Mattews, 1981: 79)
(2-100)a. The police interviewed all the witnesses to the accident
first.
(2-100)b. What the police did first was (to) interview all the
witnesses to the accident.
 29

(2-101)a. You should invest all your money in telecoms

companies.
(2-101)b. What you should do is (to) invest all your money in
telecoms companies.
(2-102)a. She writes all her novels on a type writer.
(2-102)b. What she does is (to) write all her novels on a
typewriter.
(2-103)a. Their car broke down on the motorway so they didn’t
get to Jo’s wedding on time.
(2-103)b. What happened was that their car broke down on
motorway so they didn’t get to Jo’s wedding on time.

Culicover (1976:126) shows that there is a construction in

English that serves as a ‘diagnostic’ for the presence of a VP,
which is used to show that in some sentences negation is on the
VP and in other sentences it is not.
This construction is the pseudo-cleft.
(2-104) What John did was (to) leave the door open.
(2-105) What Mary will do will be (to) read a book.
(2-106) What John wants to do is (to) sleep all day.
(2-107) What Mary is doing is feeding the pigeons.

So, the pseudo-clefted construction involves relativising

the complement of do. In this case the complement is a non-finite
construction of the-ing class of do as in the-ing form, otherwise
 30

infinitival, as shown in the following examples

(Huddleston, 1984:464):
(2-108) What John had done was (to) obtain the data.
(2-109) What they were doing to the poor creatures was pulling
their feathers out.

So, the insertion of do would be required when the main

verb is part of the highlighted element.

Dik (1978:126) also adds that it should be noted that the

answer to the question can take the form of not followed by a VP,
as in the following examples:
(2-110) What John did was not (to) leave the door open.
(2-111) What Mary will do will be not (to) read a book.
(2-112) What John wants to do is not (to) sleep all day.
(2-113) What Mary will be doing will be not feeding the pigeons.

Another fact to be noted is that each clefted sentence can be

paraphrased by a pseudo-clefted sentence, as shown in the
following examples:
(2-114) It was a skunk that John brought home.
(2-114)a. What John brought home was a skunk.

Briuton (1988:67), in a discussion about the distinction

between an NP and VP complement, states that Emonds (1976)
argues that aspectualizers occur with VP complement, which do
 31

not freely passivize nor form pseudo-clefted construction, and

even do not occur in a clefted focus position, as in the following
examples:
(2-115)a.* To cook dinner was begun by John.
(2-115)b. What John began was to cook dinner.
(2-116)* It was drinking beer from the bottle that she kept.

The pseudo-clefted structures are often used with verbs

expressing an emotive response to something like adore, dislike,
enjoy, hate, like, loathe, love, need, prefer, want, etc.
(2-117)a. We now need actions rather than words.
(2-117)b. What we need are actions rather than words.
(2-118)a. I enjoyed the brilliant music most of all in the Ballet
Frankfurt performance.
(2-118)b. What I enjoyed most in the Ballet Frankfurt
performance was the brilliant music.

Sometimes, it is very effective to use all instead of what in

pseudo-clefted structure if someone wants to focus on one
particular thing and nothing else:
(2-119)a. I want a new coat for Christmas.
(2-119)b. All I want for Christmas is a new coat.
(2-119)c. A new coat is all I want for Christmas.
(2-120) I touched the bed side light and it broke.
(2-120)a. All I did was (to) touch the beside light and it broke.
 32

[Link] Elements Used in Pseudo-Clefted Sentences

The pseudo-clefted sentence is an SVC sentence with a
Wh-relative nominal clause as a subject or complement. It is less
restricted than the clefted sentence through the use of the
substitute verb Do. So it allows marked focus to be on the verb or
predication (Quirk et al., 1972, 954). This is illustrated in the
following examples:
(2-121) What he’s done is (to) spoil the whole thing .
(2-122) What John did to his suit was (to) ruin it.
(2-123) What I’m going to do to him is (to) teach him a lesson.

Quirk et al., (ibid) also add that the “focus” of these

sentences in form of an infinitival clause (with or without to),
Quirk et al., (ibid:955) explains that in a clause beginning with
the person who or the one who is the most acceptable alternative
to a who-clause:
(2-124) It must have been the manager who spoke to you.
(2-125) The person / the one who spoke to you must have been
the manager.

Greenbaum and Quirk (1990:1388-89) add that there are

“paraphrases” of the pseudo-clefted construction which admits
NPs of general reference to be used instead of the wh-item, as
shown in the examples:
(2-126) Somebody I particularly like is John.
 33

(2-127) The way you should go is via Cheltenham

(2-128) The place (where) the accident happened is here.

So, when the verb in the wh-clause has the progressive

aspect, the verb in the wh-clause is with an-ing clause :
(2-129) What I am doing is teaching him a lesson.

Nash (1986:30) notes that as the pseudo-clefted sentence is

realized by a wh-clause, most often what, sometimes it is realized
by who, where, which, why, how and when, for example:
(2-130) What mother painted last year was the bathroom.
(2-131) A medal is what she deserves.
(2-132) What she did was paint the whole place brown.
(2-133) The police chief was who I meant.
(2-134) Here is where the accident took place.
(2-135) (In) Autumn is when the countryside is most beautiful.

2.8.2 Fronting
Crystal (1993:145) explains that fronting is used in TG. It
refers to any transformation which transposes a constituent from
the middle or the end of the sentence to initial position. The
fronted item is an entire sentence element. This process is
achieved by the careful movement of an element to the front of
the sentence.
(2-136) Careless he is not (Cs).
 34

(2-137) The next year she will visit us (A).

(2-138) My son I am proud of (O prep).

So fronting is moving into initial position an item which is

otherwise unusual there. The aim of this process may be to echo
thematically what has been contextually given.

It is very common both in speech and in written material

serving the function of arranging clause order that end-focus falls
on the most important part of the message.
(2-139) A computer could take in its stride most of these
problems.
(2-140) Most of these problems a computer could take in its
stride.
(Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990:407).

2.8.3 Foregrounding
This process is especially used in stylistics and sometimes in
Pragmatics and Discourse analysis. It often involves deviance
from a linguistic norm (Crystal, 1993:139).

It belongs to the Prague School of Linguistics. It is common

in journalistic style and essays to attract the reader’s (listener’s)
attention to the subject matter.
(2-141) I can not understand songs in French.
 35

(2-142) Songs in French I can not understand.

(2-143) I prefer English poetry best.
(2-144) English poetry I prefer best.

2.8.4 Extraposition
It is a process which is used to remove or extrapose an
element from its normal position to a position at or near the end of
the sentence.
(2-145) That the boy came in late upset the teacher.
(2-145)a. It upset the teacher that the boy came in late.

The -it- here is known as extrapositive it.

Greenbaum and Quirk, (1990:417) show that the most

important type of extraposition is that of a subject realized by a
finite or nonfinite clause. Here the subject is moved to the end of
the sentence, and the normal subject position is filled by the
anticipatory pronoun it.
(2-146)a. To hear him say that surprised me.
(2-146)b. It surprised me to hear him say that.