THE CULTURE OF ASSAM: TRIBES, RELIGION, DRESSES, MUSIC AND FESTIVALS

Assam is land of many cultures, tribes and religions. Therefore, when we speak of the culture of Assam,
we generally refer to a composite and complex phenomenon that includes the cultures of the various
tribes that make Assam their home.

(i) The Bodo Kachari Tribes

The Bodo Kacharies of Assam is a branch of great Bodo Group of Indo-Mongoloid family. It is believed
that the origin of the Kachari was Tibet and China. The Bodos are basically an agrarian people; still using
traditional means to irrigate their land. Their chief produce is classified into the ‗Ahu' and the ‗Sali' crops.
Bodo villages are situated in the plains of the valleys of Assam, and hence they are categorized into what
is known as the ‗Plains tribe'. The Bodo people are expert in bamboo and cane craft; hence one would
usually come across houses fashioned out of bamboo and wood in places where they live in majority.
With the changing times, the Bodos have taken in large numbers to the services, business and other non-
agricultural modes of livelihood. Usually, the Bodo family structure is patriarchal, with the father as the
head of the family. The family property usually passes to the male members of the family. The village
priest looks after the proceedings of the several rituals that mark their social and religious calendars. The
priest, the douri (assistant of priest), and the heads of the families are the revered persons of the family,
and are the decision-makers. The most important community institution of Bodos is the village. The village
council's decision in all matters is accepted by the people.

Some of the people of the Bodo community are Christians, while a large chunk follows the precepts of
Hinduism. Among the Hindus, a few follow the ‗Brahma Dharma' while others follow the ‗Vaishnava Path'.
The ancient tribal Bodo religious faith rests on ‗Bathou' which has, since the process of Brahmanization,
become analogous to ‗Shiva' of the Hindus. The ‗Sizu' plant, which is known for longevity is planted in
front of the Bodo courtyard and worshipped.

The Bodo people, akin to most tribal peoples, are a festival loving people. The three main categories of
festivals are ‗seasonal', ‗religious', ritualistic and ceremonial'. The seasonal festivals are (i) Baisagu, (ii)
Domashi, and (iii) Katrigacha. These three festivals are parallel to the Bihu. Among the religious festivals
of the Bodos, the ‗Kherai' is the most famous; usually understood to be the ‗national festival' of the Bodos.
The festival begins with various dances, songs, and music. The ‗Bagrumba' is the most attractive group
dance of the Bodos.
Among other religious festivals of the Bodos, we have the ‗Siba', the ‗Sibrai Langamara Puja', the
‗Apeswari Puja', the ‗Haul Kheta' and others.
The Bodos are known to be exogamous, and cannot marry within the clan. The marriage of traditional
Bodo society is different from the Hinduised Brahma society. In the traditional society, the groom does not
go to the bride's house, but a small group of relatives go to fetch the bride. After the ceremonial rituals of
the marriage, the bridal party is offered a banquet with local delicacies, especially with pork. But in the
non traditional (Bodo) marriage, a ceremony takes place at the bride's residence and ‗Hom sacrifice' is
done according to Vedic rituals.
In the birth ceremony the family makes an offering to the household deities by sacrificing a cock and a
hen. It is also customary to entertain the midwives in a feast who attend the mother during her
confinement.
The Bodos are believed to have practiced both burial and cremation in the old days. But in contemporary
Bodo (Hindu) society, only cremation is practiced, as per Hindu norm. After ten days, the ‗Daha'
th th
ceremony is performed and this is followed by the ‗Shraddh' on the 12 or 13 day. It is interesting to note
that widows usually remarried in early Bodo societies, and this practice continues.
Till the mid-nineteenth century, the Bodo Literature was composed of oral like folk songs, ballads,
proverbs etc. The pioneering works of Promod Brahma, Ishan Mushahari, and some more will be always
remembered in this regard. Subsequently ‗ Bodo Sahitya Sabha' was formed in 1952. Bodo literature is
mostly indigenous.
The Bodo language is currently an associate language in Assam. It has also been introduced as the
medium of instruction in the school and colleges, especially in the Bodo dominated area. The script that
they follow is the Devnagari.

(ii) The Mishing Tribe:

The Miris, also known as Mishings, are the second largest schedule tribe of Assam. Mostly they are
based on riverine areas like Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Jorhat and Sonitpur.
The Mishing family is generally a joint family. The eldest member of the family is highly respected.
Inheritance in the family is a patrilineal one, and the social structure - patriarchal. After the father's death,
the property is equally divided among the sons. Daughters have no right over the property. Basically they
are peace loving and fun loving. There is no caste system or ideas of slavery in the Mishing society.
Rice is the staple food of the Mishing people. Pork and fouls are popular meat. They cultivate their own
vegetables and produce dried fish known as ‗ngo san' that can be stored. Fishing and hunting were at
earlier times, the favoured sports, but they have now virtually disappeared due to various environmental
concerns. As per tradition, however, they practice group fishing in winter and group hunting in summer.
The Mishing women prepare a home-made rice wine called the ‗Apong' that is savored by the entire
community.
The Mishing women are expert weavers. They produce all the cloth necessary for the family. The women
wear the ‗sampan' around the waist; the married women wear an additional piece of cloth around the hip.
On the upper body, they wear the ‗Galuk'; and adorn their heads with the ‗hura'. Among other garments,
the ‗Yamboo' are the ‗riwi gachang' are notable for the women; the ‗mibu goluk', the ‗tongali', and the
‗gonroo' are used by the menfolk.
Marriages of the Mishing society could be formal or informal. In the expensive formal marriage, the
groom's party takes the initiative. In the beginning, the groom has to spend five days in the bride's house.
After the marriage is fixed, the groom's parents come to the bride's house with ‗apong' (rice wine), a pig
and fish. On the fixed date, the groom goes to the bride's family and spends the night there. The marriage
ceremony takes place on next day. In the usual tribal format, the ‗Alig' or the bride price is paid to the
bride's family. ‗Informal' marriages may be conducted through elopement or kidnapping – this is usually
practiced by the poor people. After the elopement, both families meet at the groom's house and settle the
matter.
The Mishing community buries their dead ones. For every village there is a common burial place. The
dead are placed inside log coffins known as the ‗rung kung' and the last rites are performed. The
purification rituals are similar to the Hindu system.
The Mishings observe many festivals throughout the year. Religious prayers like ‗chedi melo', ‗doyi polo'
are prayers for the all round development of the society. In the seasonal festivals, various pujas are
performed with sacrifices of pigs and apong.
‗Porag' is the social festival observed by the villagers after harvesting the ‗Ahu' rice. Neighboring villagers
are invited for celebrations that go on through the night, with a lot of singing and dancing. A great feast is
arranged on the event. The ‗Amrok' is the festival observed when food from the harvested crop is offered.
A large quantity of pork meat and chicken is also offered along with apong, and the ‗Paskso-Monam'
dances are performed by the youth. The ‗Ali-Ai-Ligang' is the most well-known and widely observed
festival of the Mishings. It is the festival of sowing seeds, and is celebrated on the first Wednesday in the
month of ‗Ligang lange'. The most important feature of the festival is the traditional dancing and singing
with Dhol or drum, Pempa, Siphung, and Gagana. This community festival is celebrated for a full five
days.
The Mishings have their own language, but no script: hence they use the Assamese language when the
written form is required.

(iii) The Deori Tribes:

The Deoris are one of the four divisions of Chutiyas and they represent the ‗priestly' section of the whole
Chutiya community. They have a unique cultural and traditional heritage that is nowadays recognized to
be something of a hidden treasure for sociologists. The Deoris are nowadays settled mostly in Sivsagar
and Jorhat districts.
Deoris are riverine tribes and they are pile of dwellers. All houses are made in similar pattern which are
constructed facing the river. One such house can accommodate more than 40 people.

Deories are a mongoloids people, with very strong religious character, and are known to be a brave,
tradition-loving and cultured people with deep agricultural roots. Their traditional homes were made out of
bamboo and wood upon elevated platforms. These houses are known as ‗Chang-ghar'. The ‗Misso' is the
front part used as portico. In the first room of the house there would be a fire place where ordinary
cooking could be carried out throughout the day. Every home would include a separate room for guests
and relatives. All the people of this community share deep bonds and live with mutual co-operation and
harmony.
The Deoris are a hard-working people, and agriculture is the main source of their livelihood. They have
for long been engaged in growing various crops such as paddy, wheat, beans etc. Although in modern
times the power-tiller and the tractor are not uncommon, it is the plough that is synonymous with their
identity as farmers. The Deoris have enough fertile land for cultivation and they usually have a handsome
crop. They dispose of the excessive produce in exchange for money. The Deoris also domesticate
animals like pigs, hens, ducks, cows, and buffaloes.
Like all the tribal communities of this region, rice is the staple food. The Deuris also consume the meat of
pigs, ducks, fowl, and goats. Fish is eaten regularly and dry fish is also well-liked. All the families in the
Deori village produce rice beer, which is considered very healthy, and all the Deori people irrespective of
age love to drink it. However, in recent times this has undergone a significant change,with rice beer
production being banned in a few places, or the legal prohibition for under aged children coming
underway. The Deoris also love their tea, which they take without sugar and milk.
The four original sub-tribes or clans of Deoris are: Dibongia, Tegaponiya, Borgotan, and Patargayan.
Dibongias are further divided into fourteen sub-tribes. The Patorgoyan clans are now completely merged
with other tribes or adjacent peoples.
The Deoris are largely monogamous, but polygamy is not unknown. Most of them live in joint or extended
families. The societal structure is patriarchal and patrilineal; the male members have rights over property.
The children inherit the clan of the father.
The village council of Deori villages is run by the ‗Gaonburha'. This council consists of the village elders,
and its jurisdiction covers most civic problems that arise in the village. The ‗Bardeori' is the next important
official who performs pujas in the ‗Than'. The ‗Deodhani' claim that they can predict the course of events
that is to affect the individuals and the society. He dances before the gods or goddesses and performs
the functions of the priest who is also an astrologer and clairvoyant.
Generally, the Deoris live in joint families, but sometimes there are exceptions. They believe in certain
taboos: the wife of a younger brother is prohibited from entering the bed-room of the elder brother. These
taboos and customs help, the Deoris believe, to maintain peace and harmony within a joint family. Being
agriculturists, it is useful to live jointly as they have more hands to work in the fields.
As is the case with most tribal societies, the Deoris conform to both, their primeval beliefs, and Hinduism
– mostly Vaishnavism. The ‗Kundi-Mama', ‗Pichsa dema' and ‗Gailrung kundi' are the supreme deities
that make up their pantheon, apart from a few other household deities. The Borgonyan and Tengaponia
groups worship in the ‗Than', while the Dibongia clan offers prayers in a specially arranged symbolic
place of worship, the ‗Midiku'.
The Deori community has almost a century long tradition of bodily adornment, and in the 21st century
they continue to nourish it. They use particular adornments on particular occasions. A Deori male uses a
loin cloth called "Ikho" at home, usually with a shirt for the upper body. In present times, they generally
wear trousers and shirt when going out. They use a necklace (called ‗Konthamoni') while participating in
traditional social functions. The Deori women wear a kind of skirt called ‗Igo', which is wrapped tightly
above the breast, flowing down to their ankles. They also use a sheet called ‗Jakashiba' which is tied
around the waist. However, they sometimes also wear the Assamese ‗Riha' which is referred to as the
‗Tegihra'. Deori women use a towel (Gamucha) to cover their heads – the ‗Gathiki'. Deori woman also
love ornaments – they wear a ring called ‗Gema', bangles called ‗Uchu', and necklaces called the ‗Igawa'.
‗Madali', ‗Joonbiri', ‗Dugdugi' etc. are some of the ornaments they use while performing the ‗Bihu'.
Deories largely follow the exogamous system, and nobody is allowed to marry within the same clan.
Monogamy is prevalent, but a second wife is taken only after the death of the first wife. The marriages are
arranged by the parents. They practice three types of marriages: the Bor Biya (marriage of three days),
the Maju Biya (marriage of two days), and the Saru Biya (marriage of one day). The customs that involve
in marriage ceremony of Deori community is quite interesting. The ‗wooer' or his parents visit bride's
family first and seek her hand for the groom. Gifts are given by the broom's family and both the families
make merry. An auspicious day is fixed for the marriage ceremony and the bridegroom sends various
ornaments, clothing and other significant things to the bride before the marriage ceremony. This is known
as ‗Subi- huta- duba'. Later on, the marriage ceremony is performed with great religious fervour and the
people are received with various sumptuous delicacies. The ceremony ends with the bride being brought
to the house of the groom.
Apart from the regular marriage, ‗Gandharva' or marriage by elopement is also present. Dry fish, pork,
rice beer, betel leaves are essential during the Deori marriage. Widows usually remarry.
The Deoris have their own language which is similar to the Bodo language.
Two major festivals are observed by the Deori people, the ‗Bohagiyo Bisu' and the ‗Maghaya Utsava'. The
Bohagiyo Bisu starts on the first Wednesday of Bohag and lasts for seven days. Maghaya Utsava is
observed in the first Wednesday of the month of Magh. ‗Bisu' puja is a special feature of the Deori Bihu
festival. ‗Suwasani' Puja is celebrated for welfare for the family and is observed inside the house. The
main Puja is offered by the Bordeori, after the ritual purification ceremony of all the individuals with sacred
water. During the main Puja, various animals and birds are sacrificed and thereafter, a big feast is spread
out. Once in every four years, a buffalo is sacrificed as a symbol of highest sacrifice. During the Bihu
festival, people go from house to house to bless the owners and offer rice beer and Khaji (bitter meat
curry). ‗Husari' parties with dancers move from house to house. Separate male and female performances
are usually arranged. The rhythmic dances accompany melodious songs and unique traditional dresses;
this festival has great similarities with the Bihu festival of Assam. The ‗Maghiya' festival is a grand feast
wherein fourteen fowls are sacrificed.
Generally the bodies of the dead are cremated. But in case of young pregnant women or those dying in
epidemics, the dead bodies are buried. The dead bodies are bathed with clean water and new clothes are
put on. Before the cremation, an egg is broken by the eldest son of the deceased and some food is
offered. He then lights up the funeral pyre. A ceremony to commemorate the dead is observed on the
fourth day of the funeral.

(iv)The Rabha Tribes:

One of the nine Scheduled Tribes in the plains districts of Assam. The Rabhas are widely scattered but
mostly concentrated on Goalpara, Kamrup, and Darrang.
The Rabhas are like to live in compact blocks having 50-100 families.
The Rabha society is patriarchal in character. The sons inherit the father's property equally; the daughters
may inherit the father's property only if the father makes arrangements before his death. A widow cannot
claim any portion of the dead husband's property.
Agriculture is the main occupation. Rice is the staple food of this tribe with dried fish, pork and rice beer.
Like other tribes they also prepare a special kind of beer which is extremely popular. The Rabha
traditional weaving is rich in colour and designs. Like all such people, the Rabhas believe in ‗evil spirits'
and perform special pujas to appease the demons.
The structure of the Rabha Tribe is based on ‗Pandulipis" or the local customary laws. The Pandulipis
were written on the basis of customs, usages, traditions and religious beliefs. It is believed that the
Rabhas were once a matrimonial tribe. But the present customary laws indicate that they were
patrimonial one as in case of succession son's claim is socially recognized for his ascendancy.

Traditionally, the Rabhas are very religious, and nowadays most of them have embraced Hinduism or
Christianity. There was no national festival of the Rabhas in the past. But, now some Puja festivals are
observed by the Rabhas. In the month of Baishakh, the ‗Baikho' or ‗Khosi Puja' is observed. Some Rabha
people also observe the ‗Kechaikhaiti' Puja along with the ‗Langa' puja or ‗Dinga' Puja. In the latter, all the
materials of the puja are placed on a dinga or boat. The dinga is then carried to the river bank and the
rituals are performed, and at last the boat emerges on the river. Another puja called the ‗Marei' puja, is
performed by the ‗Deodhani'. It is basically a community festival and observed on the fifth lunar day of the
Krishna Pakhsa. The Hatching puja is now assumed to be a national festival of the Rabhas, along with
the Baikho. These pujas are observed with an occasional bit dancing and singing in traditional dresses.
‗Hana Ghora' is a festival of merriment, dedicated to a god of fortune. No Rabha can marry within his own
clan. The younger brother can however, marry the wife of the elder brother, in case of his death.
Sometimes, ‗cross' cousins are allowed to get married, but marriage is strictly forbidden for ‗parallel'
cousins.
Births are celebrated with grand ceremony and feasting. There is no specific enumerated rule for death.
The dead body may be buried or cremated. After the cremation the participants take a bath and come to
the house of the deceased and a ritual is observed. The last rites are performed seven days after the
death. The sons and daughters do not consume milk for a full year if the mother has died and give up the
banana in case of the father's [Link] case of birth in the family the Rabhas consider the mother unclean
till the umbilical cord of the of the baby falls. On the day of purification, the mother is to give her child a
name and the ceremony is observed by killing a pig.
In a normal death the body is washed with sanctified water and after that it the body is dressed with new
cloths and kept in outer house for a night. Next morning it is buried or cremated. In case of unnatural
death the body is buried. It is customary that the whole village not to take any food till the dead body
removed from cremation ground. The final death rites are done on the seventh day.
The Rabha language is now confined among the Rangdhani and Maitory groups. Efforts have been
recently made to standardize the language and to impart education at the primary level through mother
tongue.
As to literary creations, it may be said that till the Independence, Rabha literature did not bloom. First
appearance was made only after independence. Credence goes to ‗Sodou Rabha Kristi Sangha'.

(v) The Tiwa or Lalung Tribes:

Tibet region is considered to be the origin of Lalungs who prefer to call themselves as Tiwa. They landed
on the plains following the course of river Brahmaputra. The word Lalung means ‗La' means water and
‗Lung' rescued ie the mighty river Brahmaputra gave shelter to the Bohemians. It is believed the Lalungs
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had migrated to Assam somewhere in the middle of the 17 century AD. Mainly they are found in the
district of Nowgoan.
Tiwa people are known to be a group of Tibeto-Burmese tribe. Although they were also referred to as the
Lalungs, they prefer the name Tiwa. Rice, beer, pork, fowl, duck and dry fish are the favorite food items of
the Tiwas, apart from various vegetables like bamboo shoots, creepers, tuber roots etc. The basic
occupation of the Tiwas is cultivation of the land. Fishing and hunting were traditionally practiced by the
Tiwa people, until the modern concerns with the environment did away with hunting. Community fishing is
still practiced.
Tiwas are divided into a number of clans that are further sub-divided into several sub-clans. A clan is
generally consists of several ‗Khutas'. A single khuta does not constitute a khel or a clan. No family can
remain outside a clan.
A ‗Giyati' is the priest who performs the socio-religious functions of the Tiwas. Clans are maintained in a
kind of hierarchical order. Traditionally, the ‗Na Bhuni' clans are considered superior to the ‗Sat Bhuni'
clans; the Tiwas seem to accept this divide without any social tension.
The Tiwas have a traditional faith akin to the Hindu Sakta religion, but the mode of worship is not quite
the same. The Tiwas living in the hills worship stone images. A ‗tripod' is established on the altar which
represents the Lord Shiva or Lord Mahadeva, the Supreme God in Tiwa tradition. Each clan possesses a
community hall, which known as ‗Bor-ghar'. It is used for community worship, and is usually constructed
in a public place. Religious functions are observed in the ‗Than'. In the plains most of the Tiwas have
adopted Hindu gods and goddesses and some of them taken to Vaishnavism. These people usually build
the ‗Nam-ghar' as the space for offering prayers. The main festivals of Tiwas are the (i) three ‗Bisus'
(Bihus), (ii) ‗Barat Utsava', (iii) ‗Sagra Misuana', (iv) ‗Wansua', and (v) ‗Jone Beel' Mela. Usually, two types
of songs are sung by them during the festivals – the ‗Lo Ho La Hai' – songs of religious festivals; and the
‗Lali Hillalli' – songs of marriage. Songs and dances are the life spirit of the Tiwa community; the tribe is
considered to have one of the richest reservoirs of folk songs and dances in Assam.
The Tiwas of different areas observe Bihu during different days of the week. One of the most attractive
festivals of the Tiwas is the ‗Jon Beel Mela' of Magh Bihu. This is the traditional ‗Gobha Haat' or the space
for barter exchange. This ‗haat' has been continuing from time immemorial at a place name Jon beel, an
ancient water-body.

Here, the hill people and plains people exchange commodities. On the preceding day of the Mela, the
‗Gova Raja' and other officers enjoy a community feast or the ‗Noan Joa' on the banks of the Jon Beel.
The Barat Utsava is the community festival of the Tiwas which bears a religio-cultural character. It is
observed in the month of ‗Puha'. Youth from different villages gather and assemble birds carved out of
wood and bamboo that are fixed to a long bamboo or reed. While singing songs of ‗Barat', the rope is
pulled to make the birds dance atop the poles. ‗Peerajuj' is one special feature observed at the end of the
festival. Sagra Misawa' is a spring festival that echoes with its music and dance. It is a bachelor's festival
that begins with the worship of ‗Langkhun' and ‗Mahadeva' with sacrifices of goats, fowl, and other birds.
Significantly, masks are used in the dance.
The Lalung families are nuclear family. After death of the father or before the death the land is divided
equally divided among his children. The house goes to that son who lived with father till death.
This tribe construct their house on plinth. Thatch is used for roofing. The granary is constructed on the
east and there should be a courtyard in front of the house. The dresses of women are similar to the
Assamese woman. The womenfolk are expert weaver where they express their artistic outlook through
designs. They are also great lovers of music and dance.
The Lalungs considered the marriages as the form of union between a man and woman. Illegal unions
are hated. Marriages are solemnized after attainment of property. Clan exogamy is strictly adhered to.
Monogamy is recognized but polygamy can not be ruled out. Widows can get remarried and cases of
divorce are few.
Both cremation and burial are practiced. Normal deaths done by crimination and unnatural deaths are
buried.

(vi) The khamti Tribe:

The Khamti is a branch of the Tai race; their total population is only about five thousand.
They are found in Bihpuria and Narayanpur areas of North Lakhimpur subdivision and Sadia region. They
are very progressive in the terms of art and culture, and knowledge. The Khamtis are followers of the
Buddhist religion. Physically, the Khamti people are similar to the Chinese. The women of these tribes are
very beautiful. In the past they are said to have dressed like the Chinese, but with time they have adapted
their dress to the Assamese tastes. Like all the other tribal people, the basic occupation of the Khamti is
agriculture. In the past they seem to have cultivated the opium plant on large scale. The woman folk
actively help in agricultural activity. Occasional hunting and fishing is also present.

They have a very well defined set of villages with ten to forty houses in one village. The central road
connects each house. The houses are built four to five feet above the ground, split bamboo are used for
floor and walls and Takau or Jengu leaves are used for roofing. Temples is constructed in the centre of
the village.
Although the Khamtis are followers of Buddhism, but they are non-vegetarians, and eat fish and meat
(provided that the animal is killed by other person). Drinking is prohibited by religion. The Khamti women
are expert cooks and weavers and they share equal position in the society like man folks. . They make all
their required clothes at home. They also make various pieces of artistic ornaments. The Khamtis are
good tradesmen, a unique characteristic for tribal societies
The social structure of Khamti tribes is divided into several clans. The Khamti family is patriarchal. After
the death of father, his property goes to his sons. Daughter and widows can not inherit property. Marriage
in the same clan is prohibited. Adult marriage is a rule. They are monogamous. Divorce is not common.
Bride price is taken at the time of marriage. They are followers of Hinajan Buddhists.
The Khamti festivals are closely connected to religious beliefs. Some of the festivals observed by the
Khamti tribes are Poi Changken, which is similar to the Rangali Bihu of Assam, Poi Nen Hok, Paribot,
Maico Chumfai etc.
Generally dead bodies are cremated. But dead body of young one ie below ten year and dead due to
unnatural cause are buried. A purification ceremony is observed on the sixth day.
(vii) The Sonowal Kachari Tribes:

The Sonowal Kachari is an endogamous group of Kachari tribe. They mainly live in Dibrugarh, Lakhimpur,
Dhemaji, Tinsukia, Jorhut, and Golaghat districts. Their main occupation is gold-washing and agriculture.
Rice is their staple food. The clan system is present and exogamy is the general rule in marriage. The
Sonowals usually live in a joint family.
The Sonowals are believed to have very rich traditional knowledge of indigenous medicine. They have
their own methods of treating different kinds of diseases, using locally available herbs and plants for
treatment; following the knowledge inherited from their ancestors. These medicine-men were earlier
known as ‗Bez'.
Sonowals believe that they are the descendants of great Bhaskar Barman, Narakasur, Ban Raja,
Bhagadutta, Harimba, Ghototkach, Bhim, Prahlad and Bali.
The Social Structure of Sonowal Kacharis is similar to the any other non tribal communities. The Gaonbra
or head of the village is the key man of the village. He presides over the village assembly. He has some
subordinates who helped him day to day office work. Other than the Gaonbura, the institution Namgargh
also a centre of solving disputes of the villagers. Complaint regarding any social or religious are solved by
elder villagers and the punishment given to the guilty according to the nature of the crime. Ex-
communication is considered to the severest form of punishment.
Agriculture is the main means of their livelihood. Along with rice they grow mustard, potatoes, sweet
potatoes, etc for local consumption.
Rice is the staple food of this tribe. They do not eat or rear pigs. Fish, mutton and chicken are the main
delicacies. Rice beer is locally prepared and people take occasionally. Guest is welcomed by acre nut
and betel leaves.
The pattern of house is similar to the non tribal constructions with separate shades for cattle, ducks, and
poultries.
Co-operation is the salient feature of their social life. All villagers co-operates with others activities. The
unity is scrupulously maintained and inters family disputes are solved in the village. The youth plays
active role in the individual or community festive and religious occasions.
The Sonowal Kachari families are nucleus one. Both primary and joint are seen. The eldest male of the
family is considered to be the head of the family. The system of inheritance is peritoneal one. Generally
the eldest son becomes the owner of the house.
The Sonowal Kacharis have seven clans called ‗Khel'. They are 'Balikhitiari', 'Chiripuria', 'Dhulial',
'Amarabamiya', 'Ujani-Kuchiya', Namoni-Kuchiya' and 'Tipamiya'. These clans are exogamous and are
again subdivided into fourteen sub-clans – 'Hagral' , 'Muktal', 'Madan', 'Manikiyal', 'Ahmal', 'Formal',
'Borttajoal', 'Saru Hazowal', 'Kumral', 'Dhekial', Oingial', 'Lothial', 'Dangral' and 'Chetial'.
The Sonowals were offered non-tribal titles like ‗Saikia', ‗Bora', ‗Hazarika', in the process of their
assimilation with the non-tribal people, especially during the Ahom rule. The Sonowals at present have no
dialect of their own. All the people speak Assamese language, although they still retain some tribal names
such as 'Gossain', 'Baitha', 'Gojai', 'Khiring Raja', 'Kechaideo' and so on.

Marriage in the same clan is strictly prohibited. Monogamy is the general rule but considering second wife
is not prohibited. Every girl is considered to be an asset for the family. The grooms' family should pay
bride price before the marriage. No fixed bride price is charged. It may vary according to the status of the
groom.

The Sonowal Kachari tribe is followers of Mahapurushia Baishanv Dharma. They also maintain their
traditional religious believes and practices. Good luck, flourishing agriculture, misfortune etc are attributed
to the pleasures and furies of various deities. Also the Sonowal Kacharis worship Lord Siva and they
observed Bathow Puja. Throughout the year they observed various religious ceremonies in their
Namghars like Janmasthami.
th
This tribes observed Rangali Bihu like Assamese people which falls on the Sankranti of Chot (14 April).
Various traditional delicacies made during this time. Magh Bihu and Kati Bihu are also celebrated by the
Sonowal Kacharis like Assamese people.
Dead bodies of Sonowal Kacharis are cremated. The dead bodies of children and woman are buried.
Purification ceremonies are similar to any other non tribal. But they do not employ Brahmins to preside
over the pacificator ceremony.

(VIII) The Dimasa Kachari Tribes:

The Kacharis are the most widely spread tribe in northeast India, and are said to be the earliest
inhabitants of the Brahmaputra Valley. The Kacharis belong to the Indo-Mongoloid (Kirata) group which
includes the Bodos and their allied tribes. They have prominent Mongoloid features with high
cheekbones; slit eyes, a slight growth of hair in the body and a scant beard. They call
themselves Bodo or Bodo-fisa in the Brahmaputra valley and Dimasa or Dima-fisa or ‗sons of the great
river' in the North Cachar Hills & Karbi- Anglong district.

The Dimasa family is unitary and patriarchal in character. Only unmarried sons or daughters can live with
the parents. After marriage the sons have to live separately in nuclear families. Only the Dimasa tribe
confers separate ‗Gotra' for men and women. The boys inherit from his father after his death and the girls
from their mother; the boys do not have any right over their mother's property.

An important institution of the Dimasa village is ‗Hangsao'. It is an association of unmarried boys and girls
of the village. It is organized for the purpose of creating a worker's pool for facilitating cultivation, and lasts
only for one year. Throughout the year, the members of the Hangsao work together in the Jhurms,
cultivating by rotation an area of land at every member's field.

The Dimasas are a very religious people. Their religion is a mixture of the Hindu and Bodo traditions. The
main gods worshipped by the Dimasas are ‗Siva Deo', ‗Rajo', ‗Naikhu' and so on. The Supreme God is
‗Shibrai'. They believe in different spirits and think that the natural calamities are deliberately wrought by
the evil spirits. The priest of the Dimasas is selected from the ‗Hojaisa' clan. Buffaloes, pigs, and fowls are
offered as sacrifice. The ‗Pathri', a kind of fortune teller, has a special place in Dimasa society. They
believe in the existence of a supreme being – ‗Madai' – under whom there are several Madais including
the family deities and evil spirits. The religious practices of the Dimasas are reflected in their ‗Daikho'
system. A ‗Daikho' has a presiding deity with a definite territorial jurisdiction and a distinct group of
followers known as ‗Khel'. Every Dimasa Kachari family worships its ancestral deity once a year before
sowing the next crop of paddy: the ‗Madai Khelimba'. This is done for the general welfare of the family.
‗Misengba' stands for the good of the whole community.
The Dimasas cremate their dead. The dead body is washed and dressed in new clothes; then laid inside
the house on a mat. A fowl is thrashed to death and placed at the foot of the deceased so that it might
show the deceased the right path to heaven. The widow does not tie her hair till the cremation has been
performed. This is usually done by the side of a river or stream.

The culture and festivals of Dimasa is rich and distinctive. Their cultural foundation was laid in the ancient
and medieval period when they were very powerful. Their architectural designs and artistic creations are
proof of their rich civilization. ‗Busu', a harvesting festival, is the main socio-cultural festival of the Dimasa.
‗Rajini' and ‗Harni Gabra' are festivals related to productive work. In the ‗Rajini' festival, the village people
worship their presiding deity. Although the Dimasas have their own language, there is no recognized
script. Economically, they are self sufficient and agriculture is their main occupation.

The dance form of the Dimasa people is an extremely complex form, based strictly on instrumental music.
No songs are used. ‗Khram' (drum) follows the rhythm of the ‗Muri' (fife) and so do the dancers. Although
one may find the Muri to be a trifle monotonous, there are variations with noticeable microtones suitable
for different dance movements. That is why young men practice their dancing at the ‗Nadrang' (the
common houses for the youth) during leisure hours and the village children follow the rhythm and learn
the steps from an early age. Music and dance play an important role in the day-to-day life of the Dimasa
Kacharis. They sing and dance to express their joy at the common houses or at the courtyard of the
‗Gajaibaou's (female owner of the property) house during popular festivals like ‗Bushu' or ‗Hangsao-
manauba'.

(Ix) The Karbi Tribes:

Racially the Karbis belong to the Mongoloid group and linguistically to the Tibeto-Burman group. The
original home of the various people speaking Tibeto-Burman languages was in western China near the
Yangtse-Kiang and the Hwang-ho rivers and from these places they went down the courses of the
Brahmaputra, the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy and entered into India and Burma. The Karbis, along with
others entered Assam from Central Asia in one of the first waves of migration.
From the pattern of distribution or habitation, the Karbi are divided into three groups, viz, (i) Chinthong, (ii)
Ranghang , and (iii) Amri. he Karbis have five exogamous clans and each clan is divided into several sub-
clans. They can not marry within the clan. In the cremation ground separate areas are demarcated for
each clan. The ‗Ingti' is a priestly clan and has since ancient times occupied higher status in the social
hierarchy. The Karbi people are peace loving and social. The place of women is same as the men, and
women help their men in every step of life.

The Karbi people are basically live on [Link] are exogamous and while monogamy is the
general practice, polygamy is not prohibited. Widow remarriage is permitted and the younger brother of
the deceased is required to marry the widow. Cross-cousin marriage is also present. The consent of the
girl is essential in marriage of the Karbi society. Marriages are contracted through selection, negotiation
or elopement. After marriage, the bride uses the surname of her father's clan, though the offspring use
her husband's surname. There is no bride price in Karbi society and divorce was allowed even in early
times. The Karbi society is a patriarchal one and the father is the head of the family.

The traditional religion of the Karbis is animistic with two types of gods and goddesses: the benevolent
and malevolent. It is somewhat like Sakta and Shaiva Hinduism in a more basic form. Traditional Karbi
religion propagates that the Supreme God of the Universe is the highest

God or creator. The traditional way of worshipping is based on some of their oldest customs. Pigs, birds,
various animals and eggs are offered to the deities accordingly. Traditionally prepared rice beer is
essential in all rituals to satisfy the deities. In modern times, a small percentage of the Karbis have
adopted the Vaishanava and other Hindu faiths, and a few follow the tenets of Christianity.
There are several rituals and festivals of the Karbis. The rituals are generally related with birth and death.
The birth of a child is marked by various ceremonies. The naming ceremony in particular is very
interesting. The maternal uncle conducts this ritual where rice beer is given to the child drop by drop.
The death ritual of the Karbis is a distinctive one. ‗Somangkan' is the main death ritual that is observed by
the family at any time according to the preparation of the family. Large quantities of rice beer, pigs, and
rice are necessary for this ceremony.
‗Me' is the Karbi village council where all social and family matters are discussed.

Dance and Music play an important role in the life of the Karbi Society. Various dances are performed by
the youth during the performances of ‗Chomangkan', the death ceremony and other socio-religious
festivals. ‗Hacha Kekan', the dance performed at the harvesting festival is lively and eye-catching. Their
traditional songs, both folk and religious, are generally sung by experts only who are not only well
conversant with their meaning but are also endowed with sweet voices. During the performance of the
cremation rites and the performance of the death ceremony, only a professional weeper called ‗Uchepi' is
allowed to sing the elegiac dirge called ‗Sarhe'.

There exists a Karbi version of the Ramayana called Sabin Alun, and the most interesting thing about this
epic is that it is an unwritten, oral text that has been handed down from one generation to another.
The Karbis have a very limited number of musical instruments. A huge drum called ‗Cheng' is their main
musical instrument that is generally played by a master drummer called ‗Duihudi'. They also use smaller
drums called ‗Chengbruk'. Two kinds of flutes are in vogue – the wooden flute called ‗Muri' and the
bamboo flute is called ‗Pangche'. In some of their dances they use war shields made of rhinoceros skin
called ‗Chong' and a prototype war sword called ‗Nok'.
The Karbi festivals are mainly related to the agricultural seasons. ‗Rongker' and the ‗Hacha Kekan' are
their two main festivals. The former is celebrated before the Jhum cultivation starts in winter and again in
the summer, just prior to the planting of rice. The ‗Great Rongker' is celebrated after an interval of five
years. In all the Rongker festivals, only the males are allowed to participate. The ‗Hacha Kekan' is
celebrated at the end of the planting season. Public feasting and elaborate dances are organized to mark
this festival.
There are two types of shirts worn by the Karbi men folk. The traditional turban is called ‗poho'.
Traditionally, a loin cloth was used by the male – a trend that has disappeared now. The short mekhela of
Karbi women is called the ‗pinicamflak'. The upper part of the body is covered by another piece of cloth
named ‗jar-ek', and the artistic waist band is known as ‗Wanpo'.

The Karbi men and women wore beautiful ornaments made of valuable metals in the past. In the bygone
days, a Karbi man would put on a brass ear-ring called ‗Narik', a silver bracelet called ‗Prinsoroi' and
heavy silver necklaces called ‗Lekrooa' and ‗Lek-Enji'. Nowadays, these male ornaments are rarely seen.
The female ornaments are ‗nothenpi', ‗rup-arori' silver bracelets) and ‗lek-lo-so' and the like.

The most beautiful ornaments used by the elderly Karbi woman is ‗Nothenpi', a pair of very large ear-rings
made of silver. This is about two and a half inch long, with a diameter of about half an inch. This ear-ring
is detachable into two parts. The women and girls use silver bracelets called ‗Rup-Aroir'. Besides the
necklace made of white beads called ‗Lech-lo-so', the women are also found to have used a kind of
necklace made of silver coins and red beads called Lek-Chike.

The Karbis do not have their own script, and generally use the Assamese script.

(x) The Mech Tribe:

The Meches are a numerically small scheduled tribe of Assam. This tribes found in Goalpara Districts and
a small portion are exists in Khowang area of Dibrugarh district, Parakhowa area of Karbi Anglong
District. The Meches are of Tibeto Burman origin and belong to the great Bodo section of Tibeto-Burman
people. It is believed that the Meches and the Kacharis are from the common origin.
The Meches has five principal clans with different origin. A clan is called ‗Ari' by the Meches. Other than
these five principal clans, the Meches has four clan based on occupation. There are similarities between
the clans of the Bodo-Kacharis os Assam. The presence of similar clans indicates that the Meches and
the Bodo-Kacharies are one and same [Link] clans are exogamous and marriages within the clan
are barred.

The marriages should be within the community. Marriages were settled by the mother and other elderly
women of the family in old days. Bride price called ‗Jan' was paid in cash and it is varied according to the
accomplishment and the beauty of the girl. The marriage ceremony is very simple and it is similar to the
marriages of Rajasthan and Gujrat. Widow marriage is prevalent among them. The widow of the elder
brother can marry the unmarried younger brother. But widow of the younger brother can not be married
by the elder brother. Divorce is allowed but not common. Child marriage is not present.
The Meches follow the patrilineal system in the family structure. They lived in a joint family. Now some of
the Meches goes for nuclear family also. Sons inherit the property after the death of the father. Daughters
have no right over the property.
The traditional houses pattern is similar to that of Bodo-Kacharies. Four houses are constructed in the
country yard with locally available material. Rice is the staple food. Boiled rice is served with vegetable,
meat of pork, duck, and pigeon. They drink tea without milk and sugar. The most favorite drink is home
made rice beer which should be served in any socio-religious festivals.
The Meches dead bodies are cremated or buried depending on the circumstances of death and social
status and economic conditions of the concerned families. In case of unnatural death the dead bodies are
buried only. The dead bodies must be carried by the member of the clan only to the cremation/buried
ground. Death ceremony is performed is performed in eighth or twelveth day. On the day of Shradha the
village people and the relatives of the deceased are served.
Some of the Meches family converted to Christianity and the other follow Hindu religion. They follow
Brahma cult and Vaishnava cult of Srimanta Sankardeva.

VAISNAVITE CULTURE OF ASSAM:

The great Vaishnavite saint and reformer Srimanta Sankardev was born in Alipukhuri, Nagaon in 1449.
His father was Kusumbar Bhuyan and his mother‘s name was Satyasandhya. He started going to school
at the age of twelve. He began attending Mahendra Kandali's tol or chatrasaal (school) and wrote a poem
about Lord Vishnu -―Karatala Kamala Kamala Dala Nayana‖ without using any matras.

Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardev was a saint, scholar, playwright, social and religious reformer is a
colossal figure in the cultural and religious history of Assam. He was destined to play a significant role in
preaching to humanity and protecting human religion. ―Ek Sarania Nam Dharma‖ preached by him
believed in worship of Lord Vishnu. Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardev was a great scholar and literacy
genius. His major literacy creations are the ― Kirtan Ghosa‖ , ― Gunamala‖ etc. The holy songs written by
him are known as ―Borgeet‖. The dramas written by him are known as ―Ankia Naat‖ and Sattriya Dance at
that time was a part of it. In the ―Ankiya Naats‖ Srimanta Sankardev used the style of story telling through
drama, mostly depicting the life of Lord Krishna and Lord Rama. The first dramatical work by him was ―
Chihnajatra‖. The various ―Ankia Naats‖ written by him are ―Kaliya Daman‖, ―Patni Prasad‖, ―Keli Gopal‖,
―Rukmini Haran‖, ―Parijat Haran‖ and ―Rambijay‖ naat.

The ―Sattras‖ or the monasteries set by the Vaishnavite saint developed as the hub of religious, spiritual
and cultural life of the people of Assam. Srimanta Sankardev used the charm of art and culture to spread
his philosophy of monotheism i.e. Vaishnavism, so that it could be used as a medium of instructions. The
chief disciple of Srimanta Sankardev was Sri Sri Madhavdev, who also worked for spreading Vaishnavism
and contributed by his literacy works including ― Nam Ghosa‖, ― Bhakti Rattna‖ etc.

The great saint died at the age of 120 years in 1568 in Koch Bihar.

KIRTAN GHOSA:

The Kirtan Ghoxa is a collection of poetical works, primarily composed by the medieval saint Srimanta
Sankardev meant for community singing in the Ekasarana religion. Its importance in the religion is second only
to the primary text, the Bhagavat of Sankardeva. The text of the kirtan ghoxa consists of twenty six sections
and thirty one kirtans (or narratives of Krishna). Sankardev had instructed Madhavdev during his last visit to
Patbausi to compile the kirtans that were scattered then at different places—and they were posthumously
compiled into a single text by Ramcaran Thakur, the nephew of Madhabdev. All the kirtans were composed
by Srimanta Sankardeva, except for one by Ratnakar Kandali and another by Madhabdeva. Two of
Sankardeva's kirtans were later additions to Ramcharan Thakur's compilation. In some versions, there is an
additional kirtan composed by Sridhar Kandali.

BORGEETS:

Borgeets are a collection of lyrical songs that are set to specific ragas but not necessarily to any tala. These
songs, composed by Srimanta Sankardeva and Madhavdeva in the 15th-16th centuries, are used to begin
prayer services in monasteries associated with the Ekasarana Dharma; and they also belong to the repertoire
of Music of Assam outside the religious context. They are a lyrical strain that express the religious sentiments
of the poets reacting to different situations,[1] and differ from other lyrics associated with the Ekasarana
[Link] songs composed by others are not generally considered borgeets.
The first Borgeet was composed by Srimanta Sankardeva during his first pilgrimage at Badrikashram in c1488,
which is contemporaneous to the birth of Dhrupad in the court of Man Singh Tomar (1486-1518) of Gwalior.
The first borgeet, mana meri rama-caranahi lagu, was composed by the Sankardeva at Badrikashrama during
his first pilgrimage. The language he used for all his borgeets is Brajavali, an artificial Maithili-Assamese mix;
though Madhavdeva used Brajavali very sparingly. Brajabuli, with its preponderance of vowels and alliterative
expressions, as considered ideal for lyrical compositions, and Sankardeva used it for Borgeets and Ankiya
Naats.

ANKIA NAATS:
Ankia Naats are a class of one act plays performed in Assam, India.[1] The invention of the Ankia Naat is
usually attributed to the medieval saint and social reformer Srimanta Sankardeva. These plays were written in
an artificial Assamese-Maithili mixed language called Brajavali and are primarily centered on Krishna. A
particular presentation of an Ankia Naat is called a Bhaona. The plays are usually combine live instruments and
singers, dance and elaborate costumes in production.
The performance of an Ankia Naat starts with benediction in Sanskrit followed by eulogy to God in Brajavali.
The play usually starts with the prelude, or Purvaranga. Playing of the traditional percussion instruments
accompanied by the big cymbal by the singer and musician duo (Gayan, Bayan) in a group. The instruments
are played with exaggerated hand movements and in two paces called Saru-Dhemali and Bor-Dhemali. After
the prelude, the narrator, or Sutradhar, enters the stage and begins the actual performance.
Ankia Naat were intended to be viewed by common folk in medieval Assam, majority of whom were expected
to be illiterate. Thus, an explanation was included at every succeeding stage of the drama. The Sutradhar had
to attend to various tasks viz. production, direction and delivered commentary of the entire drama.
Ankia Naat main subjects are worship lord krishna. The songs in Ankia Naat are also descriptive.

NAMGHAR:
Namghars literally Name House are places for congregational worship associated with the Ekasarana religion
of Assam. In the Assamese language, 'Naam' means prayer and 'Ghar' means house. Hence, it is called
Naamghar. Besides forming the primary structure used for worship, they also function as meeting houses for
congregations, as well as theaters for dramatic performances (bhaona). The Namghar, also called
the kirtanghar, is also the central structure in the Sattras (monasteries of the Ekasarana religion) where the
other buildings are positioned around it. Namghars are widespread in Assam, and very often more than one
namghar exists in a single village, signifying many congregational community.
Namghars were introduced in Assam by the Vaishnavite saint Sankaradeva for Assamese people where they
can culture and practice naam (devotional songs) and Bhakti of God (devotion). He established the first
Naamghar at Bordowa in Nagaon district.

MANIKUT:
Manikut is an independent room located towards the eastern end of Namghar. It is the place that houses idols
representing the worshipful god, or a guru-asana (the guru's seat). It is also called as bhajghar in
western Assam, with its own roof. This is the only place in Namghar that is fully walled, with or without any
window. The Manikut is a later addition room attached to the basic Namghar structure.