CHAPTER 1: RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT
What is a Resource?
● Anything available in our environment that can be used to satisfy our needs, provided it is
technologically accessible, economically feasible, and culturally acceptable can be termed a
‘Resource’.
● The transformation of things in our environment involves an interactive relationship between
nature, technology, and institutions. Human beings use technology to interact with nature and
create institutions to accelerate economic development.
● Resources are not free gifts of nature. They are a function of human activities. Human beings are
essential components of resources as they transform available material into usable resources.
Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified on the following bases:
● (a) On the basis of origin:
o Biotic: Obtained from the biosphere and have life (e.g., human beings, flora and fauna,
fisheries, livestock). (Note: This classification is implied but not explicitly defined in the
excerpts. You may need to define it further using general knowledge.)
o Abiotic: Composed of non-living things (e.g., rocks and metals). (Note: This classification is
implied but not explicitly defined in the excerpts. You may need to define it further using
general knowledge.)
● (b) On the basis of exhaustibility:
o Renewable Resources: Can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical, or mechanical
processes (e.g., solar and wind energy, water, forests, and wildlife). (Note: This classification
is implied but not explicitly defined in the excerpts. You may need to define it further using
general knowledge.)
o Non-renewable Resources: Take millions of years in their formation. Some of these, like
metals, are recyclable, and some, like fossil fuels, cannot be recycled and get exhausted with
their use (e.g., minerals and fossil fuels). (Note: This classification is implied but not
explicitly defined in the excerpts. You may need to define it further using general
knowledge.)
● (c) On the basis of ownership:
o Individual Resources: Owned privately by individuals (e.g., plots, houses). (Note: This
classification is implied but not explicitly defined in the excerpts. You may need to define it
further using general knowledge.)
o Community Owned Resources: Accessible to all the members of the community (e.g.,
grazing grounds, village ponds). (Note: This classification is implied but not explicitly
defined in the excerpts. You may need to define it further using general knowledge.)
o National Resources: Technically, all the resources within the political boundaries and
oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles (territorial water) belong to the nation. The country has
legal powers to acquire even private resources for public good. (Note: This classification is
implied but not explicitly defined in the excerpts. You may need to define it further using
general knowledge.)
o International Resources: There are international institutions that regulate some resources
(e.g., the oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone
belong to open ocean and no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of
international institutions). (Note: This classification is implied but not explicitly defined in
the excerpts. You may need to define it further using general knowledge.)
● (d) On the basis of status of development:
o Potential Resources: Resources which are found in a region but have not been utilised (e.g.,
Rajasthan and Gujarat have immense potential for the development of solar and wind energy,
but so far these have not been developed properly). (Note: This classification is implied but
not explicitly defined in the excerpts. You may need to define it further using general
knowledge.)
o Developed Resources (Stock): Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity
have been determined for utilisation. The development of these resources depends on
technology and level of feasibility. (Note: 'Stock' is mentioned as part of this category in
source, and is sometimes considered a separate category referring to materials in the
environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but humans do not have the
appropriate technology to access them.)
o Reserves: The subset of the developed stock which can be put into use with the help of
existing technical ‘know-how’ but their use has not been started. These are meant for meeting
future requirements (e.g., water in the dams, forests etc. which can be used in the future).
Development of Resources
● Resources are vital for human survival and for maintaining the quality of life.
● It was once believed that resources were free gifts of nature.
Problems Caused by Indiscriminate Use of Resources
● Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
● Accumulation of resources in few hands, leading to a division of society into the 'haves' and
'have-nots' or the rich and poor.
● Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as global
warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution, and land degradation.
The Need for Resource Planning
● Equitable distribution of resources has become essential for a sustained quality of life and global
peace.
● If the present trend of resource depletion by a few individuals and countries continues, the future of
our planet is in danger.
● Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all forms of life.
Sustainable Development
● Sustainable economic development means development should take place without damaging the
environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of future
generations.
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
● More than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for the first International Earth
Summit in June 1992.
● The Summit addressed urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic
development at the global level.
● Leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity.
● The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 for achieving
Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
Agenda 21
● It is a declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
● It aims at achieving global sustainable development.
● It is an agenda to combat environmental damage, poverty, and disease through global co-
operation on common interests, mutual needs, and shared responsibilities.
● One major objective is that every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21.
Resource Planning in India
● Planning is a widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources.
● It is particularly important in a country like India, which has enormous diversity in the availability
of resources.
● Some regions are rich in certain resources but deficient in others, while some are self-sufficient, and
others face acute shortages.
o Example: Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal
deposits.
o Example: Arunachal Pradesh has an abundance of water resources but lacks
infrastructural development.
o Example: Rajasthan is well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks water
resources.
o Example: The cold desert of Ladakh has a rich cultural heritage but is deficient in water,
infrastructure, and some vital minerals.
● This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional, and local levels.
● Mere availability of resources in the absence of appropriate technological and institutional
developments may hinder development.
● Some regions in India are rich in resources but economically backward, while others have a poor
resource base but are economically developed.
● Resources can contribute to development only when accompanied by appropriate technological
development and institutional changes.
● Resource planning in India is a complex process involving:
o (i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions through surveying,
mapping, and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement.
o (ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill, and
institutional setup for implementing resource development plans.
o (iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
● India has made concerted efforts for achieving the goals of resource planning right from the First
Five Year Plan after Independence.
Conservation of Resources
● Resources are vital for any developmental activity.
● Irrational consumption and over-utilisation may lead to socio-economic and environmental
problems.
● Resource conservation at various levels is important to overcome these problems.
● This has been a main concern of leaders and thinkers in the past. Gandhiji voiced his concern:
“There is enough for everybody’s need and not for anybody’s greed”. He attributed resource
depletion to greedy individuals and the exploitative nature of modern technology and advocated for
production by the masses, not mass production.
● At the international level:
o The Club of Rome advocated resource conservation in 1968.
o Schumacher presented Gandhian philosophy in his book Small is Beautiful in 1974.
o The Brundtland Commission Report, 1987, introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable
Development’ and advocated it for resource conservation, later published as Our Common
Future.
o The Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992 also made a significant contribution.
Land Resources
● Land is a natural resource of utmost importance.
● We live on land, perform economic activities on land, and use it in different ways.
● It supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transport, and
communication systems.
● Land is an asset of finite magnitude, so careful planning for its use is essential.
● India has land under a variety of relief features: mountains (30%), plateaus (27%), plains (43%),
and islands.
o Plains provide facilities for agriculture and industry.
o Mountains ensure the perennial flow of some rivers, provide facilities for tourism, and are
important for ecological aspects.
o Plateau regions possess rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels, and forests.
● The total geographical area of India is 3.28 million sq km, but land use data is available for only
about 93 per cent due to incomplete reporting for most north-east states (except Assam) and
unsurveyed areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China.
Land Utilisation
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation:
o (a) Barren and waste land
o (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses (e.g., buildings, roads, factories)
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land):
o (a) Permanent pastures and grazing land
o (b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area)
o (c) Culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years)
4. Fallow lands:
o (a) Current fallow (left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year)
o (b) Other than current fallow (left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years)
5. Net sown area: The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested.
● Gross cropped area = Area sown more than once in an agricultural year + Net sown area.
● The use of land is determined by physical factors (topography, climate, soil types) and human
factors (population density, technological capability, culture, and traditions).
● The pattern of net sown area varies greatly across states (e.g., over 80% in Punjab and Haryana, less
than 10% in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
● The forest area in the country is far lower than the desired 33 per cent outlined in the National
Forest Policy (1952) for maintaining ecological balance.
● Land under permanent pasture has decreased.
● Most 'other than current fallow' lands are of poor quality or have high cultivation costs, leading to
cultivation once or twice in 2-3 years. If included in net sown area, the percentage in India is about
54% of the reporting area.
● The net sown area and land under forests have changed very marginally between 1960-61 and
2019-20. (Reasons for this would require further analysis, possibly related to increasing population
pressure, agricultural practices, and conservation efforts.)
● A part of the land is waste land (rocky, arid, desert areas) and land for non-agricultural uses
(settlements, roads, railways, industry).
Land Degradation and Conservation Measures
● Continuous use of land over long periods without conservation measures has resulted in land
degradation, which has serious repercussions.
● Human activities like deforestation, overgrazing, mining, and quarrying have significantly
contributed to land degradation.
● Mining sites are often abandoned, leaving scars and overburdening. Deforestation due to mining has
caused severe land degradation in states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha.
● Overgrazing is a major reason for land degradation in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and
Maharashtra.
● Over irrigation in states like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh leads to waterlogging,
increasing soil salinity and alkalinity.
● Mineral processing (e.g., grinding limestone for cement) generates dust that retards water
infiltration.
● Industrial effluents and wastes are a major source of land and water pollution.
● Ways to solve land degradation problems:
o Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
o Planting shelter belts of plants.
o Control on overgrazing.
o Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes in arid areas.
o Proper management of waste lands.
o Control of mining activities.
o Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment.
Soil as a Resource
● Soil is the most important renewable natural resource.
● It is the medium of plant growth and supports various living organisms.
● Soil is a living system that takes millions of years to form a few centimetres in depth.
● Important factors in soil formation: relief, parent rock (bedrock), climate, vegetation, other forms
of life, and time.
● Natural forces like changes in temperature, actions of running water, wind, glaciers, activities of
decomposers, and chemical and organic changes contribute to soil formation.
● Soil consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
Classification of Soils in India
● India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms, and vegetation types, leading to the
development of various soil types.
● Alluvial Soils:
o The most widely spread and important soil, forming the entire northern plains.
o Deposited by the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra river systems.
o Also found in Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow corridor and in the eastern coastal
plains (deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri).
o Consist of various proportions of sand, silt, and clay.
o Soil particles are bigger in size towards river valleys (upper reaches: Duars, Chos, Terai).
o Classified by age: old alluvial (Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar).
▪ Bangar: Higher concentration of kanker nodules, less fertile, has more fine particles
than Khadar.
▪ Khadar: Newer deposits, fewer kanker nodules, more fine particles, more fertile than
Bangar.
o Very fertile, containing adequate proportions of potash, phosphoric acid, and lime, ideal
for sugarcane, paddy, wheat, and other cereal and pulse crops.
o Regions with alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated.
o Soils in drier areas are more alkaline and can be productive with proper treatment and
irrigation.
● Black Soil (Regur Soils):
o Black in colour, ideal for growing cotton (black cotton soil).
o Formation believed to be influenced by climatic conditions and parent rock material
(Deccan trap/Basalt region, lava flows).
o Found in the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, and
Chhattisgarh, extending southeast along the Godavari and Krishna valleys.
o Made up of extremely fine (clayey) material.
o Well-known for their capacity to hold moisture.
o Rich in soil nutrients like calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, and lime, but generally
poor in phosphoric contents.
o Develop deep cracks during hot weather, aiding aeration.
o Sticky when wet, difficult to work unless tilled immediately after the first shower or pre-
monsoon.
● Red and Yellow Soils:
o Develop on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern
Deccan plateau.
o Also found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain, and
along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
o Reddish colour due to the diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks; look
yellow when in hydrated form.
● Laterite Soil:
o Derived from the Latin word ‘later’ (brick).
o Develops under tropical and subtropical climates with alternate wet and dry seasons.
o Result of intense leaching due to heavy rain.
o Mostly deep to very deep, acidic (pH<6.0), generally deficient in plant nutrients.
o Found mostly in southern states, Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Odisha, parts of West
Bengal, and North-east regions.
o Humus-rich where supporting deciduous and evergreen forests, but humus-poor under sparse
vegetation and in semi-arid environments.
o Prone to erosion and degradation due to their landscape position.
o Useful for growing tea and coffee with proper soil conservation in hilly areas of Karnataka,
Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
o Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala are suitable for crops like
cashew nut.
● Arid Soils:
o Range from red to brown in colour.
o Generally sandy in texture and saline in nature.
o Salt content can be very high; common salt obtained by evaporating water in some areas.
o Due to dry climate and high temperature, evaporation is faster, leading to a lack of humus
and moisture.
o Lower horizons contain Kankar (increasing calcium content downwards), which restricts
water infiltration.
o Become cultivable after proper irrigation, as in western Rajasthan.
● Forest Soils:
o Found in hilly and mountainous areas with sufficient rain forests.
o Texture varies with mountain environment (loamy and silty in valley sides, coarse-grained in
upper slopes).
o In snow-covered areas of the Himalayas, they experience denudation and are acidic with
low humus content.
o Soils in the lower parts of valleys (river terraces, alluvial fans) are fertile.
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
● Denudation of the soil cover and its subsequent washing down is soil erosion.
● Soil formation and erosion occur simultaneously, generally maintaining a balance.
● This balance can be disturbed by human activities (deforestation, overgrazing, construction, mining)
and natural forces (wind, glacier, water).
● Running water can cut through clayey soils, forming deep channels called gullies, making the land
unfit for cultivation (bad land, ravines in the Chambal basin).
● Water flowing as a sheet over large areas down a slope can wash away the topsoil (sheet erosion).
● Wind blowing loose soil off flat or sloping land causes wind erosion.
● Defective farming methods (e.g., ploughing up and down the slope) can create channels for water
flow, leading to erosion.
● Soil Conservation Methods:
o Contour ploughing: Ploughing along contour lines to slow down water flow.
o Terrace cultivation: Cutting steps or terraces on slopes to restrict erosion (common in
western and central Himalayas).
o Strip cropping: Dividing large fields into strips with grass left to grow between crops to
break the force of the wind.
o Planting shelter belts (rows of trees) to stabilise sand dunes and deserts in western India.
● Afforestation is also mentioned as a general measure for soil conservation.
