Subject: CFLM 2

Description: Character Formation with Leadership, Decision Making,

Management & Administration
Instructor: Kelley Jean Garcia
Day/Time: -

Weeks 2-3

I. Leadership: Its Concept, Philosophies, Importance and Historical

Perspective
a. Definition of Leadership
b. Concept of Leadership
c. Philosophies of Leadership
d. Importance of Leadership
e. Historical Perspective of Leadership

Objectives:
At the end of the session, students are expected to:

• Discuss the concept of leadership

• Explain the importance of leadership
• State the historical perspective of leadership

Introduction:

UNIT 1: What is LEADERSHIP?

✓ Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to

influence and guide followers or other members of an organization.
✓ Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards
achieving a common goal.
✓ Leadership involves showing workers how to effectively perform their
responsibilities and regularly supervising the completion of their tasks.

What are the synonyms of Leadership?

Administration Oversight
Control Headship
Direction Guidance
Generalship Management
Governance Lead

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What does an effective leader do?

✓ Effective leaders inspire and motivate, and those who know how to
bring out the best in themselves and others help their organizations to
thrive and grow.
✓ Effective leader has an easy level of honest communication with their
teams and their peers, and a thorough understanding of how they are
perceived. Testing others’ perception of you can be as simple as
observing their behavior.
✓ Effective leader really wants to know what people think, the leader asks
his or her employees.
✓ Effective leadership is based upon ideas, but won't happen unless those
ideas can be communicated to others in a way that engages them
enough to act as the leader wants them to act.

Unit 2. Concept of leadership

✓ Leadership is the practice of driving people to achieve goals. This plays an

important role success and efficiency of subordinates. Leaders do this by
providing many means of shaping the actions of subordinates. It’s a process
whereby an individual influences other and guides the organization in
a manner that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Leadership is
learned, a leader's skills and knowledge can be influenced by his or her
attributes or traits, such as beliefs, values, ethics, and character. Knowledge
and skills contribute directly to the process of leadership, while the other
attributes give the leader certain characteristics that make him or her
unique. A leader might have learned the skills in counseling others, but her
traits will often play a great role in determining how he counsels.

FOUR PRIMARY FACTORS OF LEADERSHIP (U.S. Army, 1983)

1. Leader
• An individual appointed as a leader must understand himself
honestly, what he knows and what he can do. Take note that it is the
followers that decide whether the leader is successful, not the
leader or anyone else. If they don't trust their leader, or
lack confidence, they’ll be uninspired. To be successful you have to
persuade your followers that you are worthy of being followed, not
yourself or your superiors.
2. Followers
• Different people expect different leadership styles. A newly-employed
deserves more supervision than an accomplished subordinate does.
An individual without motivation needs a different approach than one
with a high motivation level. You have to know your people, as a
leader. The basic starting point is to have a clear understanding of
human nature such as needs, feelings and motivation. You have to
come to learn the be, know and do qualities of your people.
3. Communication

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 • Being a leader, you lead by bidirectional communication. A
great deal of that is nonverbal. For example, when you "set
an example, that shows your people you wouldn’t ask them to do
something you wouldn't want to do. What and how you interact either
strengthens or destroys your relationship with your followers.

4. Situation
• Every situation is different. Everything you do in one situation isn't
automatically going to work in another. You have to use your
discretion to determine the best course of action and the style of
leadership needed for each situation. You may need to face a
subordinate for inappropriate behavior, for example, but if the
confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too mild, then the
outcomes may prove ineffective. Take note also that the disorder
typically affects a leader's actions more than its characteristics. This
is because while traits can be impressively stable over a period of
time, they have little consistency in situations (Mischel, 1968).

What are the different styles of leadership?

1. Coaching Leadership
A coaching leader is someone who can quickly recognize their team
members’ strengths, weaknesses and motivations to help each individual
improve. This type of leader often assists team members in setting smart
goals and then provides regular feedback with challenging projects to
promote growth.

2. Visionary Leadership
Visionary leaders have a powerful ability to drive progress and usher in
periods of change by inspiring employees and earning trust for new ideas. A
visionary leader is also able to establish a strong organizational bond

3. Servant Leadership
Servant leaders live by a people-first mindset and believe that when team
members feel personally and professionally fulfilled, they’re more effective
and more likely to produce great work regularly.

4. Autocratic Leadership
Also called the authoritarian style of leadership, this type of leader is
someone who is focused almost entirely on results and efficiency. They often
make decisions alone or with a small, trusted group and expect employees to
do exactly what they’re asked.

5. Laissez-faire or hands-off Leadership

This leadership style is the opposite of the autocratic leadership type, focusing
mostly on delegating many tasks to team members and providing little to no
supervision

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Characteristics of a Leader
The mark of a true leader is not a position or title held, but it is how many people
are willing to follow them. Santa Clara University and the Tom Peters group outline
the following leadership characteristics:

• Honest
• Competent
• Forward-looking
• Inspiring
• Intelligent
• Fair-minded
• Broad-minded
• Courageous
• Straightforward
• Imaginative

The United States Army offers 11 Leadership Principles:

• Be tactically and technically proficient
• Know yourself and seek self-improvement
• Know your soldiers and look out for their welfare
• Keep your soldiers informed
• Set the example
• Ensure the task is understood, supervised, and accomplished
• Train your soldiers as a team
• Make sound and timely decisions
• Develop a sense of responsibility in your subordinates
• Employ your unit in accordance with its capabilities
• Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions

You will notice that none of the above actually tells you how to lead in a practical
manner. They don’t address what to do or say in any given situation. That is
because there is no real formula to being a leader. Leadership must come from
within and it is based on your personality.

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Unit 3: Philosophies of leadership

A leadership philosophy is the unique set of values, beliefs and principles that set the
foundation for how a person leads and guides others.

What Are the Key Elements of a Leadership Philosophy?

A leadership philosophy has four key elements: theory, attitude, guiding principles and behavior.
These key elements can help you discover and build your leadership philosophy, which can guide
your leadership style. Here is a brief definition of each element:

• Theory: This component is your idea of what leadership means and what it requires to be
effective.
• Attitude: This element encompasses your mindset and demeanor regarding leadership.
Think of this as your approach to interacting with team members.
• Guiding principles: Your guiding principles are the values you choose to influence how
you lead others. Your moral compass drives your guiding principles.
• Behavior: Put simply, your behavior is the way you act and interact with others on your
journey to achieve a goal or overcome a challenge.

There are many different leadership philosophy styles, including autocratic leadership,
democratic leadership and solution-based leadership. Your choice depends on your unique
leadership approach and code of ethics.

1. Autocratic Leadership Philosophy

An autocratic leadership philosophy style, also known as authoritarian, is a management style

where the leader takes complete control over all decision-making. This type of leader does not
consider other perspectives when making decisions and delegates responsibilities to direct
reports.

2. Delegative Leadership Philosophy

Delegative leadership, also known as laissez-faire leadership, is a philosophical approach that

promotes delegation and sharing responsibilities. This type of leadership empowers all team
members to make decisions, which fosters a sense of autonomy

3. Democratic Leadership Philosophy

The democratic leadership philosophy is supportive and innovative – the opposite of autocratic
leadership. With this leadership style, a leader values the opinions of their constituents and
makes sure that everyone’s voice is heard. While a leader may make the final decision, the
deliberation process includes input from the entire team, where each member has an
opportunity to share their thoughts and opinions.
4. Learning Leadership Philosophy

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Leaders who make learning and teaching a top priority exemplify a learning leadership
philosophy. With this style, leaders promote a culture of continuous learning that encourages
growth. Leaders who use this approach typically make decisions based on data and evidence.

5. Managerial Leadership Philosophy

People with a managerial leadership philosophy style are good at seeing the big picture and
identifying and solving challenges. Managerial leaders may adopt elements of other leadership
styles, such as democratic leadership, transactional leadership and strategic leadership. These
leaders have the ability to lead and influence others, while maintaining the organizational
structure of the team.

6. Participative Leadership Philosophy

The participative leadership philosophy is a form of democratic leadership that sets up a team
structure where all members are encouraged to speak their minds and engage in decision-
making. Team leaders with a participative leadership style strive to ensure their direct reports
feel they have a sense of autonomy. This leadership style works best in organizations where
everybody has a defined role and does not need significant oversight.

7. Solution-Based Leadership Philosophy

offer solutions, actively help team members and encourage direct reports.

6
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Solution-based leadership prioritizes problem-solving. With this leadership philosophy style, a
leader develops action plans with defined solutions and outcomes. To ensure success, solution-
based leaders may delegate tasks to help a team identify and implement solutions.

8. Strategic Leadership Philosophy

Individuals who can envision and communicate a clear vision and long-term plan for a team or
organization are strategic leaders and adopt this philosophy style. They carefully align an
organization’s business goals with available talent, resources and processes. Successful strategic
leaders are proactive and good at making thoughtful decisions.

9. Transactional Leadership Philosophy

Transactional leadership is a leadership philosophy approach that emphasizes a structured and

results-driven approach. With this style, leaders set clear expectations for performance and
reward team members based on their success. Typically, transactional leaders focus on
immediate tasks, routine processes and efficiency.

10. Transformational Leadership Philosophy

The transformational leadership philosophy is often referred to as a hands-on approach to
leadership. With this approach, a leader sets goals and challenges for their team.
Transformational leaders also Unit 4: Why is leadership important in the workplace?
Any organization, whether it’s a business, school, or government agency, needs leaders to help
guide the way. Leaders provide direction and vision, motivate and inspire others, and help create
an environment conducive to success by promoting communication and collaboration among
team members. In short, leadership and strong management are essential for any organization
that wants to achieve its objectives.

[Link] Communication
One of the most important duties of a leader is to facilitate communication within the workplace.
Clear and concise communication is essential for any team to function correctly. Effective leaders
will make it a point to keep lines of communication open at all times and create an open and
inclusive environment where everyone feels comfortable sharing their ideas. By ensuring
employees have a forum to voice their concerns and opinions, a leader can encourage a work
culture where new ideas are welcome, and misunderstandings are avoided.

[Link] A Better Work Environment

Leaders have a profound impact on their overall work environment. Effective leaders create an
atmosphere of trust and respect, which in turn fosters creativity and collaboration. Employee
morale is also higher in workplaces with strong management, leading to stronger workplace
relationships. When employees feel engaged with their team and that their contributions matter,
they are more likely to be motivated to go above and beyond in the workplace.

[Link] Productivity
A successful leader makes all the difference in a team’s productivity. When employees feel
excited about the work they’re doing, they are more likely to be productive. On the other hand, a
poor leader can cause employees to become disengaged and uninterested in their work. A team
that is led effectively will be more productive, efficient, and successful overall.

4. Increases Efficiency
A productive leader can help to improve efficiency by getting the most out of their team. Leaders
can help improve efficiency by ensuring everyone is working towards the same goal and doing
what they do best. They can provide guidance and direction while delegating tasks to make the
most of everyone’s strengths.

5. Decreases Mistakes
A capable leader is essential for any workplace that wants to minimize mistakes and run
smoothly. This is especially important in high-pressure environments where mistakes can have
serious consequences. A leader needs to be able to identify potential problems early on and
quickly resolve them.

[Link] Employees
Good leaders know how to effectively motivate their employees. They understand that people
are different and that what works for one person may not work for another. As a result, they take
the time to get to know their team members and discover what works best for them. This can
then create a more motivated group of employees who are excited about their own strengths
and workplace contributions.

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[Link] a Good Example for Others
An effective leader knows that setting a good example is one of the best ways to inspire others.
After all, people are more likely to follow someone they see as a role model. By behaving in a
way that exemplifies the values and goals of their team or organization, good leaders can show
others what it
means to be a committed and successful member.

[Link] Hard Work

A great leader can instill a sense of purpose in their team. When people feel like they are working
towards something bigger than themselves, they are more likely to be willing to put in the hard
work required to achieve it. An effective leader knows how to tap into this sense of purpose and
channel it into productive effort.

9. Creates A Strong Vision and Direction for The Future

A successful leader understands the importance of having a solid vision and how to create one
that will guide their organization toward a bright future. Without a clear vision, maintaining
momentum or progressing toward long-term goals can be challenging. A leader with a strong
vision can create a sense of direction and purpose, helping to focus and energize an entire
organization.

10. Helps Keep Employees on Track

Once the company’s vision is well-articulated and understood, sound leadership is essential to
keep employees focused on reaching that goal. This means clearly communicating the
company’s vision and objectives as progress is made and changes occur, and then providing the
necessary support and resources for success.

Unit 5: Historical overview of Leadership theories

The study of leadership as a distinct field emerged in the early 20th century. The initial approach
focused on identifying personality traits characteristic of leaders, called "trait theory of
leadership". In the 1940s and 1950s, this perspective was criticized for its lack of consideration
for context and relationships between leaders and group members.

In the 1960s, attention shifted to the behavior of leaders, not just their personality traits. This
gave rise to the "behavioral leadership theory", which focuses on leaders' actions rather than
their inherent traits.

More recently, leadership has been examined from a contingency perspective, meaning the
idea that leadership effectiveness depends on the situation. From this perspective, several
models have emerged, including Hersey-Blanchard's Situational Leadership model and Fiedler's
leadership model.

Main Leadership theories throughout history

[Link] Leadership theory

Originating in the early 20th century, this theory suggests that certain individuals possess
natural traits that predispose them to become leaders. Commonly cited leadership traits include
extraversion, emotional intelligence, determination, autonomy, and self-confidence. However,
this theory has been criticized for its lack of reproducibility and for not addressing the impact of
environment and situation on leadership.

[Link] Leadership theories

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Behavioral Leadership theories began to emerge in the 1930s in response to trait theory of
leadership. Researchers from this period began to realize that personal traits couldn't fully
explain leadership effectiveness. They started focusing on the behaviors that leaders adopted in
various situations.
Behavioral Leadership theories suggest that leadership isn't just a matter of innate traits but can
be taught and acquired. The Behavioral Leadership model includes two behavior styles typically
observed: task-oriented style, where the leader focuses on work organization and goal
achievement, and people-oriented style, where the leader focuses on encouragement and the
well-being of their team.
Lewin was an influential precursor of Behavioral Leadership theories. He identified three
leadership styles by Lewin - autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire, centered around leader
behavior.

[Link] Leadership theory

The Situational Leadership theory was developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard in the
1960s in response to previous theories which assumed there was one "best" way to lead. The
Situational Leadership theory suggests that the most effective leadership style depends on the
situation and the maturity level (capability and willingness to take responsibility) of subordinates.

Hersey and Blanchard proposed a leadership model that identifies four leadership styles -
delegating, supporting, coaching, and directing - and suggests that leaders should adapt their
style based on the maturity of their subordinates and the requirements of the situation.

[Link] Leadership theory

The Contingency Leadership theory, also known as Fiedler's contingency model, was developed
by psychologist Fred Fiedler in the 1960s. This theory is based on the idea that a leader's success
depends on the situation and the fit between the leader's leadership style and the specific
requirements of the situation. Like the Situational Leadership theory, it was developed in
response to previous theories, notably the Behavioral Leadership theory which held that there
was an "ideal" or "effective" leadership style.

Fiedler's Leadership model proposes that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely
favorable or unfavorable situations, where leader-subordinate relations are clearly defined. In
contrast, relationship-oriented leaders are more effective in intermediate situations, where task
structure and leader power are neither clearly defined nor completely absent.

[Link] Grid theory

The Managerial Grid theory, or leadership grid, was developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane S.
Mouton in the 1960s. The central concept of the theory is that an individual's leadership style
can be identified and assessed based on their concerns for+ production (i.e., task, objective,
outcomes) and their concerns for people (i.e., relationships, employee well-being). It thereby
revisits the same dimensions as Behavioral Leadership.

Blake and Mouton presented this theory as a way for leaders to understand their current
behavior and explore how they might adjust their approach to be more effective. They suggested
that the most effective leadership is one that balances concerns for people and production,
represented by the "Team Management" (9,9) on the grid. The Managerial Grid revisits the styles
originally developed by Kurt Lewin, and adds others.

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The Managerial Grid was developed in part in response to the prevailing opinion at the time that
leadership was a matter of choice between task emphasis or relationship emphasis.
Blake and Mouton argued that it was not a matter of choosing one over the other, but rather
finding a balance between the two. They contended that leaders who succeed in balancing these
two concerns are most likely to achieve good results.

[Link] Leadership theory

The Transformational Leadership theory was developed by James V. Downton and popularized by
Bernard M. Bass in the 1980s.

According to the Transformational Leadership theory, effective leaders inspire their subordinates
to transcend their personal interests for the benefit of the organization. Bass proposed a four-
factor Transformational Leadership model: idealized influence (they act as role models),
inspirational motivation (they inspire and motivate), intellectual stimulation (they encourage
creativity and innovation), and individual consideration (they support individual development).

The Transformational Leadership theory was developed in response to critiques of the

Transactional Leadership theory which suggested that the latter did not account for the human
aspect of leadership and did not encourage change and innovation in the organization.
Transformational leaders, on the other hand, are supposed to encourage their subordinates to
exceed their expectations and to innovate.

[Link] Leadership theory

The Transactional Leadership theory was developed from the works of Max Weber in the early
20th century, but it was popularized by Bernard Bass's work in the 1980s. The Transactional
Leadership theory emerged in reaction to prevailing leadership theories of the time, notably the
Trait Leadership theory, which had been criticized for its lack of context and interaction between
the leader and his subordinates consideration.

The Transactional Leadership theory was introduced to address these criticisms by emphasizing
the importance of interactions between the leader and the subordinates. In Transactional
Leadership, leaders set clear goals and provide rewards (or punishments) based on the
performance of the subordinates.

[Link] Leadership theory

The Servant Leadership theory was initially proposed by Robert K. Greenleaf in 1970. In his essay
"The Servant as Leader", Greenleaf suggested that true leadership naturally emerges from those
who are first and foremost servants.

Unlike traditional leadership theories that place the leader at the top, the Servant Leadership
model puts the leader in service to others. According to Greenleaf, Servant Leadership is based
on the leader's desire to help others achieve their full potential and to contribute to society in a
meaningful way.

The Servant Leadership theory was developed in response to a feeling of discontent with
traditional, authoritarian power structures. Greenleaf argued that these power structures tended

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to dehumanize workers, viewing them as means to achieve the organization's objectives. In
contrast, Servant Leadership seeks to reverse this hierarchy by placing the needs of the workers
ahead of those of the organization.

The Servant Leadership theory gained popularity in the early 21st century, partly due to its
alignment with new leadership expectations that prioritize empathy, listening, and supporting
personal development. Many studies have shown that Servant Leadership can lead to greater job
satisfaction, better team performance, and increased organizational commitment.

9. Authentic Leadership theory

The Authentic Leadership theory was introduced in the late 2000s in response to a growing
demand for more transparent, genuine, and accountable leaders. This demand was largely
driven by a series of corporate scandals and a crisis of trust in leadership at the time.

Authentic leaders are described as being aware of their values, emotions, and motivations, and
as having a high degree of congruence between their values and actions. They are also known
for their openness and transparency in their relationships with their subordinates. According to
researchers, authentic leaders foster a work environment in which employees feel respected,
listened to, and valued.

Bill George, one of the main proponents of Authentic Leadership, suggested that this form of
leadership is based on the development and enactment of a personal "life story" that guides the
leader's actions and decisions. According to George, Authentic Leadership cannot be taught in a
course or workshop; it instead emerges from the leader's life experience and self-understanding.

Most used leadership theories in the 21st century

In the 21st century, the leadership theories most widely used in practice are the Transformational
Leadership, Servant Leadership, and Authentic Leadership theories. They have become popular
primarily because all three have demonstrated their ability to better engage employees and
increase job satisfaction.

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 Weeks 4-6

II. Theories of Leadership

a. Blake and Mouton’s; Managerial Grid
b. House’s Path Goal Theory
c. Great Man Theory
d. Trait Theory
e. LMX Theory Objectives:
At the end of the session, students are expected to:

• Evaluate the different theories on leadership

Unit 1: Blake and Mouton’s; Managerial Grid

The managerial grid model (The Blake and

Mouton Managerial Grid model) is a
selfassessment tool by which individuals
and organizations can identify a
manager's or leader's style. The grid was
originally developed by Robert R. Blake
and Jane S. Mouton in the 1960s and has
evolved in subsequent decades.

During their work to improve

effective leadership at Exxon, they noted
that management behavior worked on
axes (i.e., concern for production and
concern for people) and moved along a
continuum. Based on this observation,
they went on to create the Managerial Grid theory and model
of leadership styles.

The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid model -- also known simply as the Blake Mouton Grid --
shows the degree to which a manager or leader focuses on production, people or both.
Depending on where the person falls on the grid, their behavioral or managerial style can be
determined.

The Blake Mouton Grid is created using a horizontal axis and a vertical axis that meet at a right
angle and are rated on a nine-point scale:
Horizontal axis -- concern for production. A one, or low concern for production, is placed to
the far left of the horizontal axis, close to the right angle; a nine, or high concern for production,
is located on the far right of the horizontal line. A high concern for production indicates that the
leader prioritizes objectives, results and productivity when determining how a task should be

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accomplished. Vertical axis -- concern for people. A one, or low concern, falls at the bottom
of the vertical line, close to the base near the right angle, while a nine, or high concern for
people, is placed at the top of this vertical axis. A high concern for people indicates that the
leader prioritizes the needs and interests of people when determining how a task should be
accomplished.

THE FIVE RESULTING LEADERSHIP STYLES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Impoverished Management (1, 1): Managers with this approach are low on both the
dimensions and exercise minimum effort to get the work done from subordinates.
The leader has low concern for employee satisfaction and work deadlines and as a result
disharmony and disorganization prevail within the organization. The leaders are termed
ineffective wherein their action is merely aimed at preserving job and seniority.
Task management (9, 1): Also called dictatorial or perish style. Here leaders are more
concerned about production and have less concern for people. The style is based on theory X of
McGregor.
The employees’ needs are not taken care of and they are simply a means to an end. The leader
believes that efficiency can result only through proper organization of work systems and through
elimination of people wherever possible.
Such a style can definitely increase the output of organization in short run but due to the strict
policies and procedures, high labor turnover is inevitable.
Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5): This is basically a compromising style wherein the leader tries to
maintain a balance between goals of company and the needs of people.
The leader does not push the boundaries of achievement resulting in average performance for
organization. Here neither employee nor production needs are fully met.
Country Club (1, 9): This is a collegial style characterized by low task and high people
orientation where the leader gives thoughtful attention to the needs of people thus providing
them with a friendly and comfortable environment.
The leader feels that such a treatment with employees will lead to self-motivation and will find
people working hard on their own. However, a low focus on tasks can hamper production and
lead to questionable results.
Team Management (9, 9): Characterized by high people and task focus, the style is based on
the theory Y of McGregor and has been termed as most effective style according to Blake and
Mouton. The leader feels that empowerment, commitment, trust, and respect are the key
elements in creating a team atmosphere which will automatically result in high employee
satisfaction and production.

Advantages of Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid

The Managerial or Leadership Grid is used to help managers analyze their own leadership styles
through a technique known as grid training. This is done by administering a questionnaire that
helps managers identify how they stand with respect to their concern for production and people.
The training is aimed at basically helping leaders reach to the ideal state of 9, 9.

Unit 2: House’s Path Goal Theory

Path-Goal Theory is a leadership approach where the leader clearly identifies goals and the path
to reach them. The leader uses directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented
leadership behaviors to motivate, guide, and remove obstacles, depending on the employee and
environmental factors.

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House’s theory advocates servant leadership. As per servant leadership theory, leadership is not
viewed as a position of power. Rather, leaders act as coaches and facilitators to their
subordinates.

According to House’s path-goal theory, a leader’s effectiveness depends on several employee

and environmental contingent factors and certain leadership styles. All these are explained in the
figure 1 below:

Leadership Styles
The four leadership styles are:
▪ Directive: Here
the leader provides guidelines, lets subordinates know what is expected of them,
sets performance standards for them, and controls behavior when performance
standards are not met.
He/She makes judicious use of rewards and disciplinary action. The style is the same as
taskoriented one.
▪ Supportive: The leader is friendly towards subordinates and displays personal concern for
their needs, welfare, and well-being. This style is the same as people-oriented leadership.
▪ Participative: The leader believes in group decision-making and shares information with
subordinates.
He/She consults his subordinates on important decisions related to work, task goals, and
paths to resolve goals.
▪ Achievement-oriented: The leader sets challenging goals and encourages employees to
reach their peak performance.
The leader believes that employees are responsible enough to accomplish challenging
goals. This is the same as goal-setting theory.
According to the theory, these leadership styles are not mutually exclusive and leaders are
capable of selecting more than one kind of a style suited for a particular situation.

Contingencies

The theory states that each of these styles will be effective in some situations but not in
others. It further states that the relationship between a leader’s style and effectiveness is
dependent on the following variables:

▪ Employee characteristics: These include factors such as employees’ needs, locus of

control, experience, perceived ability, satisfaction, willingness to leave the organization,

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 and anxiety. For example, if followers are high inability, a directive style of leadership may
be unnecessary; instead a supportive approach may be preferable.
▪ Characteristics of work environment: These include factors such as task structure and
team dynamics that are outside the control of the employee. For example, for employees
performing simple and routine tasks, a supportive style is much effective than a directive
one. Similarly, the participative style works much better for non-routine tasks than routine
ones.

When team cohesiveness is low, a supportive leadership style must be used whereas in a
situation where performance-oriented team norms exist, a directive style or possibly an
achievement-oriented style works better. Leaders should apply directive style to counteract team
norms that oppose the team’s formal objectives.

Unit 3: Great Man Theory

Are some people born to lead? If we look at the great leaders of the past such as Alexander the
Great, Julius Caesar, Napoleon, Queen Elizabeth I, and Abraham Lincoln, we will find that
they do seem to differ from ordinary human beings in several aspects. The same applies to the
contemporary leaders like George W. Bush and Mahatma Gandhi. They definitely possess high
levels of ambition coupled with clear visions of precisely where they want to go.

These leaders are cited as naturally great leaders, born with a set of personal qualities that made
them effective leaders. Even today, the belief that truly great leaders are born is common.

Top executives, sports personalities, and even politicians often seem to possess an aura that sets
them apart from others. According to the contemporary theorists, leaders are not like other
people. They do not need to be intellectually genius or omniscient prophets to succeed, but they
definitely should have the right stuff which is not equally present in all people. This orientation
expresses an approach to the study of leadership known as the great man theory.

Assumptions
The leaders are born and not made and possess certain traits which were inherited
Great leaders can arise when there is a great need.

Theory
Much of the work on this theory was done in the 19th century and is often linked to the work of
the historian Thomas Carlyle who commented on the great men or heroes of the history saying
that “the history of the world is but the biography of great men”. According to him, a leader is the
one gifted with unique qualities that capture the imagination of the masses.

Earlier leadership was considered as a quality associated mostly with the males, and therefore
the theory was named as the great man theory. But later with the emergence of many great
women leaders as well, the theory was recognized as the Great Person Theory.

The great man theory of leadership states that some people are born with the
necessary attributes that set them apart from others and that these traits are responsible
for their assuming positions of power and authority. A leader is a hero who accomplishes goals
against all odds for his followers.

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The theory implies that those in power deserve to be there because of their special endowment.
Furthermore, the theory contends that these traits remain stable over time and across different
groups. Thus, it suggests that all great leaders share these characteristics regardless of when
and where they lived or the precise role in the history they fulfilled.

Unit 4: Trait Theory

The trait theory of leadership suggests that certain

inborn or innate qualities and
characteristics make someone a leader. These
qualities might be personality factors, physical
factors, intelligence factors, and so on. In essence,
trait theory proposes that the leader and leaders’
traits are central to an organization’s success.
The assumption here is that finding people with
the right traits will increase
organizational
performance. Trait theory focuses exclusively on the leader and neglects the
follower.

Leadership Traits
According to the researchers, the traits most commonly associated with great leadership include:

Adaptability and flexibility: Effective leaders don't get stuck in a rut. They are able to think
outside of the box and adapt quickly to changing situations.
Assertiveness: A great leader is able to be direct and assertive without coming off as overly
pushy or aggressive.
Capacity to motivate people: A great leader knows how to inspire others and motivate them
to do their best.
Courage and resolution: The best leaders are brave and committed to the goals of the group.
They do not hide from challenges.
Creativity: Perhaps most importantly, great leaders not only possess their own creativity, but
they are also able to foster creativity among members of the group. 5
Decisiveness: A great leader is capable of making a decision and is confident in his or her
choices. Eagerness to accept responsibility: Strong leaders take on responsibility and don't
pass the blame on to others. They stand by their success and take ownership of their mistakes.
Emotional stability: In addition to being dependable overall, strong leaders are able to control
their emotions and avoid overreactions.
Intelligence and action-oriented judgment: Great leaders and smart and make choices that
move the group forward.
Need for achievement: Strong leaders have a need to succeed and help the group achieve
goals. They genuinely care about the success of the group and are committed to helping the
group reach these milestones.
People skills: Excellent interpersonal skills are essential for leading effectively. Great leaders
know how to interact well with other leaders as well as with team members.
Perseverance: Strong leaders stick with it, even when things get difficult or the group faces
significant obstacles.
Self-confidence: Many of the best leaders are extremely self-assured. Because they are
confident in themselves, followers often begin to share this self-belief.

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Task competence: A great leader is skilled and capable. Members of the group are able to look
to the leader for an example of how things should be done.
Trustworthiness: Group members need to be able to depend upon and trust the person leading
them.
Understanding their followers and their needs: Effective leaders pay attention to group
members and genuinely care about helping them succeed. They want each person in the group
to succeed and play a role in moving the entire group forward.

Unit 5: LMX Theory (The Leader-Member Exchange Theory)

The leader-member exchange theory is a concept that examines the relationship between
management and employees. It evaluates the effectiveness of these relationships and
determines how they directly influence the growth and productivity of each employee. Also
known as Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory or LMX, this theory has been around since the 1970s and
is prevalent in organizations across various industries.

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory describes the development of relationships between
leaders and their team members through three stages:

1. Role Taking
- This stage occurs when an employee first starts at the organization or begins reporting to a
new manager. The leader assesses the employee's skills, experience, and abilities. Based on
these observations, the leader forms an initial image of the employee and offers opportunities
accordingly.

2. Role Making
- Employees are now part of the team, working on tasks and projects. Leaders observe their
work and interactions, sorting team members into two groups:
In-group: Employees who prove loyalty, hard work, and skill are placed in this group. They
receive more opportunities, challenging tasks, and personal attention from the manager. They
are also considered for advancement and development resources.
Out-group: Employees who fail to build trust or meet expectations are placed in this group.
They receive less attention, fewer opportunities, and less challenging work. Their responsibilities
may be reduced, and they have limited access to development resources, often blending into the
team without standing out.

This classification can influence team members’ growth and career trajectory within the
organization.

3. Routinization
-The leader and team members establish a set routine based on whether the employee is in the
ingroup or out-group.
• In-group members continue to work hard, maintain positive traits like patience and
empathy, and enjoy the trust and favor of their manager. They are likely to receive more
support, attention, and opportunities.
• Out-group members, feeling marginalized, may become disengaged and develop
negative feelings toward their manager and in-group teammates. Transitioning from the
out-group to the in-group is rare and difficult.

How to Use the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

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1. Identify the Out-Group
- Managers should begin by recognizing who they subconsciously place in the out-group. This
involves making a list of out-group employees and evaluating why they are not in the in-group.
Managers should assess whether these reasons are fair, such as perceived low motivation or
uncooperativeness, and determine if their reactions were justified.

2. Develop Relationships
- Managers can work on re-establishing relationships with out-group members, which benefits
both the employee and the team. By building rapport, showing genuine interest, and regularly
checking in on these employees, managers can foster improved work performance and group
dynamics.

3. Provide Specific Opportunities

- Once managers better understand each team member, they can offer personalized training or
growth opportunities. Starting with low-risk tasks, managers can evaluate performance and
gradually assign more responsibilities. Even if an employee underperforms, this presents a
chance for constructive feedback and further training.

Pros of the LMX Theory

Encourages Fair Evaluation: It helps managers reflect on their biases and make objective
evaluations of both in-group and out-group members.
Development of Diverse Teams: The theory encourages leaders to develop teams with a
variety of personalities and skills, enhancing overall team performance and inclusivity.

Weeks 7-8

III. Leaders and Managers: Difference, Characteristics and Qualities

a. Definition of leader and manager

b. Difference between a leader and a manager
c. Qualities of a leader
d. Qualities /Characteristics of Professional Managers
e. Shared character traits of a leader and a manager
f. Principles of Leadership
g. Contemporary leadership issues and challenges
h. Leadership skills
i. Leadership Roles

Objectives:
At the end of the session, students are expected to:

• Compare the characteristics and qualities of a leader and a manager

Unit 1: Definition of leader and manager

A successful business owner needs to be both a strong leader and manager to get their team on
board to follow them towards their vision of success. Leadership is about getting people to
understand and believe in your vision and to work with you to achieve your goals

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while managing is more about administering and making sure the day-to-day things
are happening as they should.

Who is a Leader?
A leader relies on human contribution to achieve goals rather than displaying or possessing
power. Leaders can work in various parts of an organization and are not necessarily in charge.

Who is a manager?
A manager is a crucial pillar as they ensure smooth operations while monitoring the daily
activities. These tasks can be challenging, so a manager should exhibit personality traits and
skills that allow for a cohesive work environment.

Unit 2: Difference between a leader and a manager

1. Managers Direct, but Leaders Coach

Leaders consider the team competent and positively perceive their potential. They avoid telling
team members what to do and how. Managers, on the other hand, delegate tasks and offer
guidance on how to fulfill them.

2. Managers Control Risks, While Leaders Take Risks

Leaders are inclined to try new things, even if it means failure. They look at failure as a stepping
stone to success and are better at-risk management. Managers strive to lower risks and control
or prevent issues instead of embracing them.

3. Leaders Have a Unique View, but Managers Replicate It

Leaders actively work to build a unique personal brand. They are transparent, authentic, and
unafraid of standing out. Managers learn behaviors and skills from others and adopt a pre-
defined leadership style.

4. Managers Set Goals, but Leaders Have a Vision

When comparing a manager vs. a leader, leaders have a vision and mobilize and inspire team
members to make it a reality. A manager focuses on defining, measuring, and attaining goals
while controlling occurrences to achieve these objectives.

5. Leaders Have a Long-term Perspective, but Managers Look at Things Short-term

Leaders have a purpose and remain motivated by a more significant long-term goal without
needing regular rewards. Managers require regular accolades because they focus on shorter-term
goals.

6. Managers Preserve the Status Quo, but Leaders Inspire Change

Leaders take pride in innovation and inspire change management even in uncertainty. Managers
prefer what is already working, so they work on refining and enhancing the processes, structures,
and systems.

7. Managers Leverage Proven Skills but Leaders Experience Personal Growth

Leaders embrace learning and aim to retain relevance in the dynamic workspace. Managers
focus on the skills that result in success and try to perfect these proven behaviors and abilities.

8. Managers Create Processes and Systems, but Leaders Nurture Relationships

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Leaders need people to actualize their vision, so they build trust and loyalty by honoring
promises. Managers focus on the systems and structures necessary to achieve the desired
outcomes and goals.

9. Managers Have Employees, while Leaders Have Fans

Leaders get followers who become die-hard fans who help attain goals. Managers have
employees who abide by instructions.

10. Leaders Ask Why and What, but Managers Ask When and How
When faced with a challenge, a leader looks at why it happened and what they can learn from
the experience. They exhibit great situational leadership skills.

11. Leaders create a vision, managers create goals.

Leaders paint a picture of what they see as possible and inspire and engage their people in
turning that vision into reality. They think beyond what individuals do. They activate people to be
part of something bigger. They know that high-functioning teams can accomplish a lot more
working together than individuals working autonomously. Managers focus on setting, measuring
and achieving goals. They control situations to reach or exceed their objectives.

12. Leaders are change agents; managers maintain the status quo.
Leaders are proud disrupters. Innovation is their mantra. They embrace change and know that
even if things are working, there could be a better way forward. And they understand and accept
the fact that changes to the system often create waves. Managers stick with what works, refining
systems, structures and processes to make them better.

13. Leaders are unique, managers copy.

Leaders are willing to be themselves. They are self-aware and work actively to build their unique
and differentiated personal brand. They are comfortable in their own shoes and willing to stand
out.
They’re authentic and transparent. Managers mimic the competencies and behaviors they learn
from others and adopt their leadership style rather than defining it.

14. Leaders take risks, managers control risk.

Leaders are willing to try new things even if they may fail miserably. They know that failure is
often a step on the path to success. Managers work to minimize risk. They seek to avoid or
control problems rather than embracing them.

15. Leaders are in it for the long haul, managers think short-term.
Leaders have intentionality. They do what they say they are going to do and stay motivated
toward a big, often very distant goal. They remain motivated without receiving regular rewards.
Managers work on shorter-term goals, seeking more regular acknowledgment or accolades.

16. Leaders grow personally, managers rely on existing, proven skills.

Leaders know if they aren’t learning something new every day, they aren’t standing still, they’re
falling behind. They remain curious and seek to remain relevant in an ever-changing world of
work. They seek out people and information that will expand their thinking. Managers often
double down on what made them successful, perfecting existing skills and adopting proven
behaviors.

17. Leaders build relationships, managers build systems and processes.

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Leaders focus on people – all the stakeholders they need to influence in order to realize their
vision. They know who their stakeholders are and spend most of their time with them. They build
loyalty and trust by consistently delivering on their promise. Managers focus on the structures
necessary to set and achieve goals. They focus on the analytical and ensure systems are in place
to attain desired outcomes. They work with individuals and their goals and objectives.

18. Leader’s coach, managers direct.

Leaders know that people who work for them have the answers or are able to find them. They
see their people as competent and are optimistic about their potential. They resist the
temptation to tell their people what to do and how to do it. Managers assign tasks and provide
guidance on how to accomplish them.

19. Leaders create fans, managers have employees.

Leaders have people who go beyond following them; their followers become their raving fans and
fervent promoters – helping them build their brand and achieve their goals. Their fans help them
increase their visibility and credibility. Managers have staff who follow directions and seek to
please the boss.

MANAGER

A Manager is a person who is responsible for a part of a company, i.e., they ‘manage ‘the
company.

Managers may be in charge of a department and the people who work in it. In some cases, the
manager is in charge of the whole business. For example, a ‘restaurant manager’ is in charge of
the whole restaurant.

A manager is a person who exercises managerial functions primarily. They should have the
power to hire, fire, discipline, do performance appraisals, and monitor attendance. They should
also have the power to approve overtime and authorize vacations. They are the boss.

The Manager’s duties also include managing employees or a section of the company on a day-
today basis.

They often serve as a liaison between the workforce and upper management, ensuring that the
team’s contributions align with the organization’s goals and objectives.

• Top Managers are in charge of a company’s

strategy. In other words, they are the stewards of
an organization’s vision and mission.
• Functional Managers are responsible
for the effectiveness and efficiency of
specific areas of a company, such as marketing.
They are also in charge of personnel and
accounts.
• Team Managers or Supervisory
Managers are in charge of subgroups of
a particular function. They may also be in charge
of a group of members from different parts of the
company.

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 • Line Managers are in charge of the output of certain products or services. They hold
authority in a vertical chain of command, or over a particular product line.
• General Managers are responsible for managing a revenue-producing unit, such as a
product line, business unit, or a store. The General manager has to make decisions across
different functions within that unit. General managers typically get a bonus or commission
when the unit does well. General Managers report to their top executives and take
directions from them. The top executives explain what the company’s overall plan is. The
General Manager subsequently sets specific goals for the unit to fit in with the plan.
Qualities of a good manager

• Accountability
• Character
• Cultural affinity
• Prioritization
• Warmth
• Patience
• Honesty
• Decisiveness
• Empathy
• Positive attitude
• Competence
• Flexibility

Unit 3: Qualities of a leader

1. Honesty and Integrity

The 34th President of United States, Dwight D. Eisen however once said, “The supreme
quality of leadership is unquestionably integrity. Without it, no real success is possible, no matter
whether it is on a section gang, a football field, in an army, or in an office.” Honesty and integrity
are two important ingredients which make a good leader. How can you expect your followers to
be honest when you lack these qualities yourself? Leaders succeed when they stick to their
values and core beliefs and without ethics, this will not be possible.

2. Confidence
To be an effective leader, you should be confident enough to ensure that other follow your
commands. If you are unsure about your own decisions and qualities, then your subordinates will
never follow you. As a leader, you have to be oozing with confidence, show some swagger and
assertiveness to gain the respect of your subordinates. This does not mean that you should be
overconfident, but you should at least reflect the degree of confidence required to ensure that
your followers trust you as a leader.

3. Inspire Others
Probably the most difficult job for a leader is to persuade others to follow. It can only be
possible if you inspire your followers by setting a good example. When the going gets tough, they
look up to you and see how you react to the situation. If you handle it well, they will follow you.
As a leader, should think positive and this positive approach should be visible through your
actions. Stay calm under pressure and keep the motivation level up. As John Quincy Adams puts
it, “If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you are

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a leader.” If you are successful in inspiring your subordinates, you can easily overcome any
current and future challenge easily.

4. Commitment and Passion

Your teams look up to you and if you want them to give them their all, you will have to be
passionate about it too. When your teammates see you getting your hands dirty, they will also
give their best shot. It will also help you to gain the respect of your subordinates and infuse new
energy in your team members, which helps them to perform better. If they feel that you are not
fully committed or lacks passion, then it would be an uphill task for the leader to motivate your
followers to achieve the goal.

5. Good Communicator
Until you clearly communicate your vision to your team and tell them the strategy to
achieve the goal, it will be very difficult for you to get the results you want. Simply put, if you are
unable to communicate your message effectively to your team, you can never be a good leader.
A good communicator can be a good leader. Words have the power to motivate people and make
them do the unthinkable. If you use them effectively, you can also achieve better results.

6. Decision-Making Capabilities
Apart from having a futuristic vision, a leader should have the ability to take the right
decision at the right time. Decisions taken by leaders have a profound impact on masses. A
leader should think long and hard before taking a decision but once the decision is taken, stand
by it. Although, most leaders take decisions on their own, but it is highly recommended that you
consult key stakeholders before taking a decision. After all, they are the ones who will benefit or
suffer from your decisions.

7. Accountability
When it comes to accountability, you need to follow the approach highlighted by Arnold H
Glasow when he said, “A good leader takes little more than his share of the blame and little less
than his share of the credit.” Make sure that every one of your subordinates is accountable for
what they are doing. If they do well, give them a pat on the back but if they struggle, make them
realize their mistakes and work together to improve. Holding them accountable for their actions
will create a sense of responsibility among your subordinates and they will go about the business
more seriously.

8. Delegation and Empowerment

You cannot do everything, right. It is important for a leader to focus on key responsibilities
while leaving the rest to others. By that, I mean empowering your followers and delegating tasks
to them. If you continue to micromanage your subordinates, it will develop a lack of trust and
more importantly, you will not be able to focus on important matters, as you should be. Delegate
tasks to your subordinates and see how they perform. Provide them with all the resources and
support they need to achieve the objective and give them a chance to bear the responsibility.

9. Creativity and Innovation

What separates a leader from a follower? Steve Jobs, the greatest visionary of our time
answers this question this way, “Innovation distinguishes between a leader and a follower.” In
order to get ahead in today’s fast-paced world, a leader must be creative and innovative at the
same time. Creative thinking and constant innovation is what makes you and your team stand
out from the crowd. Think out of the box to come up with unique ideas and turn those ideas and
goals into reality.

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10. Empathy
Last but certainly not the least, is empathy. Leaders should develop empathy with their
followers. Unfortunately, most leaders follow a dictatorial style and neglect empathy altogether.
Due to this, they fail to make a closer connection with their followers. Understanding the
problems of your followers and feeling their pain is the first step to become an effective leader.
Even that is not enough until you work hard and provide your followers with the suitable solution
to their problems.

[Link]
When the going gets tough, the tough gets going. You might have heard this adage many
times, but did you know that great leaders also follow this rule. They are resilient and have a
positive attitude. Irrespective of how difficult the circumstances might be, you will find them
rallying their followers. While most people are busy in complaining about the problems, great
leaders always focus on solutions, not the problems.

[Link] Intelligence
Good leaders always have higher influence but how do they increase their influence on the
point where people accept what they say. They do this by connecting with people emotionally.
That is where emotional intelligence comes into play.
Here are some of the reasons why a leader should be emotionally intelligent.
• Manage emotions effectively
• Better social awareness
• Seamless communications
• Conflict Resolution
With emotional intelligence, leaders can control their emotions, which prevents negative
emotions from influencing their decision-making skills. As a result, they are less likely to make
hasty decisions. Moreover, emotionally intelligent leaders are great at understanding the
emotions and care about the feelings of others. That is not all, leaders who have this leadership
quality not only handles conflict in a better way but also play an important role in conflict
resolution.

[Link]
“Pride makes us artificial and humility makes us real.”—Thomas Merton
How would you feel when you are promoted to leadership status? You will feel proud. A good
leader is always selfless and always think about his or her followers. That is why the leadership
styles most great leaders adopt put lots of emphasis on problem-solving and team dynamics
instead of focusing on self-promotion.

[Link]
One of the best ways to win the trust of your followers is by being transparent. Instead of
hiding information, you should openly share it with them. By giving visibility to your followers,
they will buy into your vision and support you with conviction in achieving the goal. More
importantly, it gives your followers clarity, autonomy and make them feel more empowered while
keeping them engaged.

[Link] and Purpose

“Good business leaders create a vision, articulate the vision, passionately own the
vision, and relentlessly drive it to completion.”—Jack Welch
Good leaders always have a vision and purpose. They not only visualize the future themselves
but also share their vision with their followers. When their followers were able to see the big
picture, they can see where they are heading. A great leader goes above and beyond and explain

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why they are moving in the direction they are moving and shares the strategy and action plan to
achieve that goal.

Unit 4: Qualities /Characteristics of Professional Managers

Professional manager means a person required to have a sound knowledge of relevant principles,
practices and procedures applicable to a professional discipline or field of work.

1. Leadership: A professional manager must guide and inspire their team, setting a clear
vision and leading by example.
2. Effective Communication: They should be able to convey ideas, expectations, and
feedback clearly, ensuring smooth interaction between team members.
3. Decision-Making: Professional managers must make informed and timely decisions,
weighing options carefully and taking responsibility for the outcomes.
4. Problem-Solving Skills: They need to identify challenges and create practical solutions,
often under pressure.
5. Adaptability: A good manager should be flexible and open to change, adjusting
strategies as needed in a fast-paced environment.
6. Emotional Intelligence: Managers must be aware of their own emotions and those of
others, handling relationships and conflicts with empathy and understanding.
7. Time Management: Professional managers effectively prioritize tasks, ensuring deadlines
are met and resources are used efficiently.
8. Delegation: Knowing how to assign tasks based on team members' strengths is key to
achieving goals and empowering employees.
9. Integrity: Acting ethically and transparently is essential to building trust with team
members, clients, and stakeholders.
[Link] Building: A strong manager fosters collaboration and unity within the team,
creating a positive and productive work environment.
[Link] Thinking: Professional managers plan for the long term, aligning team efforts
with the overall goals of the organization.
[Link] Learning: Great managers stay updated on industry trends and seek
opportunities for personal and team growth.

Unit 5: Shared character traits of a leader and a manager

1. Communication Skills
Leaders and managers must communicate effectively to ensure that their teams understand
goals, expectations, and strategies. Whether motivating a team or providing detailed
instructions, clear and effective communication is critical in both roles.
Example: A leader inspiring a team toward a vision, and a manager explaining the steps
required to execute that vision.

2. Problem-Solving Abilities
Both leaders and managers must navigate challenges and find solutions to obstacles.
Problemsolving involves analyzing situations, considering alternatives, and making decisions that
benefit the team or organization.
Example: A leader might tackle a strategic challenge, while a manager handles operational
problems.

3. Decision-Making

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Both roles require the ability to make decisions, whether at the strategic level (leader) or
operational level (manager). Good decision-making involves gathering information, evaluating
options, and choosing the best course of action for the situation.

Example: A leader deciding on long-term goals, and a manager making decisions about how to
allocate resources.

4. Integrity
Leaders and managers must act with integrity, earning the trust and respect of their teams by
being honest, ethical, and consistent in their actions. Integrity is critical for building a foundation
of trust and credibility.

Example: A leader maintaining transparency about organizational changes, and a manager

fairly evaluating team performance.

5. Accountability
Both leaders and managers are responsible for the success or failure of their teams.
Accountability means taking responsibility for decisions, actions, and outcomes and holding
themselves and their teams to high standards.

Example: A leader taking responsibility for an organization's direction, and a manager being
accountable for project deadlines.

6. Empathy
Understanding and caring about the needs, concerns, and feelings of team members is essential
for both leaders and managers. Empathy helps build strong relationships and fosters a positive
and supportive work environment.

Example: A leader inspires employees by recognizing their contributions, and a manager

supports team members through personal or professional challenges.

7. Adaptability
Both leaders and managers need to be adaptable in an ever-changing environment. Whether
adjusting strategies in response to market conditions (leader) or reorganizing workflow due to
unforeseen challenges (manager), flexibility is a critical shared trait.

Example: A leader adjusting long-term strategies due to industry changes, and a manager
modifying daily operations to meet new demands.

8. Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence, or the ability to understand and manage one's own emotions and those of
others, is vital for both leadership and management. This trait helps in conflict resolution, team
management, and fostering a positive work environment.

Example: A leader addressing team morale during a crisis, and a manager calming tensions
during workplace disputes.

9. Team Building

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Leaders and managers are responsible for bringing people together to work effectively as a
team. This involves identifying the strengths of team members, fostering collaboration, and
building trust within the group.

Example: A leader building a strong organizational culture, and a manager ensuring that
individual team members work well together.

[Link] and Goal Orientation

While leaders are more often associated with setting long-term vision and strategy, managers
are responsible for ensuring that those goals are broken down into actionable steps. Both share a
focus on achieving objectives and guiding their teams toward success.

Example: A leader sets a vision for the company's future, and a manager aligns team tasks to
meet short-term milestones leading to that vision.

[Link]
Effective leaders and managers understand the importance of delegating tasks to the right
people. They know how to empower their teams by trusting them with responsibilities while
providing support when needed.

Example: A leader delegating high-level projects, and a manager assigning day-to-day tasks to
team members.

[Link] Skills
Both leaders and managers need strong organizational skills to align resources, time, and people
effectively to achieve goals. Leaders use this trait to set long-term plans, while managers apply it
to coordinate daily operations.

Example: A leader organizing company-wide initiatives, and a manager planning and tracking
project timelines.

[Link] Ability
Leaders and managers both need to motivate their teams to perform at their best. Leaders
inspire through vision and personal charisma, while managers motivate by providing direction,
feedback, and support.

Example: A leader inspiring passion for the company's mission, and a manager encouraging
employees to meet performance targets.

Unit 6: Principles of Leadership

Lead by Example: Leaders should model the behavior they want to see in others,
demonstrating commitment and professionalism, which inspires their team to follow suit.

Have a Clear Vision: Effective leaders must provide a clear, strategic vision that aligns the
efforts of the team toward long-term goals.

Inspire and Motivate: Leaders recognize the strengths of their team members, celebrate
achievements, and help individuals surpass their own expectations.

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Encourage Collaboration and Teamwork: By promoting open communication and valuing
teamwork, leaders foster creativity and stronger relationships within the team.
Make Decisions Confidently and Responsibly: Leaders must make informed decisions swiftly,
taking responsibility for both positive and negative outcomes.
Communicate Effectively: Leaders should clearly communicate expectations and feedback to
ensure that team members understand their roles and the objectives.

Develop and Empower Others: Leaders invest in their team’s growth, providing opportunities
for development and encouraging them to take on more responsibilities.

Be Adaptable and Open to Change: Leaders need to embrace innovation and change by
adapting their strategies to evolving circumstances.

Maintain Integrity: Acting with honesty and ethical principles builds trust and credibility, which
are essential for leading a team.

Hold Yourself and Others Accountable: Leaders must ensure accountability, not only for their
own actions but also by holding their team members to high standards of performance.

Be Decisive but Collaborative: While leaders need to make decisions, they should also
encourage input from the team to foster a more inclusive and well-rounded decision-making
process.

Emotional Intelligence: Leaders must understand and manage their own emotions, as well as
those of their team members, to build strong relationships and manage conflicts effectively.

Lead with Courage: Leaders must be bold and willing to take risks, even when they face
resistance, in order to drive long-term benefits and innovation.

Promote a Culture of Continuous Learning: Encouraging a growth mindset and a culture of

learning helps the organization and its members stay relevant and adapt to changes.

Foster Trust and Build Relationships: Trust is the foundation of leadership. Leaders should
build trust by being transparent, approachable, and reliable, which leads to stronger team
cohesion.

Be Results-Oriented: Leaders need to set clear goals and keep their teams focused on
achieving results, regularly reviewing progress to ensure that the team remains productive and
aligned with organizational objectives.

Unit 7: Contemporary leadership issues and challenges

1. Leading in a Globalized Environment

Managing teams across different countries means understanding cultural differences and
ensuring inclusion.

2. Digital Transformation and Technological Disruption

Leaders need to adapt to rapid technological changes like AI and big data, guiding their
teams through these transformations.

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 3. Remote and Hybrid Work
The shift to remote work requires new strategies to maintain productivity, communication,
and team spirit without physical presence.

4. Managing Workforce Diversity and Inclusion

Leaders must create an inclusive workplace, ensuring fairness and avoiding unconscious
bias.

5. Emotional and Mental Health Awareness

Leaders should support their teams’ mental health, particularly in high-stress
environments, to prevent burnout.

6. Adapting to Rapid Change and Uncertainty

Leaders must be flexible and agile, able to pivot strategies quickly in response to
unpredictable changes.

7. Sustainability and Ethical Leadership

Leaders face pressure to adopt sustainable and ethical practices, balancing business
needs with social and environmental responsibilities.

8. Crisis Management and Resilience

Leaders must act quickly and communicate clearly during crises, ensuring their teams can
adapt and recover.

9. Ethical Dilemmas and Social Responsibility

Leaders must make decisions that balance short-term profits with long-term ethical
commitments.

10. Leadership Development and Succession Planning

Leaders need to prepare the next generation by developing future leaders and ensuring
smooth transitions.

11. Balancing Innovation with Stability

Leaders must drive innovation while maintaining stability, ensuring that changes don't
overwhelm their teams.

12. Political and Social Instability

Leaders must be aware of political or social unrest that may impact their business and be
prepared with contingency plans.

Unit 8: Leadership skills

Leadership skills are the strengths and abilities individuals demonstrate that help to oversee
processes, guide initiatives and steer their employees toward the achievement of goals.

1. Open communication. A good leader keeps an open line of communication with team
members and can succinctly explain organizational goals and tasks using different types of
communication channels, such as one-on-one sessions, email, video, chat, phone calls and

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 social media. An effective leader also shares clear messages and makes complex ideas
easy to understand for everyone.
2. Empathy. Empathetic leadership focuses on identifying with others and understanding
their perspective. Leaders who show empathy are successful because they can better
understand how the employees feel about their work environment. This enables the
leaders to bring positive changes to the workforce.
3. Strategic thinking. Leaders need strategic and critical thinking skills, as they are tasked
with challenging decision-making. A strong leader makes well-researched and objectively
scrutinized decisions that can lead an organization toward achieving its goals.
4. Creativity. A creative leader can brainstorm new ideas and inspire others toward
creativity and innovation. For example, a successful leader will always recognize and
reward employees for their creative input.
5. Positivity. A great leader brings positivity into the work environment, which in turn uplifts
the employees and encourages them to perform better. Positivity can be cultivated by
showing care, respect, diplomacy and empathy toward the team.
6. Flexibility. The best leaders get out of their comfort zones and quickly adapt to changing
work conditions. They wear multiple hats and can problem solve and improvise on the fly.
A successful leader also promotes employee engagement and is willing to accept
constructive feedback from the team.
7. Conflict resolution. A great leader not only knows how to avoid conflicts in the
workplace but can also resolve them in an efficient and timely manner. While resolving
conflicts, the leader stays level-headed and decides analytically.
8. Time management. This is an essential skill for leaders, as they need to delegate tasks,
prioritize commitments, set attainable goals and multitask. Successful leaders practice
time management skills by setting SMART goals for themselves and their team members.
9. Reliability. A strong leader is dependable and one that people can count on for fulfilling
commitments and meeting deadlines. This encourages the team to appreciate the leader's
decisions and follow in their footsteps.
[Link]. Great leaders are always ready to mentor and teach to bring out the best in
their employees. They put in a lot of effort to make the team successful by using positive
reinforcement, clarity, motivation and by rewarding achievements.
[Link] potential. Great leaders have a keen eye for recognizing potential talent
and competencies in the workplace. They also don't shy away from acknowledging the
abilities and achievements of their employees.
[Link]. The success and failure of a team ride on the shoulders of a leader.
Therefore, leaders should be accountable for their actions and willing to take the blame
when mishaps happen. Great leaders take responsibility and devise strategies for
improvement instead of pointing fingers and blaming others.
[Link]. Leadership positions depend heavily on organizational skills. A successful
leader can handle a variety of different projects, spend ample time on each, prioritize and
ensure that all project deadlines are met.
[Link]. Sometimes, it's difficult for leaders to let go of the projects they're
passionate about. However, a great leader knows the strengths and key skills of each
employee and delegates accordingly based on the project requirements. This also helps
with relationship building within the team as employees feel valued, respected and
trusted.
[Link]. Effective leaders never miss an opportunity to provide constructive feedback
to team members regarding their performance. Without feedback, employees can't gauge
where they stand and which areas they need to improve on.

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Unit 9: Leadership Roles

Leadership roles refer to the positions or functions held by individuals who guide, influence, and
direct the actions of others within an organization or group.

[Link] Leadership Roles

Organizational leadership roles are essential for managing and directing the activities of a
company or team. These leaders are responsible for setting strategic goals, making critical
decisions, and ensuring that their organizations operate efficiently and effectively.
• CEO (Chief Executive Officer): The highest-ranking executive in an organization,
responsible for setting overall strategic direction, managing senior leaders, and making
final decisions on major initiatives.
Responsibilities: Vision-setting, decision-making, representing the organization
externally, and ensuring organizational success.

• CFO (Chief Financial Officer): The executive responsible for managing the financial
actions of an organization.
Responsibilities: Financial planning, risk management, record-keeping, and
financial reporting.

• COO (Chief Operating Officer): Responsible for the day-to-day operations of an

organization, often acting as the right hand of the CEO.
Responsibilities: Overseeing operations, ensuring productivity, and managing
resources.

• Department Head/Manager: Oversees a specific department, ensuring that goals are

met and employees perform effectively.
Responsibilities: Managing staff, budgets, projects, and day-to-day activities of
a department.

• Team Leader: Manages a small group of people, ensuring that the team meets its
objectives and performs cohesively.
Responsibilities: Assigning tasks, offering guidance, and ensuring collaboration.

[Link]-Based Leadership Roles

Project-based leadership roles focus on managing specific initiatives or tasks within an
organization. Leaders in these positions coordinate teams, allocate resources, and ensure
projects are completed on time and within budget, driving success through effective project
management.
• Project Manager: Responsible for planning, executing, and closing projects. They lead
teams, allocate resources, and ensure that project goals are met on time and within
budget.

• Scrum Master: In agile project management, the scrum master facilitates and supports
the team's daily work, removing obstacles and ensuring that the team follows agile
principles.

• Program Manager: Manages multiple related projects, ensuring they align with the
organization's larger strategic goals.

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[Link] and Strategic Leadership Roles
Leaders in executive and strategic roles shape the long-term vision of an organization and
engage in high-level decision-making. They are tasked with guiding their organizations toward
achieving strategic objectives and ensuring alignment with broader goals.
• Board of Directors: A group of elected individuals responsible for overseeing the
governance of an organization, ensuring it stays on track with its mission and objectives.

• Strategic Advisor: Provides high-level strategic advice to leaders or executives, often

focusing on long-term planning and major decisions.

• Visionary Leader: Focuses on inspiring and guiding the future of the organization, often
spearheading transformational change.

[Link] in Teams and Groups

Leadership in teams and groups emphasizes collaboration and motivation within smaller,
dynamic settings. Leaders in this category foster teamwork, facilitate communication, and
support individual growth, enhancing overall group performance.
• Team Captain (Sports/Extracurricular): In sports and extracurricular activities, the
team captain is responsible for leading and motivating the group toward a common goal.

• Facilitator: In a meeting or group discussion, the facilitator helps guide the process,
ensuring that everyone has a chance to contribute and that the discussion stays focused.

• Mentor: A mentor provides guidance, advice, and support to someone in their

professional or personal development.

[Link] and Political Leadership Roles

Social and political leadership roles involve guiding communities and organizations toward
achieving broader social, political, or economic goals. Leaders in these positions advocate for
change and work to address the needs of the populations they serve.
• Political Leader (President, Prime Minister, etc.): A leader elected or appointed to
oversee a government.

• Community Leader: A person who takes on a leadership role within a community,

whether formally or informally, to advocate for the needs and interests of the community.

• Activist/Advocate Leader: Leads or represents social causes, advocating for change on

political, social, or economic issues.

[Link] Leadership Roles

Thought leadership roles are characterized by the ability to influence others through expertise
and innovative ideas. Leaders in this area share knowledge and insights, helping to shape trends
and guide practices within their respective fields.
• Thought Leader: An expert in a particular field who is recognized for their innovative
ideas and influences others through speaking, writing, or teaching.

• Industry Expert/Consultant: A highly specialized leader who offers guidance, expertise,

and thought leadership in a particular field or industry.

[Link] in Crisis

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Leadership in crisis situations requires the ability to navigate uncertainty and manage high-
pressure scenarios effectively. Leaders in these roles develop and implement crisis management
strategies to ensure organizational stability and resilience during challenging times.
• Crisis Manager: Focuses on leading organizations or teams through crises, such as
natural disasters, financial downturns, or operational failures.

• Emergency Response Leader: Oversees response efforts during natural disasters,

public health crises, or other emergencies.

[Link] Leadership Roles

Educational leadership roles focus on guiding academic institutions and developing educational
policies. Leaders in this sector are responsible for fostering a positive learning environment,
supporting staff and students, and ensuring the quality of education.
• School Principal: The head of a school responsible for managing staff, setting
educational goals, and maintaining a positive learning environment.

• University Dean: Leads a college or faculty within a university, focusing on academic

programs, faculty development, and student achievement.

• Education Administrator: Oversees operations in educational institutions, often focusing

on policy, budgeting, and staff management.

Weeks 10-11

IV. Leadership and Management

Styles a. Type of leaders
b. Leadership styles
c. Difference of leadership and management
d. Type of managers

Objectives:
At the end of the session, students are expected to:
o Assess the different types of a leader and their leadership styles

The 5 Types of Leaders

1. Managerial Leader: Focuses on managing processes and people, with weak character
and a controlling mindset.
2. Relational Leader: Builds relationships and influences others through moral authority,
though their competency is underdeveloped.
3. Motivational Leader: Drives results while fostering a team-oriented culture, combining
relationship-building with competency.
4. Inspirational Leader: Inspires growth in others, emphasizing character and personal
development.
5. Transformational Leader: The most influential, focused on developing other leaders and
impacting across generations.

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Management Styles

1. Autocratic Styles
A leader makes all decisions alone, expects employees to follow orders, and uses rewards
or penalties to motivate.
• Authoritative Management: Leaders establish strict control and provide clear
directives, suitable for crises or maintaining order.
• Paternalistic Management: Managers act as parental figures, prioritizing employee
welfare but expecting unquestioned obedience.

2. Persuasive Styles
A leader makes decisions but explains the reasoning to gain employee support and
cooperation.
• Example-Setting Management: Managers lead by demonstrating excellence, setting
the standard for their team through their actions.
• Charismatic Management: Leadership relies on the manager’s charm and personal
rapport to inspire and guide employees.
• Coaching Management: Managers act like coaches, focusing on developing employees'
skills and promoting their long-term growth.
• Affiliative Management: Prioritizes teamwork and harmony by building strong,
supportive relationships with team members.

3. Consultative Styles
A leader seeks employee input and feedback but ultimately makes the final decision.
• Democratic Management: Decisions are made collaboratively, valuing employees'
opinions while maintaining management oversight.
• Inspirational Management: Managers use motivation and positive influence to drive
enthusiasm and dedication in their teams.
• Results-Based Management: Emphasizes efficiency and effectiveness, focusing solely
on achieving desired outcomes.
• Strategic Management: Focuses on the big picture and long-term goals, delegating
routine tasks to others.

4. Participative Styles
A leader involves employees in decision-making, working together to find solutions and
share responsibility.
• Laissez-Faire Management: Managers adopt a hands-off approach, empowering
employees to make decisions and work autonomously.
• Collaborative Management: Actively seeks input from employees and works together to
develop innovative solutions.
• Transformational Management: Focuses on inspiring employees to innovate and strive
for continuous improvement and adaptability.
• Delegative Management: Delegates tasks to the team but stays involved to provide
guidance and ensure success.

8 Common Leadership Styles

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 1. Autocratic: Leaders make decisions on their own and expect employees to follow
instructions without question. Best for quick decision-making but can limit creativity and
team morale.
2. Bureaucratic: Focuses on strict rules, structure, and fixed duties. Works well in regulated
industries but lacks flexibility and stifles creativity.
3. Coaching: Leaders help team members grow by recognizing their strengths and
weaknesses, setting goals, and providing feedback. Effective but time-intensive.
4. Democratic: Encourages team input in decision-making, fostering collaboration and
satisfaction. However, it can be time-consuming and inefficient.
5. Laissez-Faire: Leaders give employees freedom to work independently, stepping in only
when necessary. Works with experienced teams but risks confusion and low productivity
with less guidance.
6. Pacesetting: Leaders set high standards and expect team members to meet them
quickly. Great for achieving goals but can lead to stress and burnout.
7. Servant: Prioritizes team needs over personal authority, focusing on employee growth
and collaboration. Builds trust and loyalty but can exhaust the leader.
8. Visionary: Inspires and guides teams through innovation and big-picture goals. Ideal for
change and growth but can overlook details.

Leadership Definition
Leadership is the ability to influence and guide others toward achieving goals. It involves
motivating, inspiring, and providing direction to a team or group.

Characteristics of Leadership
1. Influence: The leader’s ability to guide behavior and decisions.
2. Vision: Setting clear objectives and a future direction.
3. Motivation: Inspiring others to take action.
4. Responsibility: Being accountable for decisions and actions.
5. Decision-Making: Making choices that benefit the group or organization.
6. Empathy: Understanding and addressing team members’ needs and concerns.
7. Adaptability: Adjusting approaches based on situations.

Principles of Leadership
1. Know Your Team: Understand team strengths, weaknesses, and motivations.
2. Lead by Example: Show integrity and dedication in your actions.
3. Communicate Effectively: Ensure clarity in sharing ideas and goals.
4. Encourage Initiative: Promote creativity and problem-solving.
5. Take Responsibility: Be accountable for successes and failures.
6. Foster Team Spirit: Build trust and cooperation within the group.

Types of Leadership
1. Autocratic Leadership:
o Centralized control; the leader makes decisions alone.
o Effective in crisis situations but can suppress creativity.
2. Democratic Leadership:
o Involves team input in decision-making.
o Encourages collaboration and innovation.
3. Laissez-Faire Leadership:
o Minimal supervision; delegation of tasks.

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 o Suitable for highly skilled teams but may lead to lack of direction.
4. Transactional Leadership:
o Focuses on tasks, rewards, and performance.
o Works well in structured environments.
5. Transformational Leadership:
o Inspires change and innovation.
o Encourages personal and professional growth.

Issues in Leadership
1. Ethics and Morality: Balancing authority with fairness and justice.
2. Adaptability: Adjusting leadership style to different contexts and challenges.
3. Conflict Management: Resolving disputes and maintaining harmony.
4. Workforce Diversity: Understanding and respecting different perspectives.
5. Sustainability: Leading in a way that ensures long-term success.

Importance of Leadership
1. Motivates the Team: Encourages high performance.
2. Provides Vision: Sets clear objectives for the future.
3. Facilitates Change: Guides teams through transitions and challenges.
4. Builds Organizational Culture: Shapes the values and work environment.

Weeks 12-14

IV. Fundamental Functions of Management

a. Managerial functions
b. Managerial skills and Qualities
c. Role of manager
• Decisional,
• interpersonal, and
• informational;
d. Fundamental functions and principles of management
• Planning
• Organizing,
• Leading,
• Staffing and Controlling

Objectives:
At the end of the session, students are expected to:
o State the different managerial functions o Evaluate
the functions and principles of management o
Appraise the fundamental functions of management

Role of a Manager in an Organization

A manager plays a crucial role in the success of an organization by planning, coordinating,
producing, and marketing. Their ability to utilize resources effectively impacts organizational

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goals. Managers must adapt to rapid changes in technology, production methods, marketing, and
financial structures.

Definition of a Manager
A manager is someone who directs the activities of others within an organization. Managers
operate at different levels and are identified by various titles:
1. First-line Managers:
o Titles: Supervisors, foremen.
o Responsibilities: Direct supervision of operational activities.
2. Middle-level Managers:
o Titles: Functional managers, plant heads, project managers.
o Responsibilities: Bridge between top management and first-line managers.
3. Top-level Managers:
o Titles: Vice-president, managing director, CEO, chairman.
o Responsibilities: Set organizational policies and strategies.

Managerial Functions
1. Planning:
o Setting goals. o Establishing strategies.
o Coordinating activities.
2. Organizing:
o Determining tasks and how they should be grouped. o Assigning responsibilities.
o Deciding decision-making processes.
3. Staffing:
o Hiring and training employees. o Developing and appraising staff.
o Managing compensation and welfare.
4. Directing:
o Issuing instructions. o Motivating subordinates.
o Inspiring team efforts to achieve objectives.
5. Controlling:
o Monitoring activities to ensure alignment with plans.
o Correcting deviations.

Managerial Skills
1. Technical Skills:
o Expertise in tools, techniques, and procedures. o Essential for first-line and
middle-level managers.
o Examples: Engineering, finance,
manufacturing.
2. Human Skills:
o Ability to work well with people.
o Key for communication, motivation, and
leadership.
o Required at all management levels but
critical for top managers.
3. Conceptual Skills:

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 o Ability to visualize the organization as a whole. o Integration of various activities
and subunits.
o Crucial for decision-making and strategy formulation.

Qualities of a Manager
1. Education:
o Management education expands understanding and problem-solving skills.
o Knowledge of the business environment is essential.
2. Intelligence:
o Higher intelligence helps in assessing business opportunities and challenges.
o Enables foresight and timely decisions.
3. Leadership:
o Inspires and motivates subordinates.
o Channels employee efforts toward organizational goals.
4. Training:
o Acquisition of technical, human, and conceptual skills through education and
experience.
5. Technical Knowledge:
o Familiarity with production and operational activities. o Enables better
supervision and guidance.
6. Maturity: o Patience, listening skills, and emotional stability.
o Critical for decision-making and conflict resolution.
7. Positive Attitude:
o Open-mindedness and empathy in dealing with people.
o Builds strong relationships and fosters teamwork.
8. Self-confidence:
o Essential for making and implementing decisions.
o Reduces uncertainty and inspires trust.
9. Foresight:
o Anticipates future challenges and prepares the organization accordingly.
o Ensures sustainability in a rapidly changing environment.

Role of the Manager

A manager's role is defined by their behavioral patterns within an organization. Henry
Mintzberg's study in the late 1960s revealed that managers engage in numerous varied,
unstructured, and shortduration activities, contrary to the traditional view of reflective decision-
making. He identified ten managerial roles, grouped into three categories: interpersonal,
informational, and decisional roles.

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

1. Interpersonal Roles
Managers perform duties that involve people and ceremonial tasks:
• Figurehead:
o Represents the organization in formal and ceremonial duties.
o Example: Receiving guests or signing legal documents.
• Leader:
o Motivates and coordinates subordinates' activities.

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 o Involves hiring, firing, and maintaining discipline.
• Liaison:
o Builds networks and interacts with external entities to gather business-related
information.
2. Informational Roles
Managers process and share information within and outside the organization:
• Monitor: o Gathers information from external and internal sources to stay informed.
• Disseminator:
o Shares relevant information with subordinates.
o Provides factual data with interpretations to assist decision-making.
• Spokesperson:
o Represents the organization to external parties and communicates its policies and
plans.
3. Decisional Roles
Managers make decisions that affect the organization’s operations:
• Entrepreneur:
o Initiates and oversees new projects to improve organizational performance.
• Disturbance Handler: o Responds to unforeseen issues and takes corrective actions.
• Resource Allocator:
o Allocates human, physical, and monetary resources effectively.
• Negotiator:
o Bargains with stakeholders to secure advantages for the organization.

Principles of Management: Key Concepts in an Easy-to-Understand Format

What is Management?
• Management is "the art of getting things done through the efforts of others."
• Introduced by Mary Parker Follett, who emphasized concepts like conflict resolution,
authority, power, and leadership. Principles of Management
• Activities that plan, organize, control, and coordinate resources (people, materials,
money, and methods) to achieve organizational objectives.
• Developed by Henri Fayol, a French management theorist, credited for the P-O-L-C
framework:
o Planning o Organizing o Leading o Controlling

Who Are Managers?

• Managers are responsible for achieving goals efficiently and effectively by working with
and through people.
Types of Managers
1. Top Managers o Develop the organization's strategy and guide its
vision and mission.
o Focus on long-term planning and overall organizational success.
2. Functional Managers o Oversee a specific function like marketing,
finance, or production.
o Focus on improving efficiency and effectiveness in their area.
3. Supervisory/Team Managers o Coordinate subgroups within a specific
function or cross-functional teams.
o Ensure team goals align with broader organizational objectives.

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 4. Line Managers o Directly manage functions contributing to core products or services
(e.g., product manager).
5. Staff Managers o Oversee supportive functions like HR, finance, or legal, which do not
directly affect production.
6. Project Managers o Handle planning, execution, and completion of projects in
industries like construction, IT, and consulting.
7. General Managers o Manage an identifiable revenue-producing unit (e.g., store,
product line).
o Oversee diverse functions like marketing, operations, and finance within their unit.

The Nature of Managerial Work

• Managers are responsible for achieving organizational goals through four main functions:
1. Planning: Setting objectives and outlining strategies to achieve them.
2. Organizing: Allocating resources and defining roles for effective coordination.
3. Leading: Motivating and directing individuals and teams.
4. Controlling: Monitoring progress and making adjustments to stay on track.

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

• Henry Mintzberg identified 10 managerial roles grouped into three categories:
[Link] Roles (Focus on relationships)
• Figurehead: Representing the organization formally.
• Leader: Defining relationships and motivating employees.
• Liaison: Interacting with peers and external stakeholders.
[Link] Roles (Focus on communication)
• Monitor: Collecting and analyzing information.
• Disseminator: Sharing information within the organization.
• Spokesperson: Representing the organization to outsiders.
[Link] Roles (Focus on making decisions)
• Entrepreneur: Initiating and managing change.
• Disturbance Handler: Resolving conflicts and crises.
• Resource Allocator: Distributing resources efficiently.
• Negotiator: Representing the organization in negotiations.

Historic vs. Contemporary Views of Management

1. Traditional View o Hierarchical structure with layers of management
overseeing employees.
2. Contemporary View o Empowerment: Managers support employees and
enable them to make decisions independently.
o Focus on collaboration and serving customers effectively.

Environment and Managerial Roles

Managers operate within internal and external environments that influence business decisions.
1. External Environment
• Factors beyond the manager's control that impact operations:
a. Economic Environment o Includes capital, labor,
suppliers, and customers:
▪ Capital:

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 ▪ Requires coordination with investors and creditors to
secure funding.
▪ Labor:
▪ Involves workforce management and collaboration with
trade unions.
▪ Suppliers:
▪ Ensures a steady supply of raw materials and equipment.
▪ Customers and Consumers:
▪ Monitors market demands and customer preferences. b.
Technological Environment o Involves adapting to innovations and
technological advancements:
▪ Keeps track of product and process improvements.
▪ Explores new opportunities for competitive advantage. c.
Social Environment o Directly influenced by society’s values, workforce,
and consumer behavior:
▪ Engages with social organizations and educational
institutions.
▪ Maintains harmony with societal expectations.
d. Political Environment o Impacted by the
country's political and legal framework:
▪ Aligns business operations with government policies. ▪ Complies with
relevant laws and regulations.
e. Ethical Environment o Relates to ethical
business practices:
▪ Ensures fair dealings with employees, customers, and society.
▪ Builds public confidence through transparency and integrity.

Internal Environment and the Role of Managers

The internal environment concerns the daily operations of an organization. Managers play vital
roles in ensuring smooth, efficient, and harmonious functioning. Below are the key roles of a
manager within the internal environment:

Roles of a Manager in the Internal Environment

[Link]
• Guides and directs employees toward common goals.
• Defines activities and objectives for employees.
• Creates a positive atmosphere and cohesion within teams.
• The quality of leadership directly impacts group performance.
[Link]
• Combines and mobilizes physical and human resources to achieve organizational goals.
• Promotes understanding and goodwill among employees.
• Establishes effective communication systems for proper coordination.
[Link] of Authority
• Assigns responsibilities and grants authority to subordinates.
• Encourages subordinates to handle tasks independently to build confidence and prepare
for future roles.
• Ensures proper communication to guide subordinates and monitor progress.
[Link]-Maker
• Makes important decisions affecting various organizational activities.
• Considers alternatives, analyzes problems, and selects appropriate solutions.

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 • Ensures decisions are made at the right time for maximum impact.
• Maintains consistency and conviction in decision-making to inspire confidence among
subordinates.
[Link] Relations Practitioner
• Resolves employee problems and grievances effectively.
• Encourages employee participation in decision-making.
• Builds trust and motivation by addressing concerns in a timely manner.
• Maintains open communication to foster a healthy work environment.
[Link]
• Represents the organization to outsiders and interest groups (e.g., shareholders,
customers, government).
• Shares relevant information to maintain transparency and public trust.
• Builds a positive image of the organization through effective communication.

Modern Challenges for Managers

Managers face various external challenges that influence their effectiveness. Below are some
significant challenges:

[Link] Technology
(IT) • Role of IT:
o IT includes computers, the internet, intranets, and software applications that
improve efficiency. o Managers must select and implement appropriate technology
to achieve goals effectively.
• Key Considerations for Managers:
o Work with IT specialists to determine suitable technologies. o Decide what
network information is accessible to whom and ensure proper security. o Train
employees to use new technologies effectively.
o Stay informed about the latest technological developments and their impact on the
workplace.
• Impact:
o IT improves workplace performance and creates opportunities for remote work.
o Managers adept in IT are better positioned for success in modern organizations.

[Link]
• Impact of Globalization:
o Advances in communication and global trade agreements have interconnected
businesses worldwide.
o Trading blocks like NAFTA, ASEAN, and WTO have facilitated international trade.
• Challenges for Managers:
o Develop strategies to compete with global players on price and quality.
o Adapt business practices to align with global economic trends.
o Handle the influx of multinational corporations and ensure competitiveness.
• Opportunities:
o Improved product quality and competitive pricing benefit consumers.
o Managers must prepare for global challenges and adapt to market demands.

[Link] Capital •
Definition:

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 o Intellectual capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and expertise of employees,
which are valuable organizational assets.
• Role of Knowledge Workers:
o Knowledge workers innovate and find ways to improve productivity.
o They continuously update their skills to stay relevant in the information age.
• Managerial Responsibilities:
o Capture and utilize employee knowledge for organizational growth. o Encourage
innovation and continuous learning among employees.
o Implement techniques to harness intellectual capital for competitive advantage.

Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management

• Overview:
o Frederick Taylor, known as the "father of scientific management," introduced
systematic approaches to improve worker efficiency.
o Emphasized analyzing tasks to determine the "one best way" to perform them.
• Key Concepts:
1. Time Studies: Breaking tasks into smaller components and timing them to find optimal
performance methods.
2. Standardization: Developing standard methods and tools for tasks to ensure
consistency. 3. Worker Selection and Training: Assigning tasks based on worker abilities
and providing adequate training.
4. Division of Labor: Distinguishing managerial responsibilities from worker
duties. 5. Incentive Systems: Offering financial rewards to motivate higher
productivity.

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

• Overview:
o Pioneers in motion study and efficiency improvement.
o Focused on reducing unnecessary motions in work processes.
• Key Contributions:
1. Motion Studies: Identified wasteful motions and developed efficient work techniques.
2. Therbligs: Invented a system to analyze the basic motions involved in performing tasks.
3. Focus on Worker Welfare: Advocated for worker satisfaction and ergonomic work
conditions. 4. Applications: Their principles were applied to various industries,
including manufacturing and healthcare.

Deming's System of Organizational Knowledge

• Overview:
o W. Edwards Deming developed a management philosophy emphasizing quality and
continuous improvement.
• Key Principles:
1. Systematic Approach: Organizations are interrelated systems that require collaboration
across all parts.
2. Continuous Improvement: Emphasized ongoing quality enhancements using data-
driven decisions.
3. Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA): A cycle for problem-solving and process improvement.
4. Focus on Quality Over Cost: Prioritized quality as a means to reduce overall costs.
5. Employee Involvement: Encouraged training and empowerment for employees to foster
innovation.

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Henri Fayol's Principles of Management
• Overview:
o Henri Fayol, a French engineer, developed the Administrative Theory, emphasizing
managerial skills over technical expertise.
o Introduced 14 Principles of Management and Five Functions of Management.
Fayol's 14 Principles of Management
1. Division of Work: Specialization enhances proficiency and efficiency.
2. Authority: Managers must have the right to command, coupled with responsibility.
3. Discipline: Adherence to rules and agreements ensures organizational harmony.
4. Unity of Command: Employees should receive orders from only one manager to avoid
confusion.
5. Unity of Direction: Teams with the same objectives must work under one plan and
leader.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest: Organizational goals take precedence over
personal interests.
7. Remuneration: Fair and adequate compensation improves satisfaction and productivity.
8. Centralization: Balancing centralized decision-making with employee empowerment.
9. Scalar Chain: Establishing a clear hierarchy for effective communication.
[Link]: Organizing resources and people efficiently, akin to Just-in-Time systems.
[Link]: Managers should treat employees with fairness and respect.
[Link] of Tenure: Reducing turnover improves efficiency and morale.
[Link]: Encouraging employees to propose and execute ideas.
[Link] de Corps: Fostering teamwork and unity.

Fayol's Five Functions of Management

1. Planning: Anticipating future challenges and developing actionable strategies.
2. Organizing: Structuring roles, responsibilities, and resources for efficiency.
3. Commanding: Leading and motivating employees to achieve objectives.
4. Coordinating: Ensuring harmony across departments and aligning efforts.
5. Controlling: Monitoring performance and ensuring adherence to plans.

Criticisms of Fayol's Administrative Theory

• Unscientific: Based on personal observations rather than empirical data.
• Overly Generalized: Critics argue it lacks the specificity needed for modern complexities.
• Still Relevant: Despite criticism, Fayol's principles have influenced management
practices and remain foundational for modern theories.

POSDCORB: A Practical Framework for Management

Introduction
POSDCORB is a management framework developed by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick in 1937.
Published in Notes on the Theory of Organizations, the concept elaborates on Henri Fayol’s
management principles, presenting a structured approach to managerial tasks. The acronym
POSDCORB stands for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting,
and Budgeting.
It was initially designed to address the increasing role of governments in public administration
but remains relevant across various industries today.

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POSDCORB Elements
[Link]
Planning involves setting goals and determining the best course of action to achieve them. This
includes:
• Short-term planning: Weekly, monthly, or quarterly objectives.
• Medium-term planning: Annual strategies and milestones.
• Long-term planning: Forward-looking plans spanning three or more years.
Planning sets the organization’s direction and helps monitor progress within a defined timeline.

[Link]
Organizing refers to arranging resources, assigning responsibilities, and structuring tasks to
achieve objectives. It encompasses:
• Allocating tasks to employees or departments.
• Ensuring access to necessary resources (budget, technology, materials).
• Creating a division of labor that aligns with desired outcomes.
A well-organized structure ensures efficiency and minimizes duplication of effort.

[Link]
Staffing focuses on managing human resources to ensure the organization has competent
personnel.
This includes:
• Identifying the expertise, skills, and qualifications required for each position.
• Conducting recruitment, selection, and training processes.
• Assigning the right people to the right roles for optimal productivity. Effective
staffing is crucial for sustaining organizational performance.

[Link]
Directing involves leading, motivating, and managing employees to accomplish their tasks
effectively. Key responsibilities include:
• Supervising employees and maintaining control over processes.
• Providing clear instructions and guidance.
• Motivating employees and fostering a positive work environment.
Good leadership ensures alignment with organizational goals and employee engagement.

[Link]
Coordinating focuses on unifying efforts across departments and teams. It requires:
• Overseeing activities and ensuring tasks align with organizational goals.
• Facilitating collaboration and communication between teams.
• Synchronizing operations to avoid duplication or conflicts.
A manager’s ability to maintain a “helicopter view” ensures smooth organizational functioning.

[Link]
Reporting ensures that essential information is documented and shared across the organization.
It includes:
• Preparing progress updates and performance reviews.
• Archiving reports for future reference.
• Maintaining transparency through clear communication of achievements and challenges.
This fosters accountability and keeps stakeholders informed.

[Link]

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Budgeting involves managing financial resources to sustain operations. Responsibilities include:
• Monitoring expenditures and investments.
• Allocating funds for wages, materials, and other resources.
• Detecting and addressing inefficiencies, such as wasteful spending or fraud.
Sound budgeting practices are essential for financial stability and operational success.

Key Organizational Concepts in POSDCORB

Span of Control
• Limits the number of employees a manager supervises (ideal ratio: 3–6 employees).
• Ensures better oversight and employee performance.
Unity of Command
• Employees report to a single manager to avoid confusion.
• Promotes accountability and smooth communication.
Line vs. Staff Functions
• Line Managers: Direct authority over employees and their performance.
• Staff Managers: Provide specialized knowledge and advisory support, with clear
boundaries of authority to maintain unity of command.

POSDCORB in Organizational Structure

A well-structured organization minimizes inefficiencies and promotes collaboration. By grouping
related activities into departments with distinct responsibilities, the organization ensures clarity
and accountability. Overlapping tasks or unclear hierarchies indicate poor organizational design
and need immediate attention.

Weeks 15-16

IV. Police Organization: Management and Administration

a. Definition of terms
b. Difference between management and administration
c. Police management styles in general
d. Types of police organization
e. Principles of police organization

Objectives:
At the end of the session, students are expected to:
o State the different managerial functions o Appraise the
types and principles of police organization o Compare
police management and police administration Difference
Between Management and Administration

I. Introduction
Understanding the distinction between management and administration is crucial for
grasping how organizations function. While both are essential, they serve distinct purposes and
operate at different levels within an organization.

II. Definitions
1. Management

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 The organized process of managing people and resources to achieve specific goals
effectively and efficiently. It focuses on implementing plans, policies, and ensuring
coordination.
2. Administration
The process of setting objectives, creating policies, and planning an organization's
structure. It operates at the topmost level, focusing on decision-making and resource
allocation.

III. Key Differences

Aspect Management Administration
Execution of tasks and policies to Setting policies, objectives, and
Meaning
achieve goals. decisionmaking.
Level of
Middle and lower levels. Top level.
Authority
Role Executive. Decisive.
Implementing policies and
Focus Policy formulation and resource allocation.
managing people.
Area of
Operates under administration. Controls the entire organization.
Operation
Business organizations Nonprofit and public organizations, e.g.,
Applicability
(profitmaking). government, hospitals.
Decisionmakin
Decides "Who will do it?" and "How?" Decides "What to do?" and "When?"
g
Planning, organizing, leading,
Nature of
Forecasting, organizing, and decision-making.
Work
controlling.
Managers and employees
Representatio
Owners, shareholders, or partners.
n
(remunerated staff).

IV. Functions
1. Management Functions o
Planning and organizing work. o
Leading and motivating teams.
o Controlling and coordinating resources.
2. Administration Functions o
Formulating policies and setting
goals. o Allocating resources
efficiently.
o Establishing rules and frameworks.

Weeks 17-18

IV. Police Administration: Theories and Decision Making

a. Administration, its definition and perspective

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 b. Community policing, concept and components
c. Theories of policing and its significance to police administration and decision making
d. Police decision making its type, principles and importance
e. Decision-making Techniques (Individual vs Group); Decision-making for Public Managers
f. Information Resources and Decision Making

Objectives:
At the end of the session, students are expected
to: o State the different managerial functions o
Examine the theories of police administration o
Compare individual vs group decision making

a. Police Administration: Its Definition and

Perspective Definition:
Police administration refers to the process of managing and directing law enforcement agencies
to ensure public safety, uphold laws, and maintain order. It involves planning, organizing,
staffing, directing, coordinating, and controlling police activities.
Perspectives:
1. Traditional Perspective: Focuses on hierarchy, discipline, and centralized decision-
making.
2. Modern Perspective: Emphasizes community engagement, transparency, and
adaptability to changing societal needs.
3. Strategic Perspective: Involves long-term planning, data-driven approaches, and
alignment with public policy.

b. Community Policing: Concept and Components

Concept:
Community policing is a strategy that emphasizes collaboration between the police and the
community to solve problems related to crime, social disorder, and public safety.
Components:
1. Community Partnership: Building trust and cooperation between police and community
members.
2. Problem Solving: Identifying and addressing the root causes of crime.
3. Organizational Transformation: Adjusting policies, structures, and resources to support
community-oriented approaches.

c. Theories of Policing and Their Significance to

Police Administration and Decision-Making Theories of
Policing:
1. Traditional Policing Theory: Focuses on deterrence through visibility and strict
enforcement.
2. Community Policing Theory: Highlights the role of partnership and proactive measures.
3. Problem-Oriented Policing Theory: Stresses the importance of identifying and
mitigating specific crime patterns.
4. Broken Windows Theory: Suggests that maintaining order in communities prevents
escalation into serious crime.

Significance:
• These theories guide administrative strategies and decision-making by providing
frameworks for understanding crime and public safety.

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 • They help prioritize resources and design effective policies.

d. Police Decision-Making: Types, Principles, and

Importance Types:
1. Strategic Decisions: Long-term planning and resource allocation.
2. Operational Decisions: Day-to-day activities like patrol routes and response protocols.
3. Tactical Decisions: Immediate actions during emergencies or critical incidents.
Principles:
1. Legality: Decisions must comply with laws and regulations.
2. Ethics: Upholding integrity and fairness.
3. Accountability: Ensuring transparency and responsibility.
4. Efficiency: Maximizing outcomes with minimal resources.
Importance:
Effective decision-making ensures public trust, operational success, and the ethical enforcement
of laws.

e. Decision-Making Techniques Individual vs. Group Decision-Making:

1. Individual Decision-Making:
o Advantages: Faster, allows personal expertise, avoids groupthink.
o Challenges: Limited perspectives, risk of bias.
2. Group Decision-Making:
o Advantages: Diverse viewpoints, collaborative solutions, shared accountability.
o Challenges: Time-consuming, potential conflicts.
Decision-Making for Public Managers:
Public managers must:
• Balance competing interests.
• Consider legal, ethical, and societal implications.
• Use participative approaches to engage stakeholders.

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