Electro-magnetism

 General properties of magnets

 Magnetic poles are the two extreme points on the magnet where the
magnetic effect is the maximum.
 There are two poles namely the North Pole and the South poles.
 Unlike electric charges(where positive and negative can exist
separately) it is not possible to create a monopole (only one pole) in
magnet, even if you break a magnet into half both the pieces would
have a North and the South Pole. The poles can’t be separated.
 Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

 Induced magnetism
 A certain material when place in a magnetic field themselves behave like
magnets. This Phenomenon is known as induced magnetism.
 The material which demonstrate such properties are known as magnetic
materials.
 Magnetic materials are of two kinds hard magnetic and soft magnetic.
 Hard magnetic: Hard magnetic material take time to get
magnetized but once they get magnetized they don’t lose the
magnetism easily. They are used for making permanent magnets
Eg: Steel
 Soft magnetic: Soft magnetic materials can easily get magnetized.
But they also Loses their magnetism easily. Magnetically soft
materials are used to make temporary magnets Eg: Iron
 Making a magnet
 A steel can be strongly magnetized by stroking with one end of magnet

 Place it in long coil of wire and pass a large, direct current through the coil

 Magnetic fields
 The region where the magnetic forces acts is called magnetic force field.
 The magnetic fields are depicted with the help of imaginary lines called as
the field lines.
 Magnetic field is strongest where the field lines are closer.
 Field lines run from N pole to S pole
  If two magnets are placed near each other, their magnetic fields combine to
produce a single field.
 If the magnets are aligned the fields gets stronger. If they are opposing they
cancel out each other.
 At the neutral point, the fields from the two magnets cancel, so the combined
field is of zero strength.

 Magnetic effect of a current

A flowing electric current produces a magnetic field around itself. The direction of
the magnetic field is given by right hand grip rule. If you grip the wire with your
right hand the thump would show the direction of current while the fingers the
direction of magnetic field.

Magnetic field around a wire:

 The magnetic field lines are circles
 The field is strongest close to the wire
 Increasing the current increases the strength of the field

 Magnetic fields from coils

 A current produces a stronger magnetic field if the wire it flows through is
wound into a coil.
 A long coil is called a solenoid.

 Features of magnetic field lines by a current carrying coil

 The field is similar to that from a bar magnet and there are magnetic poles at
the ends of the coil.
 Increasing the current increases the strength of the field.
 Increasing the number of turns increases the strength of the field.

 A rule for poles

  The Electromagnet
 Electromagnets are produced by winding a conducting wire around a piece of
Iron.
 When the current is passed through the wire the iron core becomes
magnetized.
 When the current is stopped the iron piece loses its magnetization.
 Metals like steel cannot be used as electromagnets as they retain the
magnetization even after the current is stopped (hard magnetization).
 Iron is more preferable as it loses magnetization when current is stopped
(soft magnetization).

Magnetic relay

Circuit beaker
  Magnetic force on a current
A current carrying wire placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. Direction of
this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
The force is increased:
 If the current is increased
 A strong magnetic field is used
 The length of the wire in the field is increased.

Fleming’s left-hand rule

 The field direction is from N pole of a magnet to the S pole

 The current direction is from positive (+) terminal of a battery round to the
negative (-). This is called the conventional current direction.
Note:

 Fleming’s rule only applies if the current and the field directions are at right
angles.
 If they are at some other angles, there is still a force, but its direction is more
difficult to predict.
 If the current and field are in the same direction, there is no force.
 Turning effects on a current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field

 The coil lies between the poles of a magnet.

 The current flows in opposite direction along the two sides of the coil.
 So according to the Fleming’s left hand rule, one side is pushed up and
other side is pushed down i.e. there is the turning effect on the coil.
 More the turns of the coil, turning effects increases.
 The ammeter, voltmeter works on this principle.
 Its pointer is attached to a coil in the field of a magnet.
 The higher the current through the meter, the further the coil turns against the
springs hold it, and further the pointer moves along the scale.
  Electric motors

 A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect

and hence it rotates along its axis.
 But the rotation is brought to halt as it completes half turn.
 If the coil has to be made to spin continuously we need to change the
direction of current every half cycle.
 In order to achieve this we use the split ring commutator. The split ring
commutator is basically a ring split into two halves and separated from each
other.
 Carbon brushes are used to make electric contact with the split rings.
 As the coil rotates the split ring rotates with it. After the half cycle the ring
which was touching the positive point of the supply will now touch the
negative point hence reversing the current which reverses the force on that
arm. This will allow continuous rotation of the coil.
The turning effect on the coil can be increased by:
 Increasing the current
 Using the strong magnet
 Increasing the number of turns on the coil
 Increasing the area of the coil.( a longer coil means higher forces because
there is greater length of the wire in the magnetic field; a wider coil gives the
forces more leverage)
  Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
When the magnetic field around a conductor is changed it causes an EMF to be
produced in the conductor. The magnitude of this EMF would be directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic field.
Experiments with the magnet and the coil gives the following results:

 If the magnet is pulled out of the coil, the direction of the induced EMF (and
current) is reversed.
 If the S pole of the magnet is pushed into the coil, this also reverses the
current direction.
  If the magnet is held still, no field lines are cut, so there is no induced EMF or
current.

Note:
 No motion in wire means there is no current or induced EMF
The induced EMF (and current) can be reversed by:
 Moving the wire in the opposite direction will reverse the current.
 Turning the magnet round so that the field direction is reversed will reverse
the current.

The induced EMF (and current)can be increased by:

 Moving the wire faster
 Using the strong magnet
 Increasing the length of the wire in the magnetic field-e.g.. By looping the
wire through the field several times.

Induced current direction:Lenz's law

 If a magnet is moved in or out of a coil, a current is induced in the coil
 The direction of the current can be predicted by Lenz’s law.
 An induced current always flow in a direction such that it opposes the
change which produces it.
  Eddy current

 If a plate or disc made up of conductor is exposed to a change in magnetic

field (probably by moving it in a magnetic field) it would give rise to a
current in the conductor.
 These current is known as eddy currents.
 They produce a magnetic field which, by Lenz’s law, which can opposes the
motion of the disc.
A metal detector creates eddy currents in metal objects and then detects the
magnetic fields produced
Induced current direction: right hand Fleming's rule
  If a straight wire is moving at right angles to a magnetic field, the direction of
the induced current can be found using Fleming’s right hand rule
 When the current causes motion, the left hand rule applies.
 When motion causes the current, the right hand rule applies.

 Generators
DC Generator

A dc motor setup can be used as a DC generator as well. Instead of providing the

current to the coil if the coil is turned manually (or through some other source of
energy like wind or flowing water) this would result in changing magnetic field
around the coil which would give rise to an EMF hence a current.
A.C Generator

A DC generator can be converted into an AC generator by replacing the split ring

commutator with a slip ring commutator.
  Mutual induction

Consider the condition were two coils of wire are placed closed to each other. If an
alternating current is passed to coil one it will produce a alternating magnetic field
around the coil. The alternating magnetic field produced would cause an EMF in coil
2 which the galvanometer will read. This phenomenon is known as mutual
induction.
 Transformers
  A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.
 It consist of a primary coil where the input voltage is fed, a secondary coil
where the output is taken from and a core made of a soft magnetic material
(iron).
 When alternating current flows through the primary coil, it sets up an
alternating magnetic field in the core. The core transfers the magnetic field in
the secondary coil.
 As the number of turns in a coil affects the induced EMF changing the ratio of
primary and secondary coil can either increase or decrease the output
voltage.
 When the number of turns in the secondary is greater than the primary the
output voltage is increased. This is a step up transformer.
 When the number of turns in the primary is greater than the secondary the
output voltage is decreased. This is a step down transformer.
 Provided the coil waste no energy because of heating effects, the following
equation applies:
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
=
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
= 𝑁𝑝
𝑉𝑝

 Anytypes of transformers works on AC and not on DC. Unless there is a

changing current in the input coil, no voltage is induced in the output coil,

Power through the transformer

 If no energy is wasted, the power delivered by the output coil will be the
same as the power supplied to the input coil.
Vin × Iin = Vout × Iout
 Large, well-designed transformers can have efficiencies as high as 99%. In
other words, their useful power output is 99% of their power input. (for
calculation we will take the efficiency of transformers as 100% unless
mentioned otherwise.)
 Transmission issues AC or DC?
 Alternating current (AC) is used for the mains.
 The main advantage of AC is that voltage can be step up or step down using
transformers.
 Transformers will not work with DC.
 High or low voltage?
 Transmission cables are good conductors, but they still have significant
resistance
 This means that energy is wasted because of the heating effect of the current.
 By using a transformer to increase the voltage, the current is reduced, so
thinner, lighter and cheaper cables can be used.
 Overhead or underground
 High voltage cables are the cheapest way of sending power over long
distances.
 To prevent sparking, the only effective way of insulating the cable is to keep
huge air spaces around them.
 That is why they have to be suspended from pylons.
 Underground cables are most difficult to insulate and must therefore be used
at lower voltages.
 To transmit the same power, they have to carry a higher current i.e. they
must be thicker.
 They are also more expensive to lay.
 Despite of their extra cost, underground cables are used in areas of
outstanding natural beauty, where pylons would damage the environment by
spoiling the landscape.