History

ANCIENT HISTORY
-BY BHARTI ATRI
PYQ ANALYSIS YEAR CDS 1 CDS 2 NDA 1 NDA 2

2014 21 13 13 10

2015 17 19 11 14

2016 19 17 9 5

2017 16 18 14 15

2018 19 19 12 10

2019 13 18 10 11

2020 17 15 9 13

2021 19 22 12 10

2022 20 21 13 10

2023 19 20 15 11
Ancient History
History Vedic age till present
(written account available
and deciphered)

Bronze age

TIMELINE
Indus valley
History Proto-history 2000 BC -1500 BC
(written account available civilization
but undeciphered) Copper age

Neolithic age around 6000 BC

Pre-history Mesolithic age 8,000 BC -4,000 BC

(no written account)

Paleolithic age 5 lakh BC -10,000 BC

Sources

Archaeological evidence ( tools,pottery etc.)

Inscriptions ( study= epigraphy)
Coins( study = numismatics)
Literature ( vedic literature, sangam literature, etc)
Writings of foreigners
 SITES
Paleolithic age
Pahalgaon
Sohan valley
Climate cold and dry
Belan valley
(Pleistocene), therefore
settlement in caves
Food by hunting and gathering Bhimbetka
Tools made of STONES
Tools were unpolished, rough
Stone used was QUARTZ
Cave art found in rock shelters
of Bhimbetka and Adamgarh Adamgarh
(drawing of rhino hunting)
FIRE was discovered .
Ostrich egg shells found in upper
Narmada valley
paleolithic age
Kurnool caves
(1st hand axe found)
Pallavram
 PALEOLITHIC AGE TOOLS

Technique used is
Early paleolithic Middle paleolithic Upper paleolithic LEVALLOIS technique
age age age
(mainly made of core) (mainly made of flake)
MESOLITHIC AGE

Ice age ended ( Holocene started) (evidence of house construction)

Flora , funna flourished (cultivation of plants)
SARAI NAHAR RAI
Plant cultivation began BAGOR (hand made pottery present)
Animal domestication began CHOPANIMANDO
Man lived on hunting , food gathering
and fishing
Transistional phase to animal husbandry
Tools used were MICROLITHS ( 1 - 5 cm )
Open burials found
ADAMGARH
BHIMBETKA
(domestication of animals)
 (dwelling pits, double burial system,bone tools )

NEOLITHIC AGE BURZHOAM (place of birch)

(the cave of potter,bone

MEHRGARH GUFRAKAL
tools found)
Called neolithic revolution,
CHOPANI MANDO
Plant cultivation and animal domestication
led to settlement of human CHIRAND(bone tools)
Home = circular or rectangular , made of
mud
Pottery wheel invented, pottery at wide
scale (for storing grains )
Burzhoam : Coarse grey pottery found

MEHRGARH : oldest,largest neolithic site

ashokan inscription found where
Also called Breadbasket of balochistan
agriculture started first, had contact with MASKIashoka revealed his real name
mesopotamia
Produced wheat and barley SANGANAKALLU
Cotton cultivation started first
Responsible for begining of INDUS VALLEY
CIVILIZATION
Chalcolithic age

It was called Copper Stone age

First metal discovered was COPPER We were the first to
paint our pottery
Various sites
1. In Rajasthan : Sothi Culture : main centre at Kalibangan
:Ganeshwar Culture : north eastern Rajasthan( copper extracted from here)
: Banas Culture : centre at Gilund and Ahar ( copper smelting practiced )
2. In Gujrat :Prabhas culture
3. In Maharastra : Jowre culture : centre at Inamgaon , Nevasa , Diamabad
4. In Madhya Pradesh : Malwa Culture : centre at Kayatha , Eran ( huge constructions were
found )
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MAJOR CIVILIZATIONS

(tigris and euphrates

river valley)
MESOPOTAMIAN (indus river
CIVILIZATION valley)
INDUS VALLEY
CIVILIZATION
CHINESE
CIVILIZATION
EGYPTIAN
CIVILIZATION (yellow river valley)
(nile river valley)
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

BRONZE AGE
( made up of mixing
Copper and Tin ) NORTH(J&K)

EAST(U.P.)

Alamgirpur

HARYANA HAS LARGEST

NUMBER OF SITES WEST(BALOCH) SOUTH(MAHA)

Daimabad
NEIGHBOURING RIVERS

The Ghaggra -Hakra river system had most

concentration of settlements
Manda= River Chennab (J&K)
Alamgirpur= River Hindon (UP)
Sutkagen dor = River Dor (BALOCHISTAN)
Daimabad = River Pravar (MAHARASTRA)
Harappa = River Ravi (PUNJAB, PAK)
Mohenjo-daro,Kot Diji =RiverIndus (SINDH)
Channu Daro=River Indus (SINDH)
Ropar=River Sutlej (PUNJAB,INDIA)
Kalibangan = River Ghaggar (RAJASTHAN)
Banawali = River Ghaggar (HARYANA)
Lothal = River Bhogav (GUJRAT)

This implies harappan sites near to rivers

 SITES

[Link]

Called as GATEWAY CITY

Excavated by DAYA RAM SAHNI in 1921
It was 1st site to be excavated , therefore entire IVC called
Harappan culture ( by John Marshall )
Seal of humped bull made of STEATITE (soft stone found in river
bed)
Stone image of man above waist made of RED SANDSTONE
Coffin burials and worker quaters found
12 Graineries in 2 rows having 6 each
Presence of upper citadel and lower city

Harappa called ‘hariyupiya -city of thousand

sacrifices’ finds mention in RIG VEDA
[Link]-Daro
Excavated by RD BANERJEE in 1922
Called as Garden city of IVC and model city
(because it became basis for town planning)
GREAT BATH present in heart of city, wonderful
drainage system
SEAL OF PASHUPATI (3 face ,2 horn ,surrounded
by buffalow,tiger ,rhino , elephant with 2 deer at
his feet)
Seal of horse , BRONZE IMAGE of dancing girl
,image of bearded man looking like a priest(made
of steatite-a soft rock)

It means MOUND OF DEAD

[Link] Daro
Excavated by NG Majumdar in 1931
City without citadel
Stones used for construction
Major centre for BEAD MAKING INDUSTRY
Ink pot found

[Link]
Excavated by Dr A Gosh
Kalibangan means Black Bangles
Fire altars found ( PYQ ) , Cist burial (brick chambered burial)
found , Camel skeleton found , Plough found
Site without image of mother Goddess or even washrooms
5. Banawali
Exacvated by Dr Bhist
Barley cultivated extensively
Tera-cotta plough found

[Link]
Excavated by Dr SR Rao
Also means MOUND OF DEAD
This city had eastern enterance and western exit
1st to cultivate rice
Artificially built naval dockyard suggesting export and
import . Fire Altars found .
Persian Gulf Seal found
Like chanudaro, major centre for bead making industry
[Link]
Excavated by Jagapath Joshi and Dr Bisht
Best known foe water conservation projrcts
An indoor stadium found (1st of its type)
Unlike other rectangular cities it was planned in a circular shape
Like ChanuDaro , it had no citadel
UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITE

[Link]
Biggest indus valley site
Only site with continuity of indus valley culture still
maintained

Allah dino , near karachi ,

smallest site
Other imp info.
Matriarchal society
Class wise composition (no caste system)
Generally cities were rectangular, exception lothal and Dholavira
Uniform house construction, underground drainage ,uniformity in size of
burnt bricks used , bathrooms present in houses
People were both vegetarian and non-vegetarian
Lot of importance to apperance (copper and bronze blades for shaving ),
women were highly fashioned ,used perfumes and imported lipsticks
GREEKS called indus valley ‘SINDEN’ (land of river indus ,known for best
cotton) MESOPOTAMIANS called indus valley ‘MELUHA’ (land of rivers)
POTTERY IS CALLED BLACK POLISHED WARE POTTERY
NATURE WORSHIP, MOTHER GODESS, AND PASHUPATI
Export items were textiles,food grains, copper, shells and ivory products
Import items were gold, silver, perfumes, sandstone slabs etc
DECLINE OF IVC
Aryan invasion : aryans from central India entered and
destroyed IVC
Flood
Earthquake

But , these theories have limitation

EJH Meckey pointed at Concept of mother Basic unit of measurement

change in route of rivers goddess led to shaktism with no 16 became basis of
leading to Matriarchy followed in 16 annas
desertification south for long teracotta figures still flourish in
of indus valley not Seasonal cropping and crop rural india
destruction rotation followed
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 VEDIC CULTURE

HARAPPAN VEDIC
CULTURE CULTURE

2900BC 1700BC 1500BC 600BC

THEORY
Vedic literature written in SANSKRIT
Founding language of sanskrit is INDO - EUROPEAN
It was laid down that all other languages that originate from
Indo-European languages as German,English,Italian,Greek
etc have a common origin/ homeland

Common homeland=debateable? CENTRAL ASIA

VEDIC CULTURE
(1500BC-600BC)

Initial settlement : Valley of north west and Punjab

But ,aryans were mainly cattle keeping ,therefore searched
for pastures and moved to Indo-Gangetic plains
By 6thBC , entire north India occupied IN
DO
-G
AN
GE
TIC
VEDIC PHASE PL
AI
ARYAVRATTA NS

EARLY VEDIC LATER VEDIC

PHASE PHASE
(1500BC-1000BC) (1000BC-600BC)
Rig veda composed Other vedas composed
Rig vedic period
(1500BC-1000BC) INDUS

Aryans settled in SAPTSINDHU region (land of 7 rivers) SARASWATI JHELUM (VITSATA)

River Ganga and Yamuna mentioned

5 rivers of Punjab
only twice in Rig Veda .This implies early CHENNAB
aryan extend not beyond yamuna and (ASKINI)
upper ganga SUTLEJ
(SHUTUDRI) RAVI
BEAS
SOCIAL LIFE (PURISHINI)
(VIPAS)

Patriarchal society , desire for SUVIRAH (brave son)

Head of family was called GRIHAPATI (DASAS
Monogamy was general practice , Polygamy by royal families DASYUS)

≠
Child marriage and Sati not practiced
ARYAN NATIVE
Women scholars known as Gargi , Lopamudra , Apala , Viswavara
1st stage of VARNA SYSTEM : SWETAVARNA , KRISHNAVARNA FAIR DARK
2nd stage , 3 VARNAS : BRAHMIN, KHASTRIYA, VAISYA on basis of pravritti
(temprament) and vriti( profession) , flexible in nature
Source on varna system is PURUSHASUKTA,part of 10th mandal of Rig Veda
POLITICAL LIFE

KULA GRAMA VISU JANA

GRAMANI VISHYAPATI RAJAN
King was assisted by Purohit ( priest) , Senapati and Yuvraj
(crown prince)
King controlled by Sabhas (assembly of head of families ie.
Grihapati and head of kulas ie. Kulapati) and Samitis ( open
assembly for all including women )
Decision of sabha advisory , whereas samiti binding
Taxes were Bhaga (compulsory tax) and Bali (voluntary offering)
Rig veda talks about 30 clans , 5 major were : TURVASA ,ANU ,
YADUS , PURUS , MATSYAS , BHARATAS

EC0NOMIC LIFE
Pastoral economy , cow considered sacred , called DUHYTRI (daughter of house)
Crops cultivated were Wheat (GODHUMA) ,Barley (YAVA) ,Rice (VRIHI)
Rural economy , barter system prevailed
Gold was called NISHKA and silver was called SATAMANA
Pottery was - OCP ( ochre coloured pottery)
BRW (black and red ware pottery)
RELIGION

Worshipped natural forces as Earth ( prithvi) , Fire (agni) ,Wind (vayu) , Rain
(varun) ,Thunder (indra)
INDRA : also known as PURANDAR (destroyer of forts)
similar to Greek God Zeus
250 hyms in rig veda , describe him as warlord
male servants known as Gandharva and female Apsara
AGNI : considered as intermediary between GOD and people
200 hyms in rig veda
VARUNA : God of morality , ethics and values .
regulates the world moral order and universal order
called rita
SOME FEMALE GODS WERE ADITI , USHA , SAVITRI (Gayatri mantra)

BRAHMANISM EVOLVED

VEDISM VEDISM HINDUISM

1500BC 1000BC 600BC

LATER VEDIC AGE
(1000BC-600BC)

1. Settlement : talks about Arabian sea , Indian ocean

several himalayan peaks
vindhya mountains
Around 1000 BC , iron axe and plough were used , therefore jungles
cleared and settlement extended ( SATAPATHA BRAHMANA refers to this
expansion )
Later vedic text divide India into : ARYAVARTA, MADHYADESA
,DAKSHINPATHA

EARLY VEDIC LATER VEDIC

POLITICAL ORGANISATION JANA JANAPADA

SOCIAL LIFE EGALITARIAN VARNA SYSTEM

ECONOMY PASTORAL AGRICULTURAL

RELIGION VEDISM BRAHMANISM

 POLITICAL LIFE

Small Janas were replaced by JANAPADS ( TERRITORIAL STATES)

Various titles used by king were EKRAT, RAJAVISVAJANAN , SAMRAT
AHILABHUVANPATHI
King became dictatorial as powers of sabha and samiti decreased
Bureucracy was formed
Akshavepa : Suprintendent on Gambling house
Bagadugga : Tax collector
Sutas : Royal bard ( poet cum singer , used to recite mahabharat , actually
called Jayasamhita
Major janpads were : kurus , panchals , videha, kashi ,kosala
Tribal kingdoms were : magdha , anga , vanga

VARIOUS CEREMONIES
RAJASUYA ( CONSECRATION CEREMONY)
ASVAMEDHA ( HORSE SACRIFICE)
VAJPEYA ( CHARIOT RACE)
 SOCIAL LIFE

3 varna sysrem 4 varna system

Varna based on birth , mobility not allowed, intervarna
marriage not allowed
Patriarchy stronger than rig vedic age
Child marriage and Sati practice were practiced during this period
Women not allowed in samitis
CHATUR VARNA SYSTEM was established and became rigid
Ashrama Dharmas ( bramcharya , grihastha , vanaprastha , sanyas )
mentioned in JABALA UAPANISHAD

ECONOMIC LIFE

Major development was introduction of Iron(krishna ayaas) Technology

Agriculture became chief occupation , trade and commerce grew with
countries as babylon
Vashiyas organised them into guilds called GANAS
Pottery was called NEEL LOHITA or PGW ( PAINTED GREYWARE POTTERY)
 RELIGION

Rig vedic Gods lost their importance , THE TRIMURTI gained

importance ,ie. PRAJAPATI (creator) , VISHNU (protector) ,RUDRA (
destroyer)
Simple Rig vedic rituals with prayers became complicated with
elaborate rituals , therefore priests gained importance
Goddess SARASWATI disappeared

Battle of 10 kings vs Bharatas , mentioned in VEDIC LITERATURE

7th mandala of Rig Veda , fought on bank of river
PARUSHNI
Bharatas led by Vashistha and 10 kings by Viswamitra

SRUTHI SMRUTHI
BRAHAMANAS
LITERATURE LITERATURE
UPANISHADS
10th Mandala of Rig Veda has Marriage VEDAS ARANYAKAS
Hymn , evoking the marriage of Daughter 6 VEDANGA
of SURYA 4 UPVEDA
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BUDDHISM
JAINISM

SOCIALLY, clash between brahmins and khastriyas , vaishyas

disappointed because status of 3rd varna despite being highest
taxpayers, shudras denied salvation

ECONOMICALLY, unrest was caused by costly ceremonies . it was burden

Background on resources of people and interest of shudras (cattle sacrifice) .
brahmanism condenmed profit affecting interest of vashiyas

POLITICALLY, Brahmanism encouraged war which posed threat to

small republican states
 JAINISM
Followers of Jainism are called JAINS
MAHAVIRA (24th TIRTHANKAR) considered as most important religious
teacher ( TIRTHANKAR: Teacher who leads to salvation )
1st TIRTHANKAR : RISABHNATH
2nd TIRTHANKAR : AJIT mentioned in YAJUR VEDA
22nd TIRTHANKAR : NEMI
23rd TIRTHANKAR : PARSHVANATH

MAHAVIRA

BORN AT AT 30, BECAME

KUNDALGRAM AN ASCETIC KAIVALYA DIED

30yrs 12yrs preached : 30 yrs

540 BC 510 BC 498 BC 468 BC

Vardhaman was born at kundalgram , near Vaishali district in
Bihar
Father : Siddhartha ( head of JNATRIKA CLAN)
Mother: Trishala ( sister of chief of LICHCHHAVI CLAN)
Yashodha was name of his wife and daughter was Anjja
Became ascetic at age of 30
After 12 yrs , attained KAIVALYA in Dhyan mudra under SAL
TREE, in JRUMBIKA (today Jharkhand) on bank of river
RIJUPALIKA and was called JINA (Conquerer)
His followers were called nirgranthis ( one who has
conquered all his bonds ) , later they were called JAINS
Teachings and Principles

RATNATRAYA ( 3 jewels)

SAMYAK DARSHAN (right faith ) : having complete belief on

teachings and wisdom of mahavira

SAMYAK GYAN ( right knowledge) : there is no god , world exist

without creator,objects have soul

ahimsa (not to injure)

SAMYAK CHARITRA ( right conduct ) : 5 principles
satya (not to lie)
by
asteya (not to steal) PARSVANATH
aparigraha
bramcharya (not to acquire property)
(not to lead immoral life)

SYADVAD : it is impossible to know anything added by MAHAVIRA

for certain (syat means maybe)
 Spread of Jainism

4th C BC 2nd C BC 1st C AD 3rd C AD 5th C AD

5th C BC 3rd C BC 1st C BC 2nd C AD 4th C AD 6th C AD

kaivalya
1st council patronage 2nd council

Mahavira had 11 close disciples called Gandharas

When Chandragupta Maurya was ruler , a famine occured
BADHRABAHU with his followers moves to sravanabela gola in
Karnataka whereas STHULABAHU remained there.
Sthulabahu and his followers were white clad called SWETAMBRA
Bhadrabahu and his followers were sky clad called DIGAMBARS
 Jain Councils
1st : In Patliputra , Patna
Digambars didnot join
Original teachings of Mahavira were readjusted in 12
chapters called ANGAS
In 1st century BC , Kalinga King , Kharavela
patronised jainism and followed digambar jainism
2nd : In Vallabhi, Gujrat

By shwetambars only
Presided over by DEVA VRATAK SHAMAS RAMANA
Patronised by Siddhiraja and KumarPala of ANUSRUTHI is the jain sacred text . Jain literature
Chalukaya dynasty written in Prakrit ( language of common people)
11 UPANGAS were formulated Angas and upangas in ARDHAMAGDHI

Chandragupta Maurya converted to jainism.

performed SALLEKHANAVRATA(starving onself to death )
BUDDHISM BIRTH

THE GREAT DEPARTURE

LIFE OF GAUTAM BUDDHA
Born in Lumbini , near Kapilavastu, Nepal in 567BC
Father : Suddhodhana ( head of Sakya clan - republican) NIRVANA
Mother : Mayadevi (died soon after his birth ) , brought up by aunt Prajapati
Gautami
Married at age of 16
Wife : Yashodhara , Son : Rahul , Daughter : Priyanka
At age of 29 , siddhartha rennounced world because of 4 events 1st SERMON
When Siddhartha moved out of his palace with his chariot driver CHANNA and
horse KANTHAKA
4 events were - old man , diseased , a dead body and a happy saint
At age 35 , he reached BodhGaya ,on the bank of RIVER NIRANJAN under a Spiritual soverignity
PEEPAL TREE (bodhi tree) , sat for meditation and on 49th day , he attained
NIRVANA ( enlightenment)
Gave 1st sermon at SARNATH , known as DHARMA CHAKRA PARIVARTANA
At age of 80 , he attained PARINIRVANA (died) at KUSINAGAR PARINIRVANA
Teachings of Buddha
World is full of misrey DUKHA

Cause of misery is zeal SAMUDAYA

The 4 noble truths ( Arya satya)
Zeal can be conquered NIRODHA

By 8 fold path
ASTHANGAMARGA

Essence of this philosophy is called

1st sermon known as Dharma Chakra Parivartan represented by
Madhyam Marg
8 SPOKE WHEEL represents 8 fold path

1. Right observation
PRAGYA SKANDA
2. Right determination Buddha neither accepted nor rejected existence of God
3. Right speech Didnt recognise existence of soul
4. Right action SHEEL SKANDA Against social distinctions, threw his SANGHA open to all
5. Right livelihood Rejected the authority of Vedas
6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness SAMADHI SKANDA
8. Right concentration
Sangha and Ceremonies
After attaining NIirvana , Buddha started preaching while doing paddyatras , except in rainy season
He preached his teachings of Buddhism in PALI
Buddha organised an order for his followers called SANGHA (membership open to all irrespective
of caste , creed, and sex except
- soldiers , only after permission of king
-slaves , only after being freed by their masters
-debtors , only after clearing debt )
BHIKSHUS ie. Buddhist monks were members of Sangha , followers of Buddhism leading family life
were called UPASIKAS ( females allowed to be upasikas and bhikshus. female elder nuns were called
THERIS )
His 5 disciples were : Upali , Moggallana , Ananda , Ashvajit , Sariputta

PRAVRAJYA ceremony : Ceremony when a person declares that he /she has taken
refuge in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha
UPASAMPADA ceremony : Ceremony when upasak takes monastic vows, becomes
monk and nun . Head is shaved and yellow robe is offered
PRATIMOKSHAS :64 types of crimes monks and nuns should not commit
UPOSTHA : Fortnight assembly ( new moon and full moon day) observing fast to
purify body and soul
PRAVARNA : Confession ceremony after end of monsoon retreat ( vassavasa )
Spread of Buddhism
Kingdoms which embraced Buddhism were
Magadha ( Bimbisara, Ajatasatru)
Kosala (Prasenjita )
Kausambi ( Udayana )
Several republican states of north India including Kapilvastu

About 200 years later , after death of Buddha , Mauryan King ASHOKA
embraced Buddhism

1st Buddhist Council

In 483 BC
At Rajagriha ( today Bihar )
Patronised by Ajatashatru ( Haryanka dynasty )
Presided over by MAHAKASSAPA
UPALI composed VINAYA PITAKA (monastic conduct of Buddhism )
ANAND composed SUTTA PITAKA ( teachings of Buddha )
 2nd Buddhist Council

In 383 BC
Orgainsed in Vaishali ( present day Bihar )
Presided over by SABA-KAMI
Patronised by KalaAshok ( Sishunga dynasty )
Buddhism divided into Pro changers i.e. MAHA SANGIKAS and
No changers i.e. STHAVIR-VADIN or THERAVADINS

3rd Buddhist Council

In 250 BC
Organised in Patliputra ( present day Bihar)
Presided over by MOGGALIPUTTA TISSA also called UPGUPTA
Patronised by Ashoka ( Mauryan empire)
Abidhamma pitaka was composed ( contains thorough study and systemisation of
suttapitaka )
The final version of TRIPITAKAS was completed
 4th Buddhist Council

In 1st AD
Organised in Kashmir
Presided over by VASUMITRA
Patronised by Kanishka
Attended by Ashvagosha , wrote BUDDHA CHARITRA
Buddhism divided into 2 sects : HINAYANA (lesser vehicle )
MAHAYANA (greater vehicle)
HINAYANA BUDDHISM stated that goal of a monk was to attain NIRVANA
This was comsidered a lesser goal , therefore MAHAYANA BUDDHISM founded by
Acharya NagaArjuna
Acc , to MAHAYANA BUDDHISM , goal of monk was to become BODHISATTVA (who
decides not to attain nirvana and engage with world to help others)
Mahayan followers created their own sanskrit versions of TRIPITAKAS and also
composed VAILPULYA SUTRAS ( sanskrit text )
Maha-sangikas got affiliated with MAHAYANA BUDDHISM (buddha as God )
Sathvir-vadins got affiliated with HINAYANA BUDDHISM ( budddha as teacher )
and called thesmselves THERAVADIN ( school of elders )
Buddhist literature
CANONICAL TEXTS : texts based on direct teachings of Buddha

They are three : Vinaya Piataka

: Sutta Pitaka
It consists of 5 NIKHAYAS ( Digha , Majjhima , Samyutta , Anguttara
Khuddaka ) . Khuddaka Nikhaya consist of Therigatha/Theragatha
: Abhidamma Pitaka
THESE TEXTS WERE WRITTEN IN PALI LANGUAGE, later translated

NON CANONICAL TEXTS: texts written later by other scholars or interpretation of teachings
of Buddha

In Pali Language : MILINDA-PANHO (dialogue between Milinda and Nagasena ) MAJJIHIMA NIKAYA, is a dialogue between
: NIDANKATHA
King Avantiputta and Kachchana ( a disciple
: DIPVAMSA , MAHAVAMSA ( chronicles of SriLanka )
of Buddha )
Sanskrit-Buddhist texts :MAHAVASTU
: LALITAVISTARA
: BUDDHACHARITRA
Sanskrit texts : by Mahayana thinkers as Nagarjuna , Vasubandhu , Asanga , Aryadeva etc.
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 MAHAJANPADS

During later vedic age, formation of Janpadas took place, which

led to clash among themselves leading to emergence of
MAHAJANPADS
These Mahajanpads were formed after acquiring many janpads.

Buddhist text ANGUTTARA NIKHAYA of Sutta Pitaka and Jain text BHAGVATI SUTRA
talks about 16 Mahajanpads

Anga (champa) Gandhar( taxila) Kuru( hastinapur) Panchal( kampilya )

Asmaka( potana) Kamboja ( rajpura ) Magdha( rajgriha) Sursena( mathura )
Avanti (ujjain , mahismati) Kashi ( varanasi) Malla ( pava , kushinagar) Vriji (vaishali)
Chedi (shuktimati) Kosala( ayodhya) Matsya ( matsya ) Vatsa ( kaushambi)

Out of 16 Mahajanpads , only VRIJI and MALLA

were republican states , else were hereditary
 Neighbouring rivers

Kosala : Gomati , Gandak

Ayodhya : Saryu
Anga : Champa
Magdha : Ganga , Son , Champa
Vriji : Ganga , Gandak
Mahismati : Narmada
Asmak : Godavari

Kosala , Magdha , Avanti , Vatsa were

able to survive by mid 6th C BC and finally
Magdha emerged victorious.
MAGADHA Founder : Brihadratha

By end of 6th century BC , Magadha emerged as apowerful Kingdom

Geographical Powerful
advantage rulers

Fertile land Brihadratha dynasty

Copper, Iron deposits Pradyota dynasty

Capital fortified by hills Haryankas ( started to rise )

Sisunagas ( expansion )

( further expansion )
Nandas

Mauryas (reached its peak )

 HARYANKAS
Founded by BIMBISARA ( 544 BC - 492 BC )
Called Seniya ( had standing army )
Matrimonial alliance : married KosalaDevi of kosala ( got Kashi as dowry)
: married Chellana of Vriji ( facilitated expansion
towards north )
: married a princess of Madra clan of Punjab
AJATASHATRU (492 BC - 460 BC )
Killed his father to become King
Kosala took Kashi back from magadha , which became a bone of contention
between both , led to battle and Ajatshatru won , married daughter of Kosala
King Prasenjit i.e. Vajjira
Defeated Vriji and bought it under his control
Used innovative weapons as Mahashilakantika , Rathamusula
UDAYIN ( 460 BC - 444 BC )
Killed his father , Ajatashatru
He built a fort on confluence of Ganga and Son at Patligram ( Patliputra )
Founded city of Patliputra and it became capital city later.
 SISUNAGAS
Founded by SISUNAGA ( 414 BC - 396 BC)
Captured Avanti
Shifted capital from Rajgriha to Vaishali

KALASHOK ( 396 BC - 368 BC )

Organised 2nd Buddhist Council
Shifted capital from Vaishali to Patliputra

NANDAS
Founded by MAHAPADMANANDA( 366 BC - 329 BC) Tamil Sangam text AHANANURU by
Gave himself title of EKRAT and Sarva-kshatrantaka ( coz uprooted kshtriya poet Mamulanar , mentions about
dynasty in north India , He was a shudra )
enormous wealth of Nandas
Conquered Kosala and Kalinga ( from kalinga , he bought the image of JINA ,
as mentioned in HATHIGUMPA INSCRIPTION )

DHANANAD ( 329 BC - 321 BC )

He kept Magdha dynasty intact
It was during his rule that Alexander attacked India
 Foreign influence
Persian coins found in west of India
PERSIA KHAROSTHI script ( right to left ) became
popular in northwest region.
In mid 6th century BC,
Ashokan inscriptions in this region are written
Persian king Cyrus conquered
in Kharosthi script
region west to Indus river

Darus,further
conquered Sindh
and Punjab by 486 BC

600 BC 501 BC 401 BC 301 BC

In 327 BC , reached Hind kush
crossed via Khyber pass
AMBI ruled between Indus and Jhelum submitted
From Macedonia , Greece PORUS ruled between Jhelum and Chennab defeated
ALEXANDER Conquered entire Persian empire in BATTLE OF HYDAPASS
In 326 BC , he retreated without fighting with Dhananand, as his
army was tired and homesick
Didnt cross river Beas called HYPHASIS
PYQs
MAURYAN EMPIRE
321 BC - 184 BC
Dhananad insulted CHANAKYA, a professor of political science and
economics at Taxila University ( estb by Achaemenid Empire i.e,
Persian Empire )
Chankaya decided to uproot the Nanda dynasty from Magdha
for which he trained Chandragupta Maurya for a long time
Gradually , Chandragupta Maurya started his conquest from
Taxila conquering regions of Punjab and northwest , and finally
defeated Dhananada in 321 BC leading to establishment of
Mauryan Empire

Chandragupta Maurya

Bindusara

Ashoka

In this way , political unity was achieved for first time in India
Chandragupt Maurya

Puranas and other texts indicate that he was from lower origin, whereas , Buddhist and
Jain texts suggest him to be from upper origin
In 321 BC, conquered entire Nanda dynasty region
By 317 BC , entire region in north west came under his control , such that SELEUCUS
NICATOR ( governer of Greek territories appointed by Alexander) became his
neughbour
In 305 BC , Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus and territory of Afghanistan and
Balochistan came under his rule
Seleucus sent Megasthenes to court of Chandragupta , where he wrote INDICA
In 297 BC , he embraced Jainism under influence of Jain guru Badhrabahu , and when
femine hit Gangetic plain , he moved to south of India with Badhrabahu , where he
performed Sallekhana
Greeks called him Sandrakottes
JUNAGARH inscription ( 1st sanskrit ) by Rudradaman
of SAKAS , talks about Chandragupta’s conquest in
Saurastra
321 BC 317 BC 305 BC 297 BC
conquered territory till Treaty with embraced
Magdha north west Seleucus Jainism
 Bindusara
297 BC - 272 BC
Greeks called him AMITRO CHATES which means ( slayer of enemies )
He followed Ajivika sect.
Magdha extended till MYSORE , as mentioned in Sangam literature
Seleucus Nicator’s successor ANTIOCHUS 1 sent Greek ambassador
Diamochus to court of Bindusara
Bindusara sent a letter to Antiochus 1 , to send wine , figs and a
philosopher.
Bindusara’s elder son Susima was Governer of Taxila and Ashoka was
Governer of Ujjain , revolt took place in taxila , which was suppressed by
Ashoka

Ajivika sect was founded by MakkaliGhosala or

Ghosala Mushkariputra
They believe in theory of pre-ordination or Niyathi
They worship Ashokan tree and consider deer sacred
Mahavira met Ghosala at age of 36
 Ashoka 268 BC - 232 BC

After death of Bindusara , there was a war of succession among son’s of Bindusara and Ashoka
emerged as winner after killing his 99 brothers ( mentioned in Ceylonese chronicles , Dipvamsa and
Mahavamsa )
Northwest border was as demarcated by Chandragupta Maurya, southern border was as extended
by Bindusara ( neighbours in south were Cheras , Cholas and Pandyas )
Nepal and Kashmir was under Mauryan empire influence
Rajtarangini , written by Kalhan in Sanskrit , is a poetic chronicle history of Kashmir
In 260 BC , war with Kalinga ( Kings were Dimovasi and Meghavahana ) , Ashoka victorious
NIGRODHA ( a 5 year old Buddhist Monk ) had conversation with Ashoka during war, which impacted
Ashoka
Ashoka was converted to Buddhism by Upagupta ( also called MugaliPutra Tissa )

7 Principles
Sent missionaries to other countries to
Ashoka’s concept of Dhamma : Code of conduct for civil society . It
spread Buddhism
provided humane solutions to human
Sent his son , Mahendra and his daughter ,
problems
Sangmitra to SriLanka
Its basic principles were Satya , Ahimsa ,
Samayama (tolerance) , Samkhsheyma
(welfare)
Rock Edicts SHAHBAZGARHI
MANSERA

Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma was

written on big stones known as
Major Rock Edicts KHALSI
They were 14 in number KANDHAR

DHAULI

Language GIRNAR
SANNATI
Rock edicts of Mansera and Shahbazghari are
SOPARA
written in Prakrit language in Kharosthi script JAUGADA
In Kandhar edict , mix of Greek and Aramic
Minor rock Edicts
language
in Karnataka YERRAGUDI
Other rock edicts were in Prakrit language in
Bhahmi script

These were deciphered by JAMES PRINCEP

 Rock Edict 1 :Prohibits animal slaughtering Rock Edict 8 : Ashoka’s 1st Dhamma yatra to Bodhgaya
Rock Edict 2 : Provide care for man and animals , mention and Bodhi tree
of Cholas , Pandyas , Cheras , Antiocus II Rock Edict 9 : Condemns popular ceremonies , stress
Rock Edict 3 : Generosity towards brahmans . Further on ceremonies of Dhamma
states that officers shall spread policy of Rock Edict 10 : Condemns desire of glory and fame
Dhamma Rock Edict 11 : Elaborate principles of Dhamma
Rock Edict 4 : States that Dhamma is better than war Rock Edict 12 : Request for tolerance among different
Rock Edict 5 : “ every human is my child” , against slavery religious sects
Appointment of Dhammamahamatras Rock Edict 13 : Talks about victory over Kalinga ,
Rock Edict 6 : Talks about welfare measures for people mentions high number of deaths and
Rock Edict 7 : Request tolerance for all religions states victory of Dhamma to be imp.
Largest inscription
Rock Edict 14 : Mention engraving of these inscriptions
in different parts of country
In major rock edicts , Ashoka is referred as Devampriya ( beloved
of God ) and Piyadasi ( who looks on auspiciousness)
In minor rock edicts in Maski , Gujjara , Nittur , Udegolam Ashoka
revealed his actual name
In Konganahallu , Ashoka’s image is engraved
 Ashokan Pillars

Monolithic shaft implies : made of single stone

CAPITAL
These pillars are generally made up of CHUNAR SANDSTONE ( procured
from Mathura and Chunar )
Capital is a motif which is in form of an animal , which stands on a circular
or rectangular base called Abacus
Most pillars have something inscribed in it in Prakrit language in Brahmi

MONOLITHIC SHAFT
script
Major pillar Edicts and minor pillar Edicts found
National Emblem is taken from the capital of pillar at Sarnath

Lumbini pillar edict ( known as Rummindei pillar inscription)

records Ashoka’s visit to Buddha’s birthplace
Niglai Sagar pillar inscription ( in Nepal ) records Ashoka’s
visit to Konagamana stupa
Mauryan Administration

King was assisted by MantriParishad ( council of ministers [Link] , Yuvraj , Purohit ,

Senapati )
Amatyas ( civil servants ) worked under Mantriparishad
Empire divided into 4 provinces with capital cities at : Taxila for Northwest
: Ujjain for North
: Tosali for East
: Suvarngiri for South
Province Division District Group of 4,5 villages Village
Governer Pradesikas Rajukas Stanikas Gramini

Judicial administration : chief source of law was Shukra Neeti Shastra

Dharmastheyas were civil code Mauryan pottery is called NBPW (northern
KantakaShodaka were criminal codes black polished ware)
Sudhama and Lomasa cave temple at
Military Adminstration : Managed by a board of 30 members divided into 6 Barabar at Bihar was dedicated by Ashoka
committes to Ajivikas ( earliest in India )
Land tax was called BAGHA i.e. 1/6th
State controlled production process and licenses were issued for mining
Mauryan state was a welfare state , centralised with maximum bureaucracy
External trade was maximum with ROME
 Sources

LITERARY SOURCES

1. Kautilya’s ARTHASHASTRA : has 15 chapters called Adhikarans ( sanskrit )

Theme is Statecraft and management of resources
also talks about ethics and law
Original text discovered by Shyam Shastri
2. VisakhaDutta’s MUDRA RAKSHASA : talks about Chandragupta Maurya , Kautilya and
Raksha ( prime minister of Nandas )
Notion of Saptang includes : Svami (The
3. Matsya purana , Vayu purana , Vishnu purana talk about Chandragupta Maurya king ) , Amatya ( The ministers ) ,
4. Magesthenese’s INDICA : talks about municipal administration of city Patliputra Janapada ( territory and its people ) ,
Durga ( fortified city ) , Kosha (
treasurey)
Danda ( Justice or Force) , Mitra ( the
Numismatic evidence ally)

Minting coins started with Mauryas

Financial year started in Asaad Maas ( june )
Gold coins called TOLA , Silver coins called PANAS and mixed coin called KRASPANAS
We dont see any sign or marks on coins , peacock , hill and crescent are seen rarely
ROOPADARSHAK was officer incharge for maintaining standaed in Gold currency
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 INDO-GREEKS

Post Mauryan Age

After death of Ashoka , Mauryan Empire
got divided into western and eastern
part
SHUNGA
Successors of Ashoka were weak ,
therefore several provinces declared
themselves as independent as KALINGA
and SATVAHANAS
Western part was prone to foreign
invasions
Last successor of Mauryan Empire KALINGA
Brihadratha , was overthrown by his
commander-in-chief , PUSHYAMITRA
SATVAHANA
SHUNGA , leading to establishment of
Shunga Dynasty
 SHUNGA DYNASTY
Started in 184 BC
Founder : PUSHYAMITRA SHUNGA
Made capital at Videsha ( Madhya Pradesh)
He was a staunch flollower of Brahmanism, performed 2
Ashwamedha Yagyas
Manu Smriti was written by Sage BHRIGU during this time(
book on how society should run )
Renovated Buddhist stupas at Sanchi and Barhut ( but
known as destroyer of buddhism )
Agnimitra : Defeated Indo Greeks , and was hero of Kalidasa’s
play MALAVIKA-AGNIMITRAM
Last ruler of Shunga dynasty was Devabhuti , who was
overthrown by his minister VASUDEVA

KANWA DYNASTY Panini wrote ASTHADHYAYI (Sanskrit grammar

rules ) during Shunga dynasty
Founded by : VASUDEVA Patanjali wrote MAHABHASYA ( a commentary
Susarma of this dynasty was defeated by on Panini’s work ) during this time
Sathakarni II of Satvahanas
CHEDI DYNASTY

They ruled in Kalinga

Kharavela was the greatest of Chedi
dynasty
HATHIGUMPA (Odisha) and
GUNTUPALLI inscription ( Andhra
Pradesh) talks about his greatness
Hathigumpa Inscription talks about
irrigation system and conquests of
Kharavela
He defeated Sathakarni I of Satvahanas
and took title Mahameghavahana and
Trisamduradipathi
SATAVAHANAS
2nd C BC - 2nd C AD
Successors of Ashoka were weak , therefore province of Satavhana
declared themselves independent. Initially , they ruled in Upper Godavari valley
They ruled in Deccan region ( area enclosed by Vindhyas on north , Aitareya Brahamana mentions ANDHRAS as peoplr
Western ghats on west and Eastern ghats on the east ) who initially lived on banks of Yamuna and migrated
Satvahanas , referred as ANDHRAS that is , border people ,in 13th Rock later to south
Puranas as VAYU PURANA , MATSYA PURANA AND
edict of Ashoka
BRAHMANDA PURANA refer them as ANDHRA-BHRITYA
Their biggest rivals were SAKAS

SATHAKARNI 1
Founder of Satvahana dynasty
1st capital city at Paithan ( Prathisthanpura ) in Maharastra
and 2nd capital city was Amravati in AP
Official language was Prakrit
NANAGHAT inscription , by Naganika ( wife of Sathakrani I )
talks about his greatness . He is called Dakshinapathapathi
He was first to perform Ashwamedh yagya in south
HALA :
1st great scholar king.
He composed GADHA SAPTA SATHI also called SATT SAI , collection of 700
stories in Paisachi Prakrit language

GAUTAMI PUTRA SATHKARNI :

He was the greatest of Satvahanas
He killed NAHAPANA ( ruler of western kshatrap of Sakas )
8000 + silver coins found around Nasik , where Nahapana coins
were restuck by Gautamiputra Sathkarni VASHISTPUTRA PULAYAMI : was defeated twice by
Took the title of THRISAMUDRADIPATHI and EAKBRAHMIN Rudradaman I of Sakas ( JUNAGADH inscription )
His mother Gautami Balashree issued NASIK INSCRIPTION , which
He repaired Amravati stupa
talks about his greatness
Issued coins which had motif of SHIP , revealing the
naval power of Satvahanas
YAGNASHRI SATHKARNI :
Last king
He was a close friend of Acharya Nagarjuna
Progress under
Satvahanas

IN ART
Amravati school of Buddhist art started

IN ARCHITECTURE
Amravti stupa was built and expanded during this time

IN PAINTING
Ajanta paintings started. its theme is Mahayana Buddhism
Paintings exhibit 3 D and 4 D effect
This painting tradition was continued by Guptas , Vakatakas ,
Western Chalukyas , Rastrakutas

IN AGRICULTURE
1st to start Coconut cultivation

IN TRADE AND COMMERCE

Trade was maximum with ROME , as a sign of it , Satvahanas issued
Ship motif coins
Foreign Invasions
Post Mauryan age is also known as Dark age or Age of Dharmasutras ( 2nd C BC - 3rd C AD )
Due to foreign invasions , inter-racial and inter-caste marriage became common ,
Words as MLECHCHA ( one born to foreign father and native mother ) and APRACHCHA (one born to
foreign mother and native father ) were used
Contemporary Brahminical literature mentioned 8 forms of marriage
Brahmo : arranged marriage performed as per Shastra
Prajapatya : arranged marriage but not as per shastra
Arsa : among sages and rishis . Groom gives cow and Bull to bride’s family
Daivo : marriage in which bride is given to priest as sacrificial fee
Asura : bride is bought by groom
Gandharva : love marriage without parent’s consent
Rakshasa : bride is abducted and forced to marry against her will
Pishacha : man seducing or deceiving women into marriage

Concept of Apadharma , which means change of profession in distress , was accepted for first time
All experts on Hindu law as Manu , Parashar , Narada , Brihaspati belonged to this age
 YUEZHI

SCYTHIA

PARTHIANS
BACTRIA
INDO-GREEKS
After Alexander , the region of Bactria was under control of
Seleucid Empire which was occupied by Greek natives
When they acquired territory of north-west India , they were
called as Indo-greeks
Demetrius made their capital at Taxila
For further conquest , 2 commanders were sent to Sialkot (
Punjab ) and Sindh ( Pakistan )
Sialkot was ruled by MENANDER
Sindh was ruled by APPOLODTUS
Garudwaja or Besnagar Pillar inscription
Menander was defeated by Vasumitra of Shunga dynasty
tells us about visit of Ambassador
Menander was called as Milinda
HELODORUS
MILINDA-PANHO ( written in Pali ) is documentation of
questions between Milinda and Nagasena ( Mahayana
It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi
Buddhist monk ) , written in 130 BC script
Menander eventually convereted to Buddhism
Gold Coins were issued for 1st time .
SAKAS
In 1st C BC , Scythians destroyed Greek power in Bactria and India and
controlled a large part of India
MAUES , founder of Saka rule in India
Scythians were referred as Sakas in Patanjali’s MAHABHASYA
There were 5 branches of Sakas : Afganistan ,Punjab , Mathura , Western-
India , Upper deccan
King of Ujjain fought against Sakas and succeeded in driving out , took
title Vikramaditya , begining of VIKRAM SAMVAT in 57 BC
Greatest of Sakas was RUDRADAMAN , ruled in western India
Repaired Sudarshan lake in Kathiawar (built by Pushygupta , during
mauryas )
He issued JUNAGADH inscription ( 1st ever long inscription in Sanskrit )
1st to make sanskrit his court language
 PARTHIANS

By end of 1st C BC , Parthians of Iranian origin occupied the North-West region of India
During this time Shakas and Parthians ruled parallely ( ancient sanskrit text refers them as Shaka-
Pahlavas )
Best known Indo-Parthian king was GONDOPHARNES , RULED IN 1st C AD
During his time St. Thomas ( christian missionary ) visited his court
St. Thomas converted Gondopharnes into christianity, he was burried at Mylapur in Chennai ( as
per Marco Polo, who visited India in 12th century )

KUSHANS

They were nomadic people from Steppes of central India belonging to YUEZHI tribe
In 1st C AD , Kushans moved to Kabul valley and seized the Gandhara region
KAJULA KHADPHISES was founder of this dynasty
Gold coins were issued
Imitating the Chinese , Kushans took the title DEVPUTRA ( Khadphesis )
KANISHKA
78 AD - 128 AD
Greatest of Kushans
Came to power in 78 AD , marking begining of SAKA ERA
He was convereted to Buddhism by Parsva , sponsored 4th Buddhist council
in Kundalvan Vihar ( Kashmir )
He conquered Magadha and extended as far as Patliputra and Bodh Gaya
Kalhan’s Rajtrangini mentions rule of Kanishka in Kashmir
Buddhist scholar Ashvagosh was his spiritual advisor
PESHAWAR ( Purushapura ) was the capital of Kanishka , Mathura was
considered 2nd Capital
Only dynasty to control Silk Trade Route between China and Alexandria
Issued large number of Gold and Silver coins with images of himself , Greek
Gods , Hindu Gods , and Buddhist motifs
Sarnath inscription tells about extent of Kanishka , based on image of
Boddhisatava
Gandhara school of Art reached its highest stage during this time
Kanishka stupa was established by him in 2nd C AD in Peshawar , Pakistan
Ashvagosha wrote BUDDHACHARITRA in Sanskrit
Vasumitra , Ashvagosha , Charaka and Nagarjuna were patronised by him.
Maximum number of Headless statues of Kanishka found in Mathura
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SANGAM AGE 2nd C BC - 3rd C AD

Region beyond Krishna river is known as Far South

Major Rock Edict II and XIII mentions kingdoms of South - CHOLAS ,
PANDYAS , SATYAPURA and CEYLON
Hathighumpa inscription ( Odisha ) of King Kharavela , mentions about
Tamil Kingdoms

From 2nd C BC , great literary tradition started in far south called Sangam Age Literary Tradition. it implies
assembly of poets and scholars under patronage of Kings of these areas

All 3 Sangams were held at MADURAI , capital city of Pandyas

Sangam in Tamil is called MUCHCHANGAM
1st Sangam was presided over by Saint Agastya , but literature has not survived
2nd Sangam presided by poets and scholars , only literary work that survived is TOLKAPPIYAM ( work on
tamil grammar ) by TOLKAPPIYAR
3rd Sangam presided by poets and scholars , literary works known are ETTUTOGAI , PATTUPATTU ,
PATHINENKILKANAKKU , SILAPPATHIGARAM , MANIMEGALAI
3rd Sangam was held under patronage of Pandya king MUDATHIRUMARAN
ETTUTOGAI :
: consist of 8 enthologies
: Aingurunooru , Narrinai , Aganooru , Purananooru , Kuruntogai , Kalittogai , Paripadal ,
Padirruppattu ( related to Cheras ) These are narrative
texts called as
PATTUPATTU : MELKANNAKU
: Consist of 10 Idylls ( short description on form of verse or prose )
: Important ones are Pattinapalai ( related to Cholas ) , Maduraikkanji ( related to Pandyas )

PATHINENKILKANAKKU :
: 18 minor texts
: talks about ethics and morals These are Didactic
: Important one is Tirukkural ( by Thiruvalluvar ) texts called as
KILKANAKKU
SILAPPATHIGARAM and MANIMEGALAI : epics
SILAPPATHIGARAM by ILANGO ADIGAL

Silappathigaram refers to Jaina monastries near Madurai

Tragic love story of Kannagi and Kovalam , who lived in Chola kingdom
Kovalam got attracted to Madhavi , a dancer in Chola kingdom , had a daughter called
Manimegalai
Later Kovalam realised his mistake and went back to Kannagi, both moved to Madurai in
Pandya Kingdom
Kannagi gave her jwellery to Kovalam to sell , simultaneously Queen of Pandya kingdom had
lost her jwellery which was similar to Kannagi’s . Kovalam was caught and killed
Kannagi in rage , cursed the King and he died immediately . she also cursed the city of
Madurai and it turned to ashes .
Kannagi then moved to a mountain peak in Chera Kingdom and died there
Chera King CHERAN SENGUTTUVAN started PATTINI CULT , being impacted by life of
Kannagi

MANIMEGALAI by SITTALAI SATTANAR

It is a tale of struggles of daughter of Kovalam and Madhavi called Manimegalai

CHERAS
Rules over present day Kerela
Capital city : Vanji ( Karuvur )
Pugalur Inscription talks about Chera Kings built in 1st C AD
Cheran Sengattuvam was the greatest , also called REDCHERA ( the
most benevolant )
He defeated various Kings in his north expedition and bought
LIMESTONE from Himalayas for making idol of Kannagi
Started Pattini cult

CHOLAS
CHOLAS
Ruled between Pennar and Velar river CHERAS
Capital was Uraiyur ( famous for cotton trade )
King Elara was first indian to conquer Cylon
PANDYAS
Karikala Chola was the greatest , built a dam on Kaveri river , built
city Kaveripattanam ( also called Puhar , new capital )
PANDYAS
Ruled in south of Tamil Nadu
Capital was Madurai
Megasthese stated Kingdom of Pandyas was celebrated for IMPORTANT PORTS
Pearls
King Mudathirumaran patronised 3rd Sangam Council
CHERAS MUZRIS , THONDI , PONNAI
King Neducheliyan was the greatest

CHOLAS KAVERIPATTANAM , ARIKAMEDU

Sangam Age Society

Varna system was not well established, Sati was rampant PANDYAS KARKAI , SELIYUR

Dominant landlords called VELLALAR , cultivators called

UZHAVAR , labourers were called KADAISIYAR and slaves were
called ADIMAI
YANADIS ( actually forest tribe ) became military commanders
In Religion , Shiva , Shakti and Gangesh and Murugan cults were
prominent
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GUPTA AGE 320 AD - 550 AD

Gupta dynasty was founded by SRI GUPTA in 240 AD . He ruled a

small kingdom in Magadha
Till 270 AD Kushana Empire ruled and last king was Vasudeva.

240 AD 280 AD 320 AD 330 AD 380 AD 415 AD 455 AD 550 AD

SRI GUPTA

GHATOKACHA

CHANDRAGUPTA I

SAMUNDRAGUPTA

CHANDRAGUPTA II

VISHNUGUPTA
KUMARGUPTA
CHANDRAGUPTA I
Married Licchavi princess Kumaradevi
Issued Kumaradevi type of coins
Gave himself title Maharajadhiraja

SAMUDRAGUPTA
Greatest og Gupta dynasty
Devotee of Lord Vishnu
Allahabad pillar of Ashoka ( also called PRAYAGYA PRASHASTHI )
contains details of Samudragupta inscribed by HARISENA ( court
poet of Samudragupta ) in Sanskrit
Undertook Dakishnapath expedition and them his Tributary States
including Pallavas
Took title PARAKRAMANA
Performed Ashwamedh Yagya and issued Gold and Silver coins
Also called KAVIRAJA , as he was a great musician and poet
CHANDRAGUPTA II

Powers of Gupta dynasty peaked during his rule

His main rivals were Sakas and Vakatakas . He married his daughter to
Vakataka king Rudrasena II , made an alliance and defeated Sakas
which was end of Sakas in India
He took title SAKARI ( destroyer of Sakas )
Performed Ashwamedha Yagya and took title VIKRAMADITYA
Ujjain emerged as a commercial city
Capital of Gupta empire was Patliputra
Territorial extended till Bactria in Afganistan
He patronised : Mehrauli Iron inscription , a marvel of Metallurgy
Varahamihira ( astrologer ) is 7 ft tall , has inscription written in Sanskrit
Kahapanaka ( astrologer ) deciphered by James Princep in 1838 , originally
Kalidasa ( poet ) : MEGHADUTAM , ABHIGAYANASHAKUNTALAM installed at Vishnupadgiri
VIKRAMORVASHIYAM , MALVIKAGNIMITRAM
AmarSingh ( Sanskrit lexicographer and poet ) : AMARAKOSHA
Sanku ( architect )
Harisena ( poet )
Vishakhadutta ( poet ) : MUDRA RAKSHASHA
Dhanvantari ( physician )
Shudaraka : MRICHCHHAKTIKA
 Hi , I am FA-HIEN , I came to India to study Buddhism , visit the
Buddhist shrines and collect Buddhist manuscripts
Started journey in 399 AD and completed in 414 AD during reign
of Chandragupta II , covered only northern India
I recored my journey in a Travelogue called GAOSENG FA-HIEN
ZHUANI

KUMARGUPTA
Peacock was his symbol
During end of his rule , he faced invasion from HUNAS who came from
central Asia but were unsucessful in capturing India
Art and Culture reached new heights under his rule
Laid foundation of NALANDA UNIVERSITY ( was a Bhuddhist monastry
earlier converted to Mahayana university ) . Sanskrit was medium of
knowledge . Heuin tsang talks about this university . Dhrampala was
the head of Nalanda unioversity
Performed Ashwamedh Yagya
 HUNA Invasion

Successor of Kumargupta was Skandagupta , ruled from 455 AD - 467 AD

Huna attacks were there Skandagupta , but were unable to acquire territories
Due to war , there was scarcity of resources and successors were also weak ,
this lead to disintegration of Gupta empire

Huna chief TORAMANA attacked and occupied majority area of Gupta empire
He got built a colossal representation of VARAHA , the boar incarnation of
Vishnu at ERAN , MADHYA PRADESH
Hiuen Tsang talks about MIHIRKULA , his capital was at Sialkot

493 AD 515 AD 535 AD

TORAMANA MIHIRAKULA
 Gupta Adminstration :
Unique adminstrative system developed was SAMANTA system with Ujjain was famous for IVORY PRODUCT
hierarchy of Mahasamanta , Adhisamanta , Samanta Varanasi for SILK
Guptas were first to make land grants to civil servants Gandhara for WOOLLEN TEXTILES
Mathura for a type of cloth known as
Gupta’s Golden Age SATAKA

In Architecture :They were first to construct temples in North India in NAGARA style
In Paintings :Continued Ajanta cave paintings at Bagh caves , MP with theme Vaishnavism
In Literature : Kavya was perfected by Kalidasa , Shudraka and Bhasa ( wrote SAVAPNAVASAVADUTTA
and DOOTA GHATOTHKACHA )
Vishnu sharma wrote PANCH TANTRAS
Amar singh wrote first Sanskrit dictionary called AMARKOSHA
Chandra Gomin wrote CHANDRA VYAKARNA which deals with Sanskrit Grammar
Kamandaka wrote NITISARA , based on Kautilya’s Arthashastra
In Science : Aryabhatta wrote ARYABHATIYAN , SURYA SIDDHANTA . 1st to explain shape of Earth
Varahamihira wrote BRIHATHA SAMHITHA , BRIHASH JATAKA , PANCH SIDDHANTA .
He was 1st to develop Indian lunar Calendar
Brahma Gupta wrote BRAHMA STUPA SIDDHANTHA . He was 1st to declare that earth has
gravitational power
In Medicine :PalaKapya wrote HASTYA AYURVEDA
Nava neetaka wrote NAVA NEETAKAM
 PYQs
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Post - Gupta Age
After decline of Gupta Empire there
was political disorder and disunity
in north India
Majority of territories of Gupta
Empire were ruled by Feudatories,
who declared themselves
independent after the decline of Bengal
Gupta empire , one such Feudatory
was PUSHYABHUTIS , also called
Vardhans
Pushyabhuti Dynasty Pushyabhuti

PrabhakarVardhan

HarshaVardhan
Their capital city was STHANESWAR in Haryana
They were sub-ordinate rulers of Gupta’s
Prabhakar Vardhan had 3 childern
Daughter : Rajashree
Elder Son : RajaVardhan
Younger Son : HarshaVardhan
Rajashree was married to GRIHAVARMAN of Maukharis
Grihavarman was killed by Devgupta of Malwa and Sasanka of
Bengal
To revenge death of Grihavarman , RajaVardhan killed Devgupta
, but was killed by Sasanka
Finally , Harsha came to power in at 16 . He could drive away
Sasanka and captured Kannauj
Southern expedition of Harsha was stopped by PULAKESIN II of
Chalukyas . This information is present on AIHOLE INSCRIPTION
of Pulakesin II . Narmada became the southern most boundary
of Harsha
Navsari Copper Plate Inscription talks about Harsha’s conquest to
SORASTRA
Chinese Buddhist pilgrim HUAN T’SANG visited Harsha’s court and
converted him to MAHAYANA BHUDDHIST . Before it Harsha
followed Shavism and took title SILADITYA
He held Buddhist conferences at Kannauj and Prayag
He donated revenue for 100 villages to Nalanda University
Harsha , was a great scholar in Sanskirt , wrote dramas NAGA
NANDAM , RATNAVALI , PRIYADARSHIKA
His court poet Banabhatt wrote HARSHACHARITRA , KADAMBARI ,
PARVATI PARYNIAM Harshcharitra mentions about BHASKARA
Harsha’s death in 643 AD , was a single major event that changed of Varman Dyanasty of Assam . He made
course of history of ancient India alliance with Harsha to defeat Sasanka of
Bengal . Harsha recieved various presents
by Bhaskaravarman
Pallavas and Chalukyas

VAKATAKAS
CHALUKYAS

PALLAVAS
KALABHRA

PANDYAS

543 AD 745 AD

SATVAHANAS VAKATAKAS CHALUKYAS

SANGAM AGE KALABHRA PALLAVAS

550 AD 985 AD
300 AD

220 AD
 PALLAVAS
Pallavas were Feudatory of Satvahana . With decline of Satvahana in 220 AD ,
they became independent in 250 AD .
With Kalabhra rule in Far south , their rule declined . And with decline of
Kalabhra rule in 550 AD , they gained their power and ruled till 985 AD
In first phase , Pallavas issuede their Charters in PRAKRIT language
In second phase , they used SANSKRIT language
In third phase , they used SANSKRIT and TAMIL language
Their first capital was AMRAVATI and second capital was KANCHIPURAM
SIMHA VISHNU was founder of this dynasty
Narishmavarman I was the greatest . He killed Pulakesin II of Chalukyas and took
title MAHAMALLA ( great wrestler )
He founded the city Mahabalipuram and built 7 monolithic temples called
PAGODAS or Ratha Temples

King Mahendravarman I, wrote MATTAVILASA PRAHASNA , a

criticism of Shivites and Jains
Dandin wrote DASAKUMAR CHARITRA,tale of 10 princes
Bharavi wrote KIRATH ARJUNIYAM , fight between Shiva and
Arjuna
 CHALUKYAS
After fall of Vakatakas , they came to power
They ruled present Karnataka state , with capital city Badami or Vatapi
Pulakesin I started the Chalukya dynasty
With Pulakesin II , Chalukya - Pallava dynastic wars started over control on Krishna,
Godavari and Kaveri river basin
AIHOLE Inscription of Ravikirti talks about victory of Pulakesin II over HarshaVardhan
and took title PARAMESHWAR
He also defeated Mahendravarman I of Pallavas , but was killed by Narishmvarman I ,
son of Mahendravarman I
Aihole was city of Temples

Bilhana wrote VIKRAMADITYA CHARITRA and

CAURAPANKASIKA ( love poem )
Somadeva wrote KATHASARITASAGARA
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EARLY MEDIEVAL
INDIA

After end of Harsha , there was no centralised

power. Kannauj was the center of power and
there was struggle for its control
Around 750 AD there was emergence of 3 major
Kingdoms , that is , RASTRAKUTAS , PALAS ,
GUJARA - PRATIHARS
The struggle between them to control Kannauj
is known as TRI-PARTITE STRUGGLE
Though wars proved disasterous for all ,
Rastrakutas survived the longest . They were
most successful in fight for Kannauj
RASTRAKUTAS 775 AD - 975 AD
KRISHNA I
Ruled present Karnataka and Maharastra GOVINDA III
They were Feudatories of Chalukyas of Badami , DANTIDIURGA
refused to pay tribute to Chalukya King Kirtivarman II which lead to a AMOGVARSHA
battle , which was by Rastrakutas , which led to establishment of
power of Rastrakutas in Deccan KRISHNA III
1st capital was Ellichipuram ( Ellora ) and 2nd capital was Manyakheda
( Malkhed )
Kannauj was ocuupied by Govinda III
SANJAN INSCRIPTION , in Valasad district of Gujrat mentions about
victory of Govinda III over Prathihara emperor Nagabhatt II and Pala
Emperor Dhrampala
AMOGVARSHA shifted the capital to Malkhed , was last great patron
of Jainism . He took title SARVA . He wrote RATNA MALIKA in Sanskrit
and KAVIRAJA MARGA in Kannada
KRISHNA III , defeated Imperial Cholas in Battle of TOKKALAM
The great scholar MAHA VICHARYA wrote GANIT SARA SANGRAHA
They were finally replaced by WESTERN CHALUKYAS also called
Chalukyas of Kalyani
PALAS 750 AD - 1162 AD
GOVINDA

DHRAMPALA
Ruled Bengal
GOPAL was the founder of Pala dynasty and he was an DEV PALA
elected King
DHRAMPALA was the greatest , was only ruler to capture MAHIPALA
Kannauj and took title UTTARPADA SWAMI .
Dhrampala established Buddhist universities as Vikramshila ,
Uddandpura and Jagaddala
MAHIPALA was last great ruler , however he was defeated by
Rajendra Chola
Palas had extensive cultural and political ties with Tibet ,
because of Buddhism . Buddhist scholars were invited to
Tibet , they introduced a new form called VAJRAYANA
BUDDHISM
SULAIMAN AL-TAJIR , was an Arab merchant, came in mid 9th
century during rule of Devpala
He called Pala kingdom RUHMA
They had limks with South - East Asian nations
GURJARA - PRATIHARA VATSRAJA
730 AD - 1036 AD
NAGABHATTA II

They were pastoralists and fighter clans earlier MIHIR BHOJA

They ruled in Madhya Pradesh , parts of Rajasthan and Gujrat
MAHENDRA PALA I
NAGABHATTA I established this dynasty with capital city BHINMAL
During his time Arab rulers invaded Sindh , ruled till 10th C AD
Nagabhatt II captured Kannauj and made it its capital which was lost
soon
MIHIR BHOJA was the greatest , captured Kannauj again . Arab merchant
traveller Sulaiman visited his court .
He issued silver coins with image of VARAHA , on other side
ADI VARAH title was written
Gwalior Prashasti , an inscription in Sanskrit by his court poet : Baladitya
was made during his regin .
MAHENDRA PALA I was last great ruler .
Gujrat was hub of overseas trade and the main outlet for north Indian
goods to West Asian countries
Arab traveller AL - MASUDI visited Pratihars and called them JUZR . He
gives an elaborate detail on rule of Gurjara - Pratihara . He wrote THE
MEADOW’S OF GOLD .
Arab Conquest of
Sindh
 SOLANKI

They ruled Gujrat with capital city at ANIHILWAD

MULARAJ was the founder of this dynasty
BHIMA I was defeated by MAHMOUD GHAZNI in 1025 AD and looted Somnath Temple
MULARAJ II and BHIMA II defeated Mahmoud Ghazni in Battle of Mount Abu in 1179
When Delhi Sultanate was founded , Allaudin Khilji defeated RANA KARNADEVA of
Waghela dynasty and occupied Gujrat in 1296

GUHADWALA

They ruled southern part of Rajasthan with capital city NAGADA

JAI CHANDRA was greatest , his daughter married Prithvi Raj Cauhan , against
wish of his father .
Jai Chandra helped MOHAMMAD GHORI in defeating Prithvi Raj Cauhan in 2nd
BATTLE OF TARAIN in 1192
Next year Ghori killed Jai Chandra in BATTLE OF CHANADWA in 1193
 CHAUHANS
Ruled in north Rajasthan with capital city AJMER
SIMHARAJ CHAUHAN was founder of dynasty
AJAYRAJ founded the city Ajmer
PRITHIVIRAJ CHAUHAN defeated Mohammad Ghori in 1st BATTLE OF TARAIN in 1191
However , Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated and killed by Ghori in 2nd BATTLE OF TARAIN in 1192
Chandrabar Dai was the celecbrated poet in court of Prithviraj . He wrote PRITHVIRAJ CHARITRA ,
PRITHVIRAJ RASO

According to ChandbarDai in his work PRITHVIRAJRASO,

rajputs were born out of a sacred fire lit by Saint
Vashistha in Mount Abu . As such they were called
TOMARS AGNIKULA KHASTRIYAS . Actual rajput clans according to
him were Chauhans , Chalukyas , Pratiharas , Parmaras
Ruled Haryana
Founded city Delhi , actually called as DALLIKA
Mahipal Tomar was greatest
Govindraj supported Prithviraj in battle of Tarain
 CHENDELAS

Ruled Bundelkhand region in Madhya Pradesh

Dynasty was also called JEJAKA BHUKTI DYANSTY as they
worshipped forest God JEJAKA
King Vidyadhar was greatest . He offered most successful resistance
to Mohammad Ghazni and defended the fort Kalanyar in 1018
Chendelas built temples at Khajurao and Mohatsav Nagar

GANGA DYNASTY

It was called Eastern Ganga Dyansty and ruled Odisha

Narshimadeva built SUN TEMPLE at Konark
Anantchoda Ganga Dev built PURI JAGANNATH temple
Jagat Kesari built LINGARAJA TEMPLE at Bhumbneshwar
IMPERIAL CHOLAS VIJAYALAYA
815 AD - 1070 AD ADITYA

Cholas of Sangam Age were destroyed by Kalabhras PARANTAKA I

New Imperial Chola dynasty was founded by VIJAYALYA CHOLA , with
RAJA RAJA I
capital city TANJORE , on banks of Kaveri
Cholas were feudatories of Pallavas RAJENDRA I
Aditya was 1st independent King and 1st to conquer Pallava region
Parantak I was defeated by Krishna III in Battle of Takkolam , which KULOTTUNGA I
affected growth of Cholas for 40 years . He issued UTTARA MERUR
KULOTTUNGA III
INSCRIPTION , important source on Chola village administration
Raja raja I was the greatest RAJENDRA III
He defeated Cheras , Pandyas and even conquered northern portion of
Ceylon and took title Ummadi Chola Deva
His other titles were Chola Martanda , Shivapad Sekhara , Madurai Konda
He granted permission to ruler of Sailendra dynasty of Indonesia to
construct a Buddhist stupa at Nagapattanam
Rajendra Chola , defeated Mahipal of Palas and took title Gangaikonda ,
founded the city Gangaikondacholapuram
He destroyed capital city of Indonesia called Kadaram and took title
Kadaramkonda , purpose was to establish monopoly in silk trade with
China
He also took title Pandita Chola
 Kulottanga I , was founder of Chola - Chalukaya dynasty. Founded the
city KulottangaCholapuram , that is , Visakhapattanam
Western Chalukyas attacked and took many territories of Imperial
Rajayam (Empire )
Cholas
Gradually Imperial Cholas lost their control

Mandalams (provinces )
Types of Villages
1. UR : village where all castes co-exist Valanadus (big adm. units )
2. AGRAHARA : village only for Brahmins
3. NAGARA : village settlements for Merchants
4. TENIYUR : Big villages under direct control of King
Nadus (districts)
5. BRAHMADEYA : villages connecyed to Temples

Kottams (gp. of villages)

Kamban translated Ramayana into Tamil
JAYAM GONDHAR wrote Kalingattu Parni on
conquest of Kalinga by Kulottanga Chola Grama (village)
 PYQs
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[Link]. Topic

1. Indian Feudalism
2. Early Medieval Period 750 AD TO 1200 AD
(Tripartite Struggle)
3. Early Medieval Period 750 AD TO 1200 AD
(The Rulers of South India)
4. Delhi Sultanate
5. Regional Kingdom
6. Vijayanagar Kingdom
7. Bahmani Kingdom
8. Bhakti And Sufi Movement
9. Mughal Empire
10. Miscellaneous Topics
 1. Indian Feudalism Cultural Implication

● Growth of regional language and

● It is an economic system where culture.
primacy is given to land and land ● Impetuous to bhakti movement.
related right.
● It is an economic system but its How Indian feudalism differ from
implication is there in each sphere of European feudalism
Life.
● Due to difference in ecological
Duty of feudal lords towards king condition(long sunshine and humped
● To bring gift for the king and overlord. bull), there were few differences.
● Be present at the court and provide ● Visthi (forced labor)/ Peasant tied to
king military support. the land of lord was limited in India.
● Military feudalism develops at much
Political Implication later stage.
● Decline in the authority of centralized ● In India there was no sharply define
kingship. class of feudal lord.
● Decline in number of troops as
standing army.
● Decline in centralized bureaucracy.
● Rise of regional kingdoms / sub 2. Tripartite Struggle
infeudation.

Economical Implication
● Decline of trade, commerce. ● During 8th AD there were three great
● Localization of trade/self-sufficient ● power in India namely Palas in the
level of economy. East, the Gurjar-Pratihar in the North,
● Decrease in the quality/quantity of and the Rastrakutas in the Deccan.
coin. ● All three struggled for supremacy and
● Decline of guild. their desire to possess Kannauj.

Social Implication
● Increase in number of caste and sub
caste.
● Impetuous to Jajmani system
(Jajmani system or Yajman system
was an economic system most
notably found in villages of India in
which one caste performed various
functions for other castes and
received grain or other goods
in return. It was an occupational
division of labor involving a system of
role-relationships that enabled
villages to be mostly self-sufficient).

002
Dynasties Palas Rajputs Rastrakutas
(750A.D to 850 A.D) (755-973 A.D)

Gopala (750-770) Prathiharas ● At its Zenith, the

Kingdom included
● Small local rulers of ● First ruled from Ujjain whole Karnataka,
the region appointed and later from some parts of
Gopala as the ruler. Kannauj. neighbouring
states.
● He was the founder of
the dynasty. Nagabhatta I
● The term is a
● Gopala ensured law combination of
● He led a confederacy,
and order in the “Rasthra”
in 738 CE, to defeat (country) and
region.
the Muslim Arabs. “Kutas”
● Arguably, he brought
(chieftains).
the whole of Bengal
Mahipala I (912-44) ● Succeeded
under his sway. Badami
● Kannauj was Chalukyas in
Dharmapala (770-810) Deccan.
captured by
Rashtrakutas for a
● He made Bengal the Dantidurga (753-56):
brief time during his
Political most powerful state in
reign. He was a
North India. ●
● Md Gazani captured feudatory of
● Faced tough
Kannauj in 1018 during Badami’s.
opposition from
the reign of Rajapala.
Pratiharas and failed ● Defeated King
to establish power in Kiritvarman II of
Mihirabhoja
Aryavarta. Badamis and
Defeated by established
● ● Arab traveller named
Vatsyaraja of empire.
Suleiman visited
● He maintained
Pratiharas. during his reign. cordial relations
● According to Tibetan with Pallavas.
historian Taranath, Rajyapala
his empire extended Krishna I (756-73):
from the Bay of ● In 1018 Md Ghazni
invaded Kannauj and ● Powerful ruler of
Bengal to north Delhi
plundered it. this dynasty.
and to the Vindhyas
in the south. ● Expanded the
Chandella
● According to the dynasty towards
Khalimpur inscription East, into delta
● They ruled the
of Dharmapala, he region.
Bundelkhand region. ● He is also
summoned a Darbar Had two capitals –
● culturally
at Kannauj. Mahoba and important for
Khajuraho. construction of
● Yashovarman made Kailasa temple of
Ellora.
them an independent
power.

003
Dynasties Palas Rajputs Rastrakutas
(750A.D to 850 A.D) (755-973 A.D)

● Defeated and ● Ruled between the 9th Dhruva (780-93):

overthrown from and early 13th
Kannauj by century. ● His reign was
considered as
Nagabhatta II, the ● Weakened by
Golden period.
Pratihara king. invasions by Muslim
● He took the title dynasties. ● Defeated
Parambhattaraka Prathiaras and
Maharajadhiraja. Paramaras Palas, started the
tripartite struggle.
Devapala (810-850) ● They ruled over the ● Successfully
Malwa region, with moved against
● He conquered Assam Dhara as their capital. Pallavas of
Kanchi.
and Kalinga. ● The early rulers were
● Assam vassals of Amoghavarsha
and Kalinga. Rashtrakutas. (814-878)
● Siyaka captured
Devapala
Manyakheta, the ● Son of Govinda III,
Political capital of who defeated
● He defeated the
Rashtrakuta ruler, Rashtrakutas. Dharmapala of
Amoghavarsha. ● Harsola copper plate the Palas.
● His empire extended inscription in Gujarat ● He was a scholar
from Kannauj in the is attested to Siyaka. king.
north to the Vindhyas ● He made
Paramara Bhoja Manyakheta the
in the south and
Assam to the east. capital.
● Important King of the
● His fame reached ● After him, less
Paramara dynasty.
Southeast Asia. popular rulers
● Known for his
● Balaputradeva, the followed.
patronage of arts,
Sumatran King, asked ● King Indra III
literature, and
him for a grant of five captured Kannauj
sciences.
villages to Nalanda in 916 CE.
University.
● He was succeeded by
weak rulers who ruled
up to the mid-tenth
century.
● Later, the Palas were
occupied by a hill
tribe called the
Kambojas.

004
Dynasties Palas Rajputs Rastrakutas
(750A.D to 850 A.D) (755-973 A.D)

Mahipala I Solanki Dynasty Krishna III

● He revived the Pala ● Ruled Gujarat for 300 ● In 949 CE, he

empire. years with their fought the Battle
● Mahipala reoccupied capital at Anhilwada. of Takkolam.
the region from the ● Bhima I: During his ● He defeated
Kambojas. reign, Mahmud of Parantaka Chola
● His empire extended Ghazni invaded the and took the title
from Varanasi and Somnath temple in "Tanjavurkonda."
Mithila to East Bengal. 1025 CE. ● He erected a
● Rajendra Chola I, the ● Kumarapala: A victory pillar in
Chola king, defeated popular Jain scholar Rameswaram.
Mahipala in 1023 A.D. named Hemachandra
● In the mid-eleventh lived in his court. Last ruler
century, the empire ● Bhima II: In the year
● Karka was
was taken over by the 1178, Muhammad
assassinated by
Senas. Ghori invaded
Political Tailapa, who
Gujarat.
founded the
Chauhan Dynasty Kalyani
Chalukyan
● Had Ajmer as their dynasty.
capital.

Prithviraj Chauhan

● He fought two battles

at Tarain (also known
as Staneshwar).
● In the first battle in
1191, he defeated
Muhammad Ghori.
● In the second battle in
1192, he was defeated,
and Qutbuddin Aibak
was appointed as
governor.
● Later, Aibak
established Delhi
Sultanate.

005
Dynasties Palas Rajputs Rastrakutas
(750A.D to 850 A.D) (755-973 A.D)

● They were patrons of ● In India, Feudalism ● Society was

Mahayana and similar to western type divided into
Vajrayana Buddhism. is found in Rajput various castes
● Dharmapala built societies. based on
many universities in ● Women immolated profession.
Bihar: themselves on burning ● Guilds occupied
○ Vikramshila pyre, known as 'johar'. an important
University, ● Female infanticide and position in the
○ Oddantapura early marriage of girls society.
University, were practiced. ● They were
○ Sompura ● It failed to absorb tolerant to
University, foreign elements. various faiths.
○ Jagaddala ● Vaishnavism and ● Amoghavarsha
University. Shaivism were endorsed
● They donated land for patronized by the Jainism.
the maintenance of rulers.
Nalanda University. ● Buddhism declined,
Socio-
● The Buddhist poet and Jainism, to some
Religious
Vajradatta, who wrote extent, was present.
Lokeshwarashataka,
was in the court of
Devapala.
● The Palas also
supported Saiva
ascetics.

Literature ● Gauda-riti style of ● In the court of ● Patronised

composition was Mahipala I, Sanskrit Sanskrit and
developed during the scholar Rajasekhara popularised
Pala rule. lived. Kannada.
● Buddhist tantric works ● He wrote
were authored and Karpuramanjari,
translated during the Kavyamimasa,
period. Bhuvankosha, and
Haravilasa.

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Dynasties Palas Rajputs Rastrakutas
(750A.D to 850 A.D) (755-973 A.D)

● Notable Pala texts on ● Paramara Bhoja wrote ● Amoghavarsha

philosophy include 24 Sanskrit Kavyas and took the title
Agama shastra by took the title of “Kaviraja” and
Gaudapada, Nyaya ‘Kaviraja’. wrote two books:
Kundali by Sridhar His books include: 1. Kavirajamargag
Bhatta, and rammar, the first
Kharmanusthan 1. Ayurvedsarvasya book written in
Paddhati by Bhatta 2. Samarangan Kannada.
Bhavadeva. sutradhara (on 2. Ratnanlika, a
architecture) Sanskrit book
3. Champu-ramayana written on
4. Yukti kalpapatru (on Jainism.
statecraft). ● He patronised
● Bhoja built a Sanskrit Sanskrit Jain
college called scholars:
"Bhojashala". 1. Jinasena, who
● Hemachandra, in the wrote
Literature court of Kumarapala, Adipurana,
wrote books: which is on
1. Kumarapalacharita Adinatha.
2. Naminatha 2. Mahaveerachary
3. Parisistha parvan a, who wrote
4. Abhidhamma Ganita Sara
Chintamani. Sangraha, a
● He took the title book on
‘Kalikala Sarvagna’. mathematics.
3. Shaktayana,
who wrote
Amogavrithi, a
grammar book
in Sanskrit.

Art and ● During this period, a ● Khazuraho temples ● Instrumental

Architect distinctive style were built by inestablishing
ure emerged in art. chandellas Karnataka
rulers (UNESCO World Dravidian style.
Heritage site)

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Dynasties Palas Rajputs Rastrakutas
(750A.D to 850 A.D) (755-973 A.D)

● Figures became more ● Dilwara Jain temples in ● Rock cut cave

rigid in posture, Mt. Abu were built by Kailasa temple
standing with straight the Solanki rulers. in Ellora.
legs close together. ● Rani ki Vav, a UNESCO
● They built numerous World Heritage Site, is a ● Caves at Ellora
monasteries and multi-storeyed well and Elephanta.
sculptures; Somapura built by Queen
Mahavira, now in Udayamathi, wife of
Art and Bangladesh, is a Bhima I.
Architect World Heritage site. ● The palaces of Jaipur
ure and Udaipur and the
forts of Chittor, Mandu,
Jodhpur, and Gwalior.

008
 3. The Rulers of South India

Important Cholas Western Chalukyas-Kalyani

Aspects

Empire founded by Vijayalaya: Ruled from Kalyani (973-1200 A.D).

● Vijayalaya, a feudatory of the ● Followed the traditions of the

Pallavas, founded the empire. Rashtrakutas and Vatapi
● He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D.
Chalukyas.
● Ruled the Karnataka region and
Parantaka Chola:
surrounding areas.
● Took the title of MadhuraiKonda.
● Issued the Uttarmerur Inscription, Tailapa II (973-997 A.D):
which gives information about
village administration. ● Feudatory of the Rashtrakutas.
● Defeated Krishna III.
Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D): ● Credited with victories over Chedi,
Orissa, Nepal, and Kuntala.
● Formative period of "Chola
imperialism". Somesvara I (1042-1068 A.D):
● He destroyed the Chera navy at
Trivandrum. ● Took the titles Ahavamalla and
Political ● He conquered the Maldives Islands.
Trailokyamalla.
● Brought South-East Asia under his
● Built the city of Kalyan.
control.
● Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita
● Overran Vengi of Andhra Pradesh.
● Defeated Mahinda IV of Sri Lanka. deals with Somesvara I.

Rajendra I (1014-1044 A.D): Last Ruler:

● He followed the annexation policy of ● Tailapa III was defeated by the

his father. Kalachuris.
● Defeated the Pala ruler Mahipala in
1022 A.D and assumed the title
"Gangaikonda Chola".
● Built a city near the mouth of the
Kaveri, named "Gangaikondachola".
● Sent two diplomatic missions to
China for political as well as
commercial purposes.

RajadhiRaja I (1044-1052 A.D):

● Earned the title "Jayamkonda

Chola".
● Captured Kalyani, the Western
Chalukyan capital, and took the title
"Kalyanpuramkonda".

Kulottunga Chola I:

● Took the title of Sungamtavirta,

meaning abolisher of taxe

009
Important Cholas Western Chalukyas-Kalyani
Aspects

● The king was the central power and ● The government was a hereditary
was assisted by a council of monarchial form.
ministers. ● They used titles such as
● The Chola Empire had a strong
Samasthabhuvanasraya and
standing army.
Vijayaditya.
● The empire was divided into
● Their insignia was a boar,
mandalams (provinces) and
valanadu (districts). signifying Varahavatara.
● Officials were generally given ● There was a limited number of
revenue-bearing lands. council ministers to advise the
Administra ● Cholas were known for village king.
tion
administration; the Uttarameruru ● Ministers' posts were hereditary.
inscriptions of Paranthaka provide ● The administration had feudal
details about this. elements.
● There were two assemblies: Ur and
● The territory was divided into
Sabha or Mahasabha.
Rasthra, Vtshaya, Nadu,
● Ur was a general assembly of the
Kampana, and Thana.
village.
● Mahasabha was a gathering of adult ● The officials included
men in Brahmana villages Vishayapatis, Gramakutakas,
(agraharas). Ayuktakas, and Niyakutakas.
● An election system was present.

● Built a network of roads. ● Agriculture and trade &

● Tanks for irrigation purposes were commerce were the backbones of
built. the economy.
● Conducted elaborate surveys of
● The state provided irrigation
land to assess the government
facilities.
share.
● Cultivated land was categorized
● Revenue sources included land tax,
tolls on trade, taxes on professions, into dry land, wet land, and
and plunder. garden land.
● Private ownership along with joint
Economy ownership of land existed.
● Guilds were active and had
autonomy.

010
Important Cholas Western Chalukyas-Kalyani
Aspects

● Society was organized based on the ● Social life was based on the
Varnasrama model. Varnasrama model.
● Sub-castes proliferated, such as ● Caste was universal and
Kaikalla, Chetti, Cheek, etc.
hereditary.
● Sub-castes were further divided into
Society ● The relationship between caste
Valangai and Idangai.
and occupation was less rigid.
● The Devadasi system was prevalent
in the society. ● Women of higher status played
a major role in social and
administrative life.
● Akkamahadevi, a Chalukyan
princess, also led armies in
battle.

● Thiruvalangadu copper plates, ● Shaivism and Vaishnavism were

Karanthai plates, and Anbil plates patronized by the Cholas.
describe the religious conditions of ● Shakti was worshipped as
the Cholas.
Kolhapur Mahalakshmi.
● Chola kings were Shaivites.
● Karthikeya was worshipped as
● Parantaka I Chola covered the Shiva
Kudidatani in Bellary.
temple with gold at Chidambaram.
● Rajendra I constructed a Shiva ● Basavesvara’s Veerasaivism
temple in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). was also very popular.
● They were tolerant towards other ● Jainism was also practiced and
Religion religions. received royal patronage.
● Vaishnavism also flourished during
the period.
● Saint Ramanuja was contemporary
to Chola kings.
● Temples acted as important centers
of cultural life.

● Build great capitals -Tanjore, ● Their temple architecture known

Art and Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi as “Karanatadravida”.
Architecture etc.
● Large households and large palaces. ● It is an extension of Badami
● Introduced Dravidian temple chalukyan style.
architecture. ● Temples of Ittagi were the finest
● Dravidian Temple Architecture: examples of Art and
1. Garbhagriha – multiple storeys on
chief-deity room. Architecture.
2. These storeys varied from 5 to 7 ● Ornamentation on the outer
and known as Vimana. walls of the shrine and presence
3. Mandapa with pillared hall.
of figure sculptures of heroes
4. Pillars are elaborately curved.
5. Courtyards surrounding the and loving couples (Mithuna)
structure. were unique features of Kalyani
6. Gopurams- lofty gateways Chalukyas.
● Examples: Kailasanath temple
(Kanchi),
Brihadeshwara temple (Tanjore),
Gangaikondacholapuram temple.

011
Bibliography of Important Words

● Maha Samantha/Mandleshvara: Refers to a great lord of a circle or region.

● Hiranyagarbha: A ritual performed with the help of Brahmanas, believed to lead to the
rebirth of the sacrifice as a Kshatriya.

● Tribhuvan Chakravartin: Title for the lord of three kingdoms.

● Vellanvagai: Land belonging to non-peasant proprietors.

● Brahmadeya: Land donated to Brahmins.

● Shalabhoga: Land allocated for the maintenance of schools.

● Deva Dana, Tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples.

● Pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jain institutions.

● Muvendavelan: Vela (peasant) serving three kings.

4. Delhi Sultanate

The Sultanate of Delhi 1206 1526

012
Delhi Political History And Important Initiatives Of The Kings
Sultanate

Founded by Turk Slave Qutbuddin Aibak:

● Constructed Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi and Adhai Din Ka

Jhonpra in Ajmer.
● Died playing Chaugan (horse polo).
Mamluk
Dynasty
Iltutmish (1210-1236 A.D):
(Slave
Dynasty)
● Real consolidator of Turkish conquests in northern India.
1206-1290
A. D ● Introduced new coins: Tanka (silver) and Jital (copper).
● Introduced the Iqtedari system (IQTA: land assignment given to
an officer in lieu of salary).
● 40 iqtedars formed an association called Chahalgani.

Raziya (1236-1239 A.D):

● Daughter of Iltutmish.
● Marked the struggle for power between the monarchy and
Chahalgani (Turkish chiefs).

Balban (1246-1287 A.D):

● One of the Turkish chiefs.

● Laid the foundation for a strong centralized government.
● Sought to increase the prestige and power of the monarchy.
● Champion of Turkish nobility.
● Broke the power of Chahalgani.
● Administered justice with extreme impartiality.
● Established a strong centralized army with a network of spies to
ensure order.
● Adopted a policy of "Blood and Iron" to crush rebels.
● Insisted on the ceremonies of Sijada (prostration) and Paibos
(kissing the monarch’s feet).

The Khaljis Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-1296 A.D):

(1290-1320
A. D) ● Founded the Khalji dynasty.
● Believed that the state should be based on the willing support of
the governed.
● Followed a policy of tolerance towards the nobility.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 A.D):

● Harsh towards nobles and banned festivals, use of wines, and

intoxicants.
● Weakened the power of nobles.

013
Delhi Political History And Important Initiatives Of The Kings
Sultanate

● Followed by a Hindu convert, Khusrau, who was defeated by the

Tughlaqs.
● First Muslim ruler to come to the south.
● Introduced Diwan-i-Mustakraj (Revenue Ministry).
The Khaljis ● Malikafur (Senapati) conquered the southern kingdoms of
(1290-1320 Yadava, Kakatiya, Hoysala, and Pandya.
A. D) ● Malik Mohammad Jaisi, a Sufi saint, wrote "Padmavat," where
Rajput women perform ‘Jauhar’ to save themselves from
Alauddin.
● Brought in market reforms, military reforms, abolished the Iqta
system, and made attempts at the secularization of
administration.

Ghiyaz-ud-din Tughlaq (1320-1325 A.D):

● Founded the Tughlaq dynasty.

The Tughlaqs ● Sent Mohammad bin Tughlaq to annex Kakatiya and Pandyan
(1320-1412 Kingdoms.
A.D)
Mohammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D):

● Sources: “Tarikh-e-Ferozshahi” by Zia-ud-din Barani and

“Kitab-ul-Rehla” by Ibn Batuta.
● Shifted the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) in 1327
A.D.
● Introduced token currency.
● Imposed new taxes in the Doab region: Gari (house tax) and
Cheri (grazing tax).
● Agrarian reforms included Diwan-i-Kohi (agricultural
department), taccavi loans (crop loans), and a famine code.
● Khorasan Expedition aimed to conquer Khorasan and Iraq, but it
ended in disappointment.
● Quarachi Expedition was launched to counter Chinese attacks.

Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 A.D):

● Source: “Tarikh-e-Ferozshahi” by Shams-us-Siraj-Afif.

● Administration was based on benevolence and welfare.
● Collected only four taxes as permitted by Sharia: Kharaj (land
revenue), Shurb (irrigation tax), Zakat (tax on the rich), and
Jiziya (religious tax).

Nasir-ud-din Mohammad Tughlaq (1394-1414 A.D):

● Taimur invaded India during his reign.

● After his death, Sayyed Khizr Khan established the Sayyed
dynasty.

014
Delhi Political History And Important Initiatives Of The Kings
Sultanate

Sayyed Dynasty:

● Ruled for a shorter period.

Sayyed ● Bahalul Lodi assassinated Alam Shah, the last ruler of the
Dynasty & Sayyed dynasty, and set up the Lodi dynasty.
Lodi Dynasty
Lodi Dynasty:

● Sikander Lodi:
○ Built Agra city and shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra.
● Ibrahim Lodi:
○ Last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
○ Fought the Battle of Panipat in 1526 with Babur and was
defeated.

Administration, socio-economic and cultural aspects under Delhi Sultanate

Delhi Important Aspects

Sultanate
(1206-1526
A.D)

Sultanate Governance:

● Declared themselves subordinate to the Caliph.

● Sultan office vested with all political, military, and legal
authority.
Administration
● The idea of primogeniture was not successfully acceptable.
● Sultan was assisted by a council of ministers.

Nature of the State:

● Militaristic and aristocratic.

● Islamic state with Muslim law forming the base, but also
included Jahandari (secular rules) and Zawabit (regulations).
● Noble birth was a qualification for higher offices.
● Power shared between rural aristocracy and city-based
administration (elitist).

015
Delhi Important Aspects
Sultanate (1206-1526
A.D)

Key Offices and Departments:

● Wazir (Finance Minister): An important officer.

● Diwan-i-Ariz (Military Department):
○ Headed by Ariz-i-Mamalik (first set up by Balban).
○ Alauddin introduced the Dagh system (branding of
horses) and regular muster of the armed forces.
○ Soldiers were paid in cash.
● Diwan-i-Risalat: Dealt with religious matters and headed by
Chief Sadr (generally the chief Qazi or Judge).
Administration ● Diwan-i-Insha: Dealt with state correspondence, similar to the
external affairs department.
● Barids: Deployed as intelligence agents.
● Karkhanas: Public sector enterprises that manufactured goods
needed by the king and royal households.
● Wakil-i-Dar: Official responsible for the needs of the royal
household and maintaining proper decorum in the courts.

Local Administration:

● The empire was divided into Iqtas, Shiqas, and Parganas.

● Pargana: Headed by Amil.
● Shiqas: Headed by Shiqadar.
● Village Level:
○ Muqaddam: Headmen.
○ Khut: Landowners.
○ Patwari: Village accountant.

Social Social Structure and Groups:

● Muslims were not a united group, divided into Persians, Afghans,

Turks, Arabs, Abyssinians, and Indian Muslims.
● They were divided based on sects, education, and profession:
Sunnis and Shias; soldiers and scholars.
● Hindu caste system influenced Islam in India.
● Ulema claimed to be the sole interpreters of laws and wielded
significant influence.
● The slave system was prevalent among both Hindus and
Muslims.
Status of Women:
● Hindu women enjoyed respect in their families but their status in
society deteriorated.
● Muslim women were also given inferior status.
● Social evils like Sati, Polygamy, and female infanticide were
prevalent.

016
Delhi Important Aspects
Sultanate (1206-1526
A.D)

Peasants and Rural Life:

● Peasants formed the overwhelming majority.

● Muqqadams and Khuts enjoyed a higher standard of life in
villages.
● Hindu rais or autonomous rajas continued to be powerful.

Trade, Industry, and Merchants:

● Improvement of communications and establishment of a sound

Economic currency system based on silver tanka and copper dirham.
● Sultanate period had a flourishing urban economy.
● New developments included the manufacturing of paper,
spinning wheel, large-scale use of armor and iron stirrup,
Persian wheel (rahat), and superior mortar.

Market Reforms of Alauddin:

● Regulation of prices of all commodities sold in a market.

● Separate markets for separate products.
● The needs of a large army were the underlying reason for
market reforms.

Art & ● In the initial days, they converted temples into mosques:
Architecture Quwat-ul-Islam and Arhai Din ka Jonpara.
● They used the arch and dome type, which they got from Rome,
along with slab and beam methods.
● They never used animal or human figurines as sculptural
elements but used calligraphy, Hindu motifs like swastika, bell
motifs, and scrolls of flowers in a decorative style.
● Used fine quality light mortar to support huge domes and
arches.
● The magnificent building constructed by Turks in the 13th
century was the Qutub Minar.
● Alauddin Khilji constructed a city ‘Siri’ and Alai Darwaja to Qutub
Minar.
● The Tughlaqs constructed Tughlaqabad and a resort at Hauz
Khas; Palace and fort at Kotla by Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
● One of the unique features during the Tughlaq period was using
sloping walls.
● The period saw the usage of red sandstone, grey sandstone, and
marble.
● Usage of raised platforms, surrounded by gardens and water
bodies, and octagonal shapes were some features of the Lodi
dynasty. These were used later during the Mughal period.

017
Delhi Important Aspects
Sultanate (1206-1526
A.D)

● Literature was produced not only in Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit

but also in regional languages.
● Khwaja Abu Nasr, poetically surnamed Nasiri, Abu Bakar Bin
Muhammad Ruhani, Taj-ud-din Dabir, and Nur-ud-din
Literature Muhammad Awfi were famous scholars at the court of Sultan
Iltutmish. Nur-ud-din wrote Lubabul-Albab.
● Amir Khusrau wrote Khazain-ul-Fatuh, Tughluq-nama, and the
Tarikh-i-Alai.
● Sultan Firuz Tughluq wrote his autobiography and provided
patronage to historians Ziya-ud-din Barani and Shams-i-Siraj
Afif.

Causes of Decline of Delhi Sultanate

● The rulers of Delhi Sultanate came in power with the help of sword and army, so there was
no definite law of succession.
● Military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne, which later gave birth to
political instability.
● Nobles were very powerful enough to act as kingmakers and controlled the weak sultans.
● Iqtadari, Zamindari and Jagirdari system led to the disintegration of Delhi Sultanate under
weak sultans.
● Invasion of Timurid created havoc like
situation and became main cause for the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate.

List of Administrative and Agrarian Terms used in Sultanate Period

Alamatha-i-Sultanate: Insigniaof royalty

Alai Tanka: Tanks of Alauddin Khilji

Amil: Revenue officer Amir: Commander: The third highest official grade

Amir-i-dad: Officer-incharge of justice Amir-i-akhur: Officer commanding the horses

Amir-i-hajib: Officer-in- charge of the

royal Khalisa court (also called barbek in Amir-i-koh: Officer in-charge of agriculture
Turkish

Ariz: Officer in-charge of the muster,

Barbek: Officer in- charge of the royal court
equipment of the soldiers and the horses

018
Barid; Intelligence officer appointed by
the state to collect Dabir: Secretary
information

Dagh; Mark of branding on the horses Diwan-i-arz: Office of the ministry of war

Hukm-i-mushahida; Assessment (Of Iqtadars: A person in whose charge iqta has been
land revenue) by inspection only placed

Karkhana: Royal factory or enterprise;

they were of two kinds ratbi, for looking
after animals and ghairratbi
Khalisa: Land controlled directly by the king
for producing commodities required
by the state

5. Regional Kingdom

The Ahom’s of Assam ● The kingdom was divided into –

● Ahom migrated to Brahmaputra valley o Garh
from present day Myanmar o Chaurasi (unit of 84 village
● They suppressed the old political below Garh)
system of Bhuiyans(landlords) o Bahot (divison of Chaurasi
● Ahom state was dependent on forced in 12 villages)
labor called Paiks ● The famous queen Durgawati belong
● Each village had to send a number of to this dynasty
Paiks by rotation.
● Almost all male adult served in the Orissa
kings army during war ● The ganga dynasty ruled up to 15th CE
● Buranjis is the historical chronicle of ● Narsinghdeo of this dynasty
Ahom’s constructed Konark Temple
● Originally, Ahom worship their own ● In the middle of the 15th CE there was
tribal god but by 17thCE, they adopted rise of Gajpati rulers they ruled Orissa
Hinduism but they did not left their until the end of Lodhi period.
tribal culture fully.
● Ahom society was divided into Khel or Mewar
Clan. ● Rana Kumbha(1433-1468AD) was the
most famous ruler.
The Gonds ● Rana kumbha wrote books like
Sangeet
● Gond lived in vast forestland Priya, SudhaPrabandh, RasikPriya,
mentioned as Gondawana KamRajaRatisara etc.
● Akbarnama mention Gond kingdom in ● He constructed Kirti Satambh.
Garh Katanga.

019
 6. Vijayanagar Kingdom

The Sharaqi of Jaunpuri

● Malik Sarwar founded the kingdom ● The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646):
● Malik Muhammed Jaisi the writer of ● Harihar I and his brother Bukka Raya I
Padmavat was the court Poet
in Deccan in the wake of the rebellions
● Bahlol Lodhi Defeated the Sharaqi.
● Against Tughluq rule founded the
Kashmir Vijayanagar Empire in 1336 AD.
● Zainul Abedeen was the greatest ruler
● The empire is named after its capital
Of Kashmir
● Zaina Lanka the artificial island on the city of Vijayanagar.
Wullur Lak was constructed by him. ● The ruins of this city, which surround
● Many Sankrit works like Rajtarangini,
modern World Heritage site
Mahabharat were translated into
Persian under him. Hampi,can be found in modern
● He still remembered as Bud Shah Karnataka, India.
● Although the empire continued to exist
Contribution of regional kingdom
until 1646 AD, it lost its importance in
1. They utilized local culture and custom 1565 AD after a key military defeat
for their own purpose. (The battle of Talikota) by the Deccan
2. Develop and supported regional
Sultanates.
Architecture
3. Greater cultural rap prochement ● The empire extended over the
between Hindu and Muslims. southern part of India which included
the territories of Trichinopoly,
Why Regional kingdoms were not able to
become central: Mysore,Kanara, Chingalpet and
Kanchivaram. It was on the south
● They checked and balanced each
bank of Tungabhadra River.
other
● Geographical limitation ● The empire was always at war with
● Few don’t have access to sea Bahamani kingdom and other Muslim
● Geographical of few was such rulers of northern Deccan, collectively
that it
referred as Deccan sultanates.
can’t support a large state
Eg-Mewar etc. ● There were four dynasties, which ruled
● Rise of lodhis and their prolonged over Vijayanagar- Sangama Dynasty,
battle
Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and
● with Sharaqi led to instability in Ganga
● Jamuna doab. Aravidu Dynasty.

020
 ● Rajulu or Rachavaru was generally
associated with the ruling dynasty.
It was the first dynasty to rule The rulers as well as generals were
over the Vijaynagara empire. actually Sudras, but called
Sangama The founders of the empire, rachavaru because of their position.
Dynasty Harihar I and Bukka belonged As in the case of other parts of
to this dynasty. It ruled from South India, the Kshatriya Varna
1334 AD to 1485 AD. seems to be absent here.

● Matikaratalu or Vaishyas were the

This dynasty succeeded same as merchants who carried on
Sangama dynasty as the second trade and commerce.
Saluva dynasty of the empire. It ruled
Dynasty from 1485 to 1505 AD. They ● Nalavajativaru or Sudras were
ruled over almost the whole mainly agriculturists, but some of
South India. them carried on several other
professions. They were not
segregated, although considered
This was the third dynasty, Inferior.
which ruled Vijayanagar
Empire. It ruled from Tuluva 2. The practice of dancing girls attached to
Tuluva dynasty. The most famous king temples was also in vogue. From the
Dynasty of Vijayanagar Empire, Krishna account of Paes, we learn that
Deva Raya belonged to this Devadasis held a highly respectable
dynasty. It ruled from 1491 AD position in society, and were given land
to 1570 AD. grants, maidservants, etc.

3. The plight of widow was pitiable, but

It was the fourth and last Hindu they could remarry.
Aravidu dynasty to rule Vijayanagar
Dynasty kingdom in South India. 4. The state encouraged widow remarriage
by not levying any tax on it.

5. The prevalence of Sati or Sahagamana

in the Vijayanagar Empire is proved from
both inscriptions and foreign
accounts of the period.

Society and Economy under Vijaynagara 6. Chess: It was a game promoted by the
Empire state and players were rewarded.

1. Allasani Peddana, in his 7. Untouchability: It existed and various

Manucharitam, mentions the four classes such as Kambalattars,
dombaris, jogis and maravars were
castes that existed in the Vijayanagar
treated as untouchables.
Society.
● Viprulu or Brahmins followed the 8. Slavery: It was quite common and
traditional profession of teachers Nicolo de Conti says that those failed
and priests. They sometimes also to repay debts became the property of
performed duties of soldiers and the creditor.
administrators. This is confirmed
from the narration of Domingo
Paes.

021
 ● Industries and crafts were regulated by
Religion and Philosophy Guilds.
● Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers
● It was common practice for people of the
of Shaivism. Virupaksha was their
same trade to live in one and the same
family God. Later they came under the quarter of the city.
influence of Vaishnavism. However,
● Abdur Razzak, the Persian diplomat and
Shiva continued to be worshipped.
traveller, mentions about the flourishing
● Vaishnavism was professed in various trade and lists 300 sea ports.
forms. Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja
was highly popular. ● The most important commercial area on
the West coast was Malabar, with its
The Dvaita system of Madhava
important port of Cannanore. It had
was also practiced. commercial relations with the islands of
● Epics and Puranas were popular among the Indian Ocean, Burma, the Malay
Archipelago and China in the East, and
the masses, especially since they served
Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia
as a means of education among women. and Portugal on the West.
Economic Conditions
● Among the exports, the main items were
● The Vijayanagar Empire was one of the
cloth, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre,
richest state then known to the world. sugar, etc. The main imports consisted
Several foreign travellers, who visited of horses, elephants, pearls, copper,
the empire during the 15th and 16th coral, mercury, China silks and velvets.
Ships were used for coastal and
Centuries, have left glowing accounts of
its splendor and wealth overseas trade. Vijayanagar had its own
. ● ships; the art of ship-building was
known, but we do not know if oceangoing
● Agriculture: It was in a flourishing
ships were built.
condition. It was the policy of rulers to ● Barbosa, another Portuguese
encourage agriculture in the different traveller, says that South India got its
ships built in the Maldive Islands.
parts of the empire and to increase
agricultural production by a wise
irrigation policy. Nuniz, the Portuguese Coinage
traveller, speaks of the construction of a
● The Vijayanagar emperors issued a large
dam and excavation of canals. number of gold coins, called Varahas or
Pagodas (Varahas because the most
● Industries: The agricultural wealth was common symbol was Varaha-the Boar
incarnation of Vishnu).
supplemented. by numerous industries,
● Harihara I and Bukka I used the
the most important of which were Hanuman symbol in their coins.
textiles, mining and metallurgy. ● Krishna Deva Raya's coins had the
figures of Venkatesh and Balkrishna.
Another important industry was
● Achyuta Raya used Garuda while
Perfumery. Tirumala maintained the original
Varaha.

022
 Outside Hampi
Standard of Living
● Veerabhadraswami temple at Lepakshi:
● The accounts of foreign travellers Mural paintings on ceilings, Huge
speak of the high standards of living of monolithic Nandi statue.
the upper and middle classes. ● Chintala Venkata Ramana temple at
● The splendor of the capital city bears Anantapura.
testimony to the wealth, which was, ● Varada Rajula temple at Kanchi:
however, the monopoly of only a section Famous for Golden lizard sculpture on
of the population. wall.
● But the prices of articles were low and ● Sri Ranganatha Temple at Srirangam :
the minimum necessities were probably with 1000 pillared mantapa.
not beyond the means of the common ● Krishna deva Raya (1509-1529 AD)
people.
● However, producers, mainly agricultural
producers, apparently got inadequate Major Achievements
prices for their produce.
● Another main defect of the economic ● Ashtadiggajas (Eight literary scholars)
system was that the common people were present in his court.
had to bear the brunt of taxation, which ● The author of Manu Charitramu was
was quite heavy and the local the greatest among Ashtadiggajas.
authority’s sometimes-adopted ● Krishna Deva Raya, a poet himself wrote
oppressive methods of collection. the book Amuktamalyada.
● Krishna Deva Raya was a great builder
as well. He built the Hazara Rama
temple and the Vittalaswami temple.
Art and Architecture ● He also founded a new city called
Nagalapuram.
● Within Hampi
● Built in Dravida Style.
Virupaksha temple (Pampavati temple): Foreign Travelers visited Vijayanagar
170ft tall Gopuram. Kingdom
● Hazara Rama temple: tall Prakara
around it, walls contain sculptures of ● He is from Morocco,
Ramayan and Mahabharata North Africa.
● Vittala swami temple: Famous ● He left an account of
Ibn Battuta Harihara I’s reign in
Monolithic Charriot and musical pillars.
● his book Rehla
Laxminarasimha statue of 20ft.

● He was an Italian
Secular Temples merchant scholar.
Lotus mahal:2 storied palace in the ● Visited during the
● Niccolo de-
period of Deva Raya II.
shape of lotus. Conti
● Left an account in
● Elephants Stables(Gajashala):
Travels of Niccolo
Indopersian style. Conti
● Queens bath.

023
 ● Persian scholar who ● He was Portuguese
visited during the Merchant.
period of Deva Raya II. ● He gives descriptions
Dominigo
● He was an of ancient city Hampi
Abdur Paes
ambassador to under Krishna deva
Razzaq
Timurid empire. Raya.
● His accounts about
the reign of Deva Raya
II was found in Matla.
● Portuguese traveller
and horse trader. He
● First Russian visited during the
merchant traveller to reign of Achyuta Raya.
Athanasiu visit India. ● He gave detailed
Fernao
s ● He described the account on the history
Nuniz
Nikitin conditions of the of Vijayanagara.
Bahmani kingdom ● He also gives the
under Muhammad III cultural aspects and
postiton of women
during this period.
● Italian merchant
traveller.
Ludvico de ● He was the first
Vorthemo Christian to make the
holy pilgrimage to
Mecca.
● Merchant traveler
from Republic of
● Portuguese writer. Venice.
Marco polo
Gives a detailed ● Reputed traveller who
account of also spoke about
governance Kakatiya’s
Duarte
under Krishna deva
Barbosa
Raya.
● He gives details of the
Indian ocean littorals
and inhabitants.

Duarte
Athanasius Barbosa Dominigo
Nikitin Paes

024
 7. Bahmani Kingdom
(1347-1527 AD)

● Bahmani Kingdom was a Muslim state ● Break-up of Bahmani Kingdom

of the Deccan in Southern India during ● The 16th century saw the Bahmani
the medieval era in Indian History. Kingdom fragment into smaller
● The Turkish Governor Ala-ud-Din sultanates each governed by
Hassan Bahman Shah who was also independent dynasty.
known as Hassan Gangu founded it in ● The Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar
the year 1347. (1490-1633 AD):
● He had revolted successfully against ● The Nizam Shahi kingdom was
the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin founded by Malik Ahmed Bahri and
Tughlaq was later conquered by Shah Jahan
● The Bahmani Empire was always at war (A.D. 1633).
with Vijayanagara Empire for control ● The Adil Shahi’s of Bijapur (A.D.
over Deccan 1490-1686 AD):
● The capital of Bahmani Empire was ● Yusuf Adil Shah founded the kingdom
of Bijapur. Adil Shahi ruler Muhammad
Gulbarga from 1347 AD to 1425 AD. It
Adil Shah built the Gol Gumbaj, the
was moved to Bidar in 1425 AD.
tomb with world’s second largest
● Bahmani Empire reached its zenith
dome. It is also famous for its
during the time of Mahmud Gawan who
whispering gallery.
was a minister of the Empire.
● Aurangzeb later annexed this
● Mahmud Gawan was executed in 1482
kingdom. Ibrahim Adil shah II wrote a
AD by Muhammad Shah III, which was
book of songs called Kitab-i-Niwas in
an outcome of the rivalry between Dakhani Urdu; this contains a number
Deccanis and the Afaqis sections. of songs with different ragas.
● Following his execution, the empire ● The Imadshahis of Berar (1490-1574
started disintegrating. The Empire AD):
disintegrated into five small kingdoms ● The Imadshahis kingdom was founded
namely AdamShahi (of Ahmednagar), by Fatullah Khan imad-ul-mulk and it
Adilshahi (of Bijapur), Qutubshahi (of was conquered by one of the Nizam-
Golkonda), Barishahi (Bidar) and Imad Shahi rulers of Ahmednagar.
Shahi kingdom of Berar (This was ● The Qutubshahis of Golconda (1518-
annexed by Ahmednagar). ● 1687 AD):
● Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Bijapur and ● Quli Qutub Shah founded the
Berar declared their independence in Qutubshahi dynasty and made
1490 AD, Bidar in 1492 AD while Golconda his capital after building the
Golkonda got itself separated in famous Golconda fort.
1512 AD. ● Another Qutubshahi ruler, Muhammad
● Kalimullah was the last king of the Quli Qutubshah, was the greatest of all
Bahmani dynasty. and he founded the city of Hyderabad
● The nobles of Bahmani kingdom were and built the Charminar in it.
categorized in two categories namely ● Aurangzeb also later annexed this
Afaquis and Deccanis. Deccanis were kingdom. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
nobles of native origin while Afaquis had wrote the Kulliyat-i-Muhammad
foreign origin. QuliQutb Shah in Dakhani Urdu.
● The Baridshahis of Bidar (1528-1619)
AD: Ali Barid founded the kingdom and
Adilshahis of Bijapur later annexed it.

025
 8. Bhakti and Sufi
Movement ● Two streams of Bhakti promoted -
Saguna(with form) and
Bhakti Movement: Nirguna(formless).
● They adopted regional languages to
● Emphasis on love towards god. promote their ideas, beliefs etc,
● Ritualistic and priestly domination were ● In saguna type of Bhakti, it is
rejected. categorised into Vaishnavism and
● Social and religious discrimination Shaivism.
based on caste was rejected.

Vaishnava Saints

South India Maharashtra North India East India

Ramanujacharya(11th Varkari and Darkrai Ramananda(15th C) Chaithanya

century A.D) saints. He has 12 disciples - (15th&16th C)
He founded a new sect Gnaneshwar (13th C) Avadhutas. Devotee of
called “Sri Vaishnavism”. He wrote Surdas(15th&16th) Puri
He developed a Gnaneshwari. He promoted Krishna Jagannadh
philosophy It is the first book Bhakti. .
“Visit Advaitham”. in Marathi. He wrote Sursagar Vaishnavis
Proposed “Prapati Ekanath( 15th C) and Sursurvali. m in
marga”(Self surrender to He wrote Bhakti Meerabai(15th &16th) Bengal.
god) songs “Abhang”. From elite family. Shankara das
Madhvacharya(13th Wrote a book Promoted Krishna (15th&16th C)
century) called bhakti. Translated
He founded a philosophy Bhavarataramaya Tulsidas(16th &17th C) Ramayana
called “Advaitham”. n Promoted Ram Bhakti. &
He promoted Krishna Tukaram(17th C) He wrote- Mahabharat
Bhakti. He was a varkari Ramcharitmanas/T into
Nimbarkacharya (15th Ramadas(17th C) ulasi Ramayana. Assamese
century) He was a Darkari. He wrote
He founded a philosophy He was religious Vinaya Patrika
called “Dvaita Advaita”. guru of Shivaji.
Vallabhacharya( 16th C) Wrote a marathi
He founded a philosophy book “Dasabosa”
Shuddhadvaita.

Shaivism Veera Shaiva movement:

● It was less popular than Vaishnava
Bhakti. ● Basavanna of 12th century Karnataka
● It was Present in Kashmir and started this movement.
Karnataka. ● It is a radical social movement.
● Laleshwari (lal didi) promted Shaiva ● Ultimate goal is to create a castless
Bhakti in Kashmir. society and eradicating untouchability.
● She wrote many songs on Shaiva Bhakti ● He wrote Bhakti songs in Kannada
called “Lal vakh”. “Vachanas”.
● Veerashaivites are also called as
“lingayats”. The priestic laws of
Veerashaivites called “Jangamas”.
026
 ● Teachings of Guru will be made at
Kanqa (residence of sufi saints).
In Nirguna Bhakti Popular saints are: ● Spiritual merger into God through self
surrender is called Fana.
Nirguna ● Tauba is repentance and praying god
Bhakti Important aspects for forgiveness.
Saints ● Zikr is remembrance of God.
● Sama is spiritual music and dance.
● His philosophy
● Darga is tomb shrine of sufi saints.
contains both Nirguna
and Saguna elements. Urs is celebrations of the death
Namdev ● Only Nirguna saint in anniversary of saints.
Maharasthra. ● There were 14 different orders were
● He belongs to Varkari called as “Silsilas” (sufi orders) known
tradition.
as Chishti, Qadri, Sattari, Mahadevi,
Raushaniya, Suhrawardi etc. Chishti
● He condemened Silsila is the popular one.
idolatory, fastings,
pilgrimages and
religious superstitious
Chishti Silsila
Kabir beliefs.
(15th &16th C) ● “Ram Rahim are same”,
he says. ● Sheik Moin-ud-din-Chishti: Saint from
● He composed couplets Iraq settled in Ajmer in 1192 AD. Known
called Dohas and are as Khaja Gariban Nawaz.(Comforter of
compiled as Bhijaks.
Poor)
● Qutub ud-din-Bhaktiyar kaki: Darga is
● Belongs to Khadri found in Delhi, Qutub Minar is named
community in Punjab. after him.
● Born in Talvandi and ● Hazrat Nizam-ud-din: Tomb is in Delhi.
died at Kartarpur He practiced Yoga.
Gurunanak (Kartarpur corridor is
● Baba Farid-ud-din(Ganj-e-Shakar):
( 15th & 16th in news)
C) ● He started from Punjab, Darga is in Ajodhan
Guru-Ka-langer (Pakistan).
(Community ● Noor-ud-din: From Kashmir, popularly
Kitchen) known as Rishi. Sole responsible for
● He promoted
Islamisation of Kashmir valley.
“Tauhide- wazidi”
● Hazrat Gesudaraz: From Delhi but
● settled in Gulbarga(Karnataka), first sufi
saint of South India. Known as Khaja
Sufism:
● Sufi means wool: People who wear long Bande Nawaz. Wrote first urdu book
woollen clothes were called as sufis. called Miraj-ul-Ashiquin.
● In India, sufi movement began in 1300
A.D & came to South India in 15th
century.
● It is based on Pir-Murid
(Teacherstudent) relationship.

027
 9. Mughal Empire

1st Phase: Early Mughals-1526-1707 A.D.

2nd Phase: Later Mughals- 1707-1757 A.D.

Early Important Events

Mughalas

Babur ● He was invited by Rana Sangram Singh, Sisodia king and Daulat
(1526-30 A.D) Khan Lodi.
● His autobiography is called as Tuzuk-i-Babri, written in Turkish
language.
● He introduced guns and canons in India. Four battles fought by
Babur:
1. First Battle of Panipat (1526)- Defeated Ibrahim Lodi and
estbalished Mughal Sultanate.
2. Battle of Kanwa (1527)- He defeated Rana Sangram Singh. In this
battle he declared “Jihad”( Religious war).
3. Battle of Chanderi(1528)- He defeated Medini Roy of Chanderi.
4. Battle of Gogra (1529)- He defeated Nusrat Shah, Sultan of
Bengal.

Humayun ● A biography written on Humayun called as Humayun Nama by

(1530-40 his sister Gul Badan Begum.
A.D & 1555- ● Fought three battles with sher shah suri:
56 A.D) [Link] of Chunar (1538)- Sher Shah Suri got defeated and was
pardoned.
2. Battle of Chusa (1539)-Humayun got defeated and escaped
from battlefield.
● 3. Battle of Kannuj/Bilgram(1540)-Humayun got defeated and
empire was taken by Sher Shah Suri.
● He took the support of Iranian forces and fought Battle of
Sirhind(1555) with Sikander sur, son of Sher Shah Suri. Defeated
Sikander Suri.

Akbar ● Three great historians were there in the court of Akbar.

(1556-1605 1. Abul Fazal wrote Akbar Nama which dealt from Taimur to
A.D) Akbar. And, Ain-i-Akbari which dealt with the adminsitration.
2. Abdul Khadir Badauni wrote Muntakab-ul- Tawarik.
3. Nizamuddin Ahmed wrote a book called Tabaqat-i Akbari.
● Fought Second Battle of Panipat(1556 A.D) and
defeated Hemu, senapati of Bihar Sultanate.
● He was assisted by Bairam Khan.
● He built a city in Fathepur sikri and there he built Ibadat Khana
(House of Worship)
● He abolished pilgirmage tax and Ziziya. He banned forced
conversion.
● He founded Din-e-Illahi, consisting of principles like worship of
fire and sun, abandon meat eating, celebrating birth days etc.
● He transferred capital to Lahore in 1585. Earlier he shifted capital
from Agra to fathepur sikri.

028
 Early Important Events
Mughalas

Akbar ● Akbar period was popularly known as 'the renaissance of Persian

(1556-1605 literature'.
A.D) ● He built Ibadat khana meaning house of worship where debates
on religion took place.

Jahangir ● He wrote autobiography called Tuzuki Jahangiri in persian

(1605-27 language.
A.D) ● He executed 5th Sikh Guru, Arjun Dev which began the
conflict between Mughals and Sikhs.
● He enacted 12 firmans (GOs) for public welfare: Banning
intoxicants, abolishing of taxes, release of political prisoners,
Hospitals were built for poor.
● Captain Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe, two ambassadors from
England, were in the court of Jahangir.

Shah Jahan ● His court historian Abdul Hamid Lahori wrote Badusha nama.
(1627- 58A.D) ● He conquered and annexed Ahmednagar.
● His eldest son Daro shiko, liberal and transalated Bhagavad gita
into persian; and transalted 52 upanishads and named as
“Sirr-e -Akbari”.
● Shiko wrote a book called “Majma -ul-Bahrain”.

● Important historians of his period:

1. Ishwardas- wrote a book called Futuhat-I Alangir
2. Mohd. Kazimi wrote Alangir nama.
Aurangazeb 3. Mustaid Khan wrote a book named Masir -i-Alangiri.
(1658-1707 4. Bhimsen wrote a book Nushka-i- Dilsukha.
A.D) 5. Kafi Khan wrote a book Kitab- ul-lubab.

● He is the most orthodox.

● Fought two battles with Darashiko at Dharma and Samugar.
● He suppressed revolts of Jats of Agra, Sikh revolt, Bundela
revolts, Rajputs, satnami revolts.
● He annexed Bijapur and Golconda.
●

Literary works during Akbar Reign:

● He started a department for translation of works: Mahabharata, the Ramayana,

the Atharva –Veda, the Bhagavad Gita and the Panchatantra were translated from
Sanskrit to the Persian language.
● Ramayana and Singhasan Batisi were translated by Mulla Abdul Qadir
Badayuni into Persian.
● Panchatantra was translated in Persian by Faizi.
● Atharva Veda was translated by Ibrahim Sirhindi.
● Rajataringini was translated by Maulana Shah Mohammad Shahabadi.
● Dahsala System
● Raja Todar Mal, as finance minister of Akbar, brought new system of revenue
collection known as zabti system and dahshala system, which was a system of
taxation.
● Under the system, he took a careful survey of crop yields and prices cultivated for
a period of 10 years.
029
 ● The Dahsala system as instituted by Akbar, the average produce of different
crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten years was
calculated and one-third share of the average produce was apportioned to the
state.

Major features

● A new gaz or yard, gaz-i-llahi was used as 41 digits (anguls) or 33 inches in

length

Classification of land as
● Polaj-annually cultivated land
● Parauti- land left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength
● Chachar-land that is follow from three to four years
● Banjar-land uncultivated for five years Graded system of revenue collection
from different type of land Loan for agriculture development

Mansabdari System

● Mughal emperor Akbar as new administrative machinery

and revenue system introduced the Mansabdari System.
● The term mansab literally means position, status or rank, but in
context of the structure of the Mughal administration, it indicated the rank of
Mansabdar- that is holder of mansab - in the official hierarchy.
● Mansabdars were paid either in cash (naqd) or in the form of assignments of
areas of land (jagir) out of which they had the entitlement to collect the land
revenue and all other taxes through an authority appointed by the emperor.
● The revenue that was generated through their jagir was handed over to them and
the same was deducted from their salary.
● The mansabdar paid the salary of cavalrymen that he maintained out of his
salary.
● Those who received pay in cash were known as naqdi and those paid through
assignments of jagirs were called jagirdars.
● Thus, the mansabdari system became an integral part of the agrarian and the
jagirdari system of Mughal administration under Akbar.

Religious Policy

● Akbar was not an extreme Muslim rather he is known for his tolerance
towards all the religions.
● Akbar made many religious matrimonial alliances through which he sent a
message of unity and togetherness. His marriage to the Rajput princess Jodha,
says volumes about his kindness. Akbar got a temple constructed for Jodha in his
palace, even though there was a lot of opposition for the same.
● To develop better understanding of religion he organized debate in ibadat khana.
● Proclamation of Mazhar: he declared himself the chief interpreter of Islam.
● Sulh-i-kul: he proclaimed that under his rule people of all faith should live
peacefully.
● He banned Sati and allowed widow remarriage
● Minimum Age of marriage was fixed for both boys and girls.

030
Mughal Foreign Policy
● Mughal maintained cordial relation with Safavid (Iran), Uzbek (central Asia), Ottoman
ruler
● They promoted trade and commerce by friendly relation with neighboring countries
● By maintaining Kabul, Qandahar, Gazani line the also secured the defense of the country.
● Their foreign policy was on the basis of equality.

The administrative terminology of Mughals

● Mir Bakshi-pay master general
● Diwan –i-ala- finance minister
● Sadar-us-sadar-minister of grants
● Akhabarat-i-darbar-i-mulla which contain the record of royal activity
● Chahar taslim- a type of salutat

Fine arts under Mughal period:

Fine Important Aspects

Arts

Humayun tomb

● Babur built four mosques at Agra, Ayodhaya, Panipat and

sambal.
● Humayun tomb NESCO site, built by
Art & his widowed wife Amida
Architecture Benu Bhegum.
● Octagonal shape.
● Raised platform.
● Double dome.
● Red sandstone & Marble

Red fort
● Akbar built 3 palaces fortress complexes- Red fort (Agra),
Allahabad and Lahore ports.

Akbar tomb
● Akbar tomb at Agra and built monuments at Fatehpur Sikri:
Jama Masjid, Shaik Saleem chisti dargah and Buland Darwaja.

Diwan -i-am
● Akbar built Diwan -i-am (hall of public audience),
Diwan-i-Khas (private hall), Pancha mahal and Ibadat Khana.

Jahangir tomb
● Jahangir tomb at Shahdara, Lahore; Itmat-ud-daula tomb
(father-in law of Jahangir; second-best monument after Taj
mahal).

031
 Fine Important Aspects
Arts

● Pieterdura, was used for the first time in Itmat-ud-daula tomb, is

the inlay of colorful gemstones over white marbles.

● Shah Jahan built many monuments in Agra fort such as

Art & Diwan-i-am and Diwan-i- Khas.
Architecture
● Taj Mahal was built by Shahjahan. It is a tomb of his wife Mumtaz
Mahal.

● He built Red fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi.

● Aurangzeb built Bibi Κa Maqbara (replica of Taj) at Aurangabad,

Moti Masjid (Near Red fort, Delhi).

Paintings ● Mural, miniature Illustrative paintings present and were in

Mughal Period.
● Hamza nama -Iranian epic, was illustrated in painting.
● The technique of fore sighting is used in painting.
● Mughal paintings reached zenith during Jahangir period.
● Ustad Mansour Qalam), great painter lived inJahangir court.
● Abul Hasan, Govardhan and Bishanu Das were important
painters.

● Ramtanu pande, greatest musician in the court of Akbar.

● He was given title Tansen by Akbar.
● He invented instrument "Rudraveena". a musical called
● He wrote two books on Music Sangeeta sara and Raja Mala.
Music

● Large number of sanskrit books were translated into Persian.

● Mahabharat was translated as Razma nama.
Literature ● Ramayana was translated by Abdul Khadir Badauni.
● Bhagavat Purana by Todarmal.
● A jain scholar in the court of Akbar Padma Shankara wrote Akbar
Darpanam. Shahi Sringara
● Jagannada Pandit in shahjahan court wrote "Rasagangadhara
Gangalahiri".

Reason for decline of Mughal Related to Aurangzeb

● Neglect of northwest frontier
● Rigid religious policy
● His aloof attitude

Over all
● Breakdown of mansab jagirdari system
● War of succession
● Mutual jealousy among nobles
● Competition from foreign trading
● Rich regional powers separating them from Mughals

032
Foreign Travellers during Mughal period
● Ralph Fitch: First Britisher to step foot on India. Visited Fatehpur Sikri, Agra and
Varanasi. Talks about Poverty during Akbar Reign.’
● Peter Mundy: British under Shah Jahan. Reports about Famines and
Agrarian unrest in Gujarat.
● Francois Bernier: French doctor during Shah Jahan Period. Reports on Famine
and social evils like Sati. Describes Shah jahan as “king of beggars and barbarians”
● Travernier: French diamond merchant. He traces origin of Kohinoor Diamond to Kollur
Mines in Andra Pradesh.
● Nicolai Manucci: Italian Doctor under Dara Shikos army. Settled in Lahore.
Book called “Storio Dor Mogor” popularly known as Mirror of 17th Century.

10. Miscellaneous Topics

Different type of towns in Medieval India

1. Administrative town
2. Temple towns:
● Temple developed along a temple.
● Role of king and temple authority in promoting urbanization
● King used to provide land grant to temples
● Temple authority used their wealth to finance trade and banking.
● Pilgrims provided donation supported trade. and
● Example of such towns- Kanchipuram, Somnath etc.
3. A network of small town developed along Mandpikas (mandi in later times), hatta (haat in
later times. Usually Jamindar or Samanta built a fortified palace near these towns.

● Major chronicle of medieval era and their writer.

● Ain-I-Akbari: Abul Fazal Ilami
● Akbarnama: Abul Fazal
● Badshahnama: Abdul Hamid Lahori (official history of reign of Shahjahan)
● Alamgirnama: Mirza Muhammad Qazim was the author of book "Alamgir-Nama".
● The book gives the chronicle of the contemporary events covering the first decade of the
Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's reign.
● Kitab-ul-Hind: Al Biruni(written in Arabic gives information late 10th and mid-11th AD
India).
● Francois Bernier: he was in India during 1656-68 AD he was mainly associated with Dara
Shikoh. He wrote extensively about India. Theory of oriental despotism is based on his
writing. He wrote mainly in French language.
● Tabaqat-Nasiri: Minhaj-ul-shiraz

033
[Link]. Topic [Link]. Topic

1. Overview 26. Subhas Chandra Bose

2. Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the 27. Political Negotiations and Partition
English 28. The Movement of the Working
3. Administrative and Annexation Class
Policies of the British 29. Survey of British
4. Anglo-Burma Relations 30. Policies in India
5. Early Tribal and Peasant 31. Development Of Education
Movements in India 32. Land Revenue Systems In British
6. The Santhals: Pioneer Settlers India
7. Other Important Revolts 33. Indian National Congress Sessions
8. Exploring Official Archives 34. Governors-General & Viceroys Of
9. The Jotedars of Dinajpur India
10. The Zamindars Resist 35. Important British Committees and
11. The Accounts of Buchanan Commissions.
12. A New Revenue System 36. Constitutional Developments
13. Women In Modern History 37. Person and Newspaper
14. The Revolt of 1857 38. Framing the Constitution
15. Urbanisation in Colonial India 39. The Making of the Constituent
16. Political Associations Before Inc Assembly
17. Era Of Militant Nationalism 40. Key Members of the Constituent
(1905-19) Assembly
18. Revolutionary Activities 41. The Vision of the Constitution
19. The Ghadar 42. Concerns of British Influence
20. WWI & Nationalist Response 43. Depressed Castes
21. Gandhi 44. The Language of the Nation
22. Swarajists and 45. Language Controversy in the
23. No-Changers Constituent Assembly
24. Civil Disobedience Movement
25. World War II and Congress Position
 - Established the first factory
1. Overview
Pedro at Calicut in 1500
Alvarez - Initiated the era of European
Cabral rule on the Indian
India During Advent of Europeans
subcontinent
o Advancement of Europeans in
- 1st Portuguese governor in
shipbuilding and navigation
India
o Economic development of Europeans
Francis – De - Initiated “Blue water policy”
o Demand for Indian luxuries like
– Almeida (cartaze system)
spices, calicoes, silk, precious stones,
(1505-1509) - Cartaze system: Naval trade
porcelain
license issued by Portuguese
o Immense wealth of India
in the Indian Ocean
Chronology of European Conquest of India - Founder of Portuguese
o The Portuguese (1498) power in India
o The Dutch (1602) - Captured Goa from Bijapur,
o The English (1605) Alfonso de Bhatkal from Sri Krishna Deva
o The French (1664) Albuquerque Rai (1510)
(1509-1515) - Persecuted Muslims, banned
India During Advent of Europeans the practice of sati
o Advancement of Europeans in - Encouraged marrying
shipbuilding and navigation natives of India
o Economic development of Europeans - Shifted capital from Cochin
o Demand for Indian luxuries like to Goa in 1530
spices, calicoes, silk, precious stones, Nino da - Diu and Bassein came under
porcelain Cunha Portuguese occupation from
o Immense wealth of India (1529-38) Gujarat King Bahadur Shah
Chronology of European Conquest of India - Expanded territory beyond
o The Portuguese (1498) the western coastal region
o The Dutch (1602) - Initially hostile towards
o The English (1605) Muslims, later towards Hindus
Religious
o The French (1664) - Sent missionaries to convert
Policy
Emperor Akbar to Christianity
Portuguese in 1579
- Emergence of powerful
dynasties in Egypt, Persia, and
- Between Portugal and Spain north India
Treaty of - Divided the non-Christian - Activities of Jesuit
Tordesillas world by an imaginary line in missionaries aroused political
(1494) the Atlantic: east for Portugal, fears
Decline of
west for Spain - Rise of English and Dutch
Portuguese
- Reached Calicut via Cape of commercial ambitions
in India
Good Hope in 1498 - Corruption, greed, piracy,
- Welcomed by Zamorin (Ruler and clandestine trade
Vasco-de-G practices
of Calicut)
ama - Diversion of Portuguese
- Established trading stations
at Calicut, Cochin, and colonizing ambitions towards
Cannanore by 1502 Brazil

002
 - Initiated the European era, - Masulipatnam (1605)
marked the emergence of - Pulicat (1610)
naval power - Surat (1616)
- Introduction of cannon on - Bimlipatnam (1641)
Dutch
ships - Karikal (1645)
Factories in
- Masters of improved - Chinsurah (1653)
India
techniques at sea - Cassimbazar, Baranagore,
Significance
- Missionaries and the Church Patna, Balasore, Nagapatnam
of the
were patrons of the arts in (1658)
Portuguese
India - Cochin (1663)
- Introduced European art of
British
warfare
- Silversmith and goldsmith
art flourished in Goa ● 1600: Queen Elizabeth I
- First to come in India, last to issued a charter giving
leave India the English East India
Dutch Company a trade
monopoly for 15 years.
Cornelis de - First Dutchman to reach ● 1609: Captain Hawkins
Houtman Sumatra and Bantam in 1596 sought permission from
Jahangir to establish a
- Formed in March 1605 by trade center at Surat,
United East
Dutch Parliament Charter but was refused.
India
- Powers to wage wars, make ● 1613: Jahangir issued a
Company of
treaties, and build forts Farman to the English,
the
- Founded first factory in allowing the
Netherlands
Masulipatam in 1605 establishment of
trading factories in
- Main center: Pulicat, later Formation Agra, Ahmedabad, and
Dutch Trade replaced by Nagapattinam and Early Baruch.
in India - Carried indigo, textiles, silk, Establish- ● 1615: Sir Thomas Roe
saltpetre, opium, and rice ments obtained permission to
settle English trading
- Lasted 70 years
factories in various
- Treaty between British and
parts of India.
Dutch in 1623
● Bombay: Control was
- Dutch withdrew from India,
received as dowry by
Anglo-Dutch British from Indonesia
Charles II from the
Rivalry - Battle of Bedara (1759):
Portuguese.
English defeated Dutch
● Madras: Fort St. George
- Dutch compromised,
replaced
withdrawing from India while
Masulipatnam.
British left claims on Indonesia
● 1700: Bombay, Madras,
- Lost settlements to British and Calcutta became
Dutch one by one the three presidency
Decline in - Main commercial interest towns, with Calcutta as
India lay in the Spice Islands of the capital.
Indonesia

003
British
● Trading Companies: Dane (Denmark Settlements)
Controlled by a board
of directors elected Formation and Early Establishments
annually. ● 1616: Danish East India Company
● Naval Superiority: established.
Royal Navy of Britain ● 1620: Founded a factory at
Tranquebar near Tanjore.
was the largest and
● Serampore: Principal settlement near
most advanced.
Calcutta.
● Industrial Revolution:
Reached other Decline
European nations late, ● Danish factories were not significant
aiding English and were sold to the British
hegemony. government in 1845.
● Military Skill and ● Better known for missionary activities
than commerce.
Success Discipline: British
Factors soldiers were Decline of the Mughal Empire
disciplined and ● Aurangzeb’s Reign (1658-1707): His
well-trained. policies weakened the state.
● Stable Government: ● End of Mughal Rule: Formally ended
Efficient monarchs on November 1, 1858, with the
provided stable declaration of Queen Victoria.
● Muhammad Shah (1719-48): Could
governance.
not revive the imperial fortunes.
● Lesser Zeal for Religion: ● New States: Hyderabad, Bengal,
Less interest in Awadh, and Punjab established.
spreading Christianity ● Marathas: Began to inherit the
compared to Spain, imperial mantle.
Portugal, or the Dutch.
● Use of Debt Market: Internal Factors for Mughal Decline
Funded wars through
debt markets

- Eldest son of Aurangzeb,

French Bahadur Shah I
became Emperor at 63.
Formation and Early Establishments (Shah-i-Bekha
1664: French East India Company - Adopted a pacifist policy
● bar)
established their first factory at Surat. towards Marathas
[1709-March
● 1673: Pondicherry founded by Francis (released Shahu), Jats,
1712]
Martin, becoming the headquarters of Rajputs.
French possessions in India. Weak Rulers
- Faced an attack from
after Aurangzeb
Sikh leader Shah Bahadur.
Carnatic Wars
First Carnatic War (1740-48): Ended in 1748
by the Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle.
● Second Carnatic War (1749-54):
Inconclusive, undermined French and
English power in South Indiaended by Jahandar Shah - Introduced the Izara
the Treaty of Pondicherry (1763) [Feb 1712-Feb system.
● Third Carnatic War (1758-63): 1713] - Abolished the Jizya tax.
Decisive war, ended by the Treaty of
Paris (1763).

004
Internal Factors for Mughal Decline

- Killed Jahandar Shah with the - 1761: Third Battle of Panipat.

help of Sayyid Brothers, the - 1765: Battle of Buxar; Treaty
"King Makers" (Abdullah Khan of Allahabad.
and Hussain Ali). Shah Alam II - Issued farmans to the East
- Practiced religious tolerance: [1759-1806] India Company granting them
Farruk Siyar abolished Jizya and Pilgrimage Diwani (revenue collection
[1713-1719] tax. rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and
- Issued three Farmans in 1715 Orissa.
to the English (Magna Carta of
the Company). Akbar II - Gave the title of "Rai" to Raja
- First emperor to be killed by [1806-37] Ram Mohan Rai.
nobles.
Bahadur - Last Mughal Emperor.
Shah II - Associated with the Revolt of
Rafi-ud-Dar (Zafar) 1857.
ajat [Feb
- Ruled for the shortest period.
28-June 4,
1717] Rise of Regional States
Overview
Rafi-ud-Dau ● Regional and Independent Political
la (Shah System: Constantly at war with each
Jahan II) other.
- Opium addict.
[June ● Support System: Functioned with the
6-Sept 17, support of local zamindars,
1719] merchants, local nobles, and
chieftains.
- Killed Sayyid Brothers with the ● Acknowledgement of Mughal
help of Nizam-ul-Mulk. Supremacy: Maintained ties and
- 1724: Nizam-ul-Mulk acknowledged the supremacy of the
Muhammad
established the independent Mughal Emperor.
Shah
state of Hyderabad. ● Military, Financial, and Administrative
(Rangeela)
- 1737: Invasion of Baji Rao I in Limitations: Lacked advanced and
[1719-48]
Delhi. sound systems and technological
- 1739: Battle of Karnal: Nadir advancements.
Shah defeated Mughals. Successor States:

- Incompetent ruler, left the ● Mughal provinces that became

Ahmad Shah throne in the hands of Udham independent and autonomous.
[1748-54] Bai (Queen ○ Examples:
Mother/Qibla-i-Alam). ● Awadh
Alamgir II - Reign witnessed the Battle of (Saadat Khan/Burhan-ul-Mulk)
[1754-58] Plassey (1757). ● Hyderabad
(Kilich Khan/Nizam-ul-Mulk)
Shah Jahan ● Bengal (Murshid Kuli Khan)
- Notable for administrative
III
failures.
[1759-1760]

005
Independent Kingdoms: Examples:
Formed due to the destabilization of Mughal ● Rajput
control over their provinces. ● Mysore
● Kerala (founded by Martanda Verma)
Examples:
● Rajput New States:
● Mysore ● Established by rebels under Mughal
● Kerala (founded by Martanda Verma) rule.

New States: Examples:

Established by rebels under Mughal rule. ● Jats (Churaman and Badan Singh
founded the Jat state inBharatpur)
Examples:
● Jats (Churaman and Badan Singh ● Sikhs
founded the Jat state in Bharatpur) ● Marathas
● Sikhs ● Rohilakhand (founded by Ali
● Marathas Mohammad Khan; comprised
● Rohilakhand (founded by Ali Himalayan foothills between Kumaon
Mohammad Khan; comprised and Ganga)
Himalayan foothills between Kumaon
● Farukhabad (Mohammad Khan
and Ganga)
● Farukhabad (Mohammad Khan Bangash, in the east of Delhi)
Bangash, in the east of Delhi)
Trade and Industry
Rise of Regional States ● Exports: Cotton textiles, raw silk and
silk fabrics, hardware, indigo,
Overview
saltpetre, opium, rice, wheat, sugar,
● Regional and Independent Political
System: Constantly at war with each pepper, spices, precious stones, and
other. drugs.
● Support System: Functioned with the Imports:
support of local zamindars, ● Persian Gulf: Pearls, raw silk, wool,
merchants, local nobles, and dates, dried fruits, rose water.
chieftains. ● Arabia: Coffee, gold, drugs, honey.
● Acknowledgement of Mughal
● China: Tea, sugar, porcelain, silk.
Supremacy: Maintained ties and
acknowledged the supremacy of the ● Tibet: Gold, musk, woolen cloth.
Mughal Emperor. ● Africa: Ivory, drugs.
● Military, Financial, and Administrative ● Europe: Woolen cloth, copper, iron,
Limitations: Lacked advanced and lead, paper.
sound systems and technological ● Textile Centers: Dacca, Murshidabad,
advancements. Patna, Surat, Ahmedabad, Broach,
Chanderi, Burhanpur, Jaunpur,
Successor States:
● Mughal provinces that became Varanasi, Lucknow, Agra, Multan,
independent and autonomous. Lahore, Masulipatnam, Aurangabad,
Chicacole, Vishakhapatnam,
Examples: Bangalore, Coimbatore, Madurai.
● Awadh ● Shipbuilding: Maharashtra, Andhra
(Saadat Khan/Burhan-ul-Mulk)
Region, Bengal, Calicut, Quilon.
● Hyderabad
(Kilich Khan/Nizam-ul-Mulk)
● Bengal (Murshid Kuli Khan)
● Independent Kingdoms:
● Formed due to the destabilization of
Mughal control over their provinces.

006
 East India Company’s Trade
Education ● 1600: East India
● Traditional with over-reliance on Company established.
ancient learning. ● 1608: First factory in Surat set up as a
● Elementary Education: 'Trading Depot'.
● Hindus: Pathshalas. ● 1609: William Hawkins arrived at
● Muslims: Maktabs. Jahangir’s court but failed to secure
● Higher Education: permission due to opposition by
○ Chatuspathis (Bihar) or Tols Portuguese.
(Bengal). ● 1611: Captain Middleton obtained
○ Sanskrit education in Kashi permission from the Mughal governor
(Varanasi), Tirhut (Mithila), of Surat to trade and started trade in
Nadia, Utkal. Masulipatnam.
○ Madrasahs: Institutions of higher ● 1613: Factory established in Surat.
learning in Persian and Arabic.
○ Famous center of Persian Securing Trade Permissions
learning: Azimabad (Patna). ● 1615: Thomas Roe secured Imperial
Society Farman for trade in all parts of the
● Traditional and stagnant. Mughal Dynasty.
● Hindus: Patriarchy and rigid caste ● 1618: Thomas Roe obtained two
system. farmans confirming free trade with
● Muslims: Shia-Sunni divisions; Sharif exemption from inland tolls and
(nobles, scholars, etc.) and alif (lower permission to establish factories at
class) divisions. Agra, Ahmedabad, and Baroach.
● Women: Purdah, Sati, child marriage,
polygamy, dowry. Expansion in South India
● Slavery: Treated as hereditary ● 1611: First factory in South India at
servants rather than as menials. Masulipatnam.
Architecture: ● 1632: Golden farman from Sultan of
● Asaf-ud-Daula: Bada Imambara Golconda ensured safety and
(1784) in Lucknow. prosperity of trade.
● Sawai Jai Singh: Pink city, Jaipur; five ● 1639: Madras given by Chandragiri
astronomical observatories (Delhi, chief, replaced Masulipatnam as
Ujjain, Jaipur, Benares, Mathura); Jij headquarters on the east coast.
Muhammad-shahi timetable for
astronomical studies. Expansion in Eastern India
● Padmanabhapuram Palace, Kerala: ● 1633: First factory in Orissa.
Famous for architecture and mural ● 1651: Permission to trade at Hooghly,
paintings. Kasimbazar, Patna, and Rajmahal.
● Schools: ● 1667: Aurangzeb gave a farman for
Rajputana and Kangra School developed. trade in Bengal.

Literature: Further Developments

■ Urdu: Famous poets Mir, Sauda, ● 1662: British King Charles II received
Nazir, Mirza Ghalib. Bombay as dowry.
■ Tamil: Sittar poetry by ● 1687: Bombay made headquarters,
Tayumanavar. shifting from Surat.
■ Malayalam: Enriched by Kanchan ● 1691: Negotiations after Mughal raid
Nambiar. on Hooghly; permission to continue
■ Punjabi: Heer Ranjha by Waris trade in Bengal for Rs 3,000 a year.
Shah. ● 1700: City of Calcutta developed from
■ Sindhi: Risalo (collection of Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata;
poems) by Shah Abdul Latif. Fort William established.
● 1717: Farrukhsiyar’s farman (Magna
Carta of the Company) provided
extensive trade concessions.

007
 ● Imperial Farman gave the right to
trade in Bengal without paying transit
dues or tolls.
British Conquest of Bengal
● Servants sold Dastaks to friendly
● Trade and Factories
merchants.
● Exports: Saltpetre, rice, indigo, pepper,
Course
sugar, silk, and cotton textiles.
● Alliance: Mir Jafar (husband of
● Factories set up in Balasore, Hooghly,
Alivardi Khan’s sister) + Robert Clive
Kasimbazar, Patna, and Dacca.
with Rai Durlabh, Omichand, and
● 1717: Farrukhsiyar’sfarman granted
Jagat Singh vs. Siraj-ud-daulah.
trade rights and the right to issue
Results
Dastaks (free passes for trading).
● Won by the trio. Mir Jafar became the
new Nawab.
Key Rulers and Events
Other Developments
● Alivardi Khan engaged in wars with
● 1760: Mir Jafar rebelled.
Marathas for 15 years.
● Treaty of 1760.
● British strengthened entrenchments
● Mir Jafar replaced by Mir Kasim.
in Fort William.
● Mir Kasim shifted capital from
● 1756: Alivardi Khan died, succeeded
Murshidabad to Munger (Bihar) for a
by Siraj-ud-Daula.
safe distance from the company.
Treaty of Allahabad
Battle of Buxar (1764)
First Treaty
Reasons
● Robert Clive signed the treaty with
● Mir Kasim
Shuja-ud-Din and Mughal Emperor
abolished all
Shah Alam II.
duties.
● Shuja-ud-Din surrendered Allahabad
● Tussle led to war between the
to Shah Alam II and gave the
company and Mir Kasim in 1763. He
zamindar full possession of the estate.
fled to Awadh.
Second Treaty
● Formed an alliance with Nawab of
● Shah Alam II in Allahabad under
Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Mughal
Company’s protection.
Emperor Shah Alam II.
● Issued a Farman giving Diwani rights
Course
of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to East
● English army led by Hector Munro.
India Company.
· Results
● Provision of Nizamat functions also
● Short and decisive battle won by the
given to the Company.
English army under Hector Munro.
● Mir Jafar placed on the throne as a
Battle of Plassey (1757)
mere puppet.
Reasons
● British supremacy was established in
● Nawab seized Fort Williams and killed
Northern India.
foreigners inside (Black Hole
Tragedy).
Dual Government of Bengal (1765-1772)
● Nawab opposed by a dominant
o Imposed by Robert Clive.
group in his court: Rai Durlabh, Jagat
o Dual system of government: Rule of
Singh, Omichand.
the Two (Company and the Nawab).
● Misuse of Dastaks by company
o Diwani (Right of administration)
servants.
and Nizamat (Police, Judiciary, etc.)
came under company control.
o Right to nominate deputy
Subahdar and Diwan given to the
company.
o Mohammad Reza Khan (Bengal)
and Raja Sitab Roy (Bihar) appointed
deputy Diwans.
o Abolished by Warren Hastings in
1772 due to administrative breakdown.

008
 Anglo-Maratha Wars
● First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82):
Treaty of Salbai, 1782.
Anglo-Mysore Wars ● Second Anglo-Maratha War
● First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69): (1802-05):
Treaty of Madras. ○ Treaty of Surat, 1775-
● Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84): Raghunath Rao with British
Treaty of Mangalore. bombay
● Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92): ○ Treaty of Purandar, 1776-
Treaty of Seringapatam. raghunathrao with British
● Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1792-99): Calcutta
Tipu Sultan defeated and died. ○ Treaty of Wadgaon, 1779-
English to leave all acquired
Tipu Sultan (1750-1799) territories
● Multilingual, capitalist, military focus. ○ Treaty of Salbai, 1782
● Patron of science, pioneer of rocket ● Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19):
technology. Ended Maratha rule; series of treaties
● Oppression of Hindus debated First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42)
among historians. ● Heavy losses for British; fought on
Sindh soil.
Mysore After Tipu ● Amirs revolted in 1843; forced to sign
● New state handed to Wodeyars; subsidiary alliance.
minor Krishnaraja III accepted
subsidiary alliance. Conquest of Punjab
● 1831: William Bentinck took control of ● Guru Gobind Singh transformed the
Mysore. Sikh community into a militant sect.
● 1881: Ripon restored the kingdom to its ● 1716: Banda Bahadur was killed by
ruler. Mughal ruler Farruksiyar. Sikhs
became leaderless and split into
The Marathas Bandai (liberal) and Tat Khalsa
● Location: Maharashtra, Bombay (orthodox).
presidency. ● 1784: Kapur Singh united them under
● Timeline: 1720s to 1820s. Dal Khalsa, divided into Budha and
● Rise to Power: After Mughal decline; Taruna.
controlled land and taxes. ● Sikhs organized into misls (equal or
Prominent Maratha Chiefs alike state), with 12 misls, the most
● Regions: Peshwas (Poona), Gaekwad prominent being Sukerchakia led by
(Baroda), Holkars (Indore), Sindhias Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
(Gwalior), Bhosle (Nagpur).

009
 2. Maharaja Ranjit Singh Treaty of Bhairowal
and the English ● Sikhs unhappy with Kashmir issue,
leading to rebellion.
● Rani Jindan sent away as a
Policy of Blood and Iron pensioner.
● Captured Lahore, Jammu, and Amritsar ● Group of Sikhs under English made
by 1799. regent.
● Maintained good relations with Nepalis
and Dogras. Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)
● Reason: Sikhs felt humiliated.
Treaty of Amritsar ● Immediate cause: Rebellion and
● Defined Sutlej as the boundary with the killing of English officers by the
English. replaced Governor of Multan.
● Allowed annexation of Multan, ● Governor-General Dalhousie, an
Peshawar. expansionist, attacked Punjab.
● No passage to Britain to attack
Afghans.
● British neutrality in Sikh-Afghan War and Result
conflicts. ● Battles of Ramnagar, Chillhanwala,
and Gujarat.
Decline post-Ranjit Singh ● Sikh defeat led to the annexation of
● 1838: Tripartite agreement with Sindh Punjab by British.
and English. ● Dalhousie appreciated and
● 1839: Death of Ranjit Singh, leading to a promoted.
lack of strong rulers and downfall. ● Sikhs' power respected and
incorporated into British regiments for
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) future revolts, including the 1857
● Reason: Sikhs crossed the Sutlej River. revolt.
● Despite a larger army, Sikhs were
defeated due to dishonest leaders'
interests.

Treaty of Lahore (1846)

● War indemnity of 1 crore.
● Reduction of Sikh army.
● British resident stationed.
● Minor Dalip Singh made ruler, Rani
Jindan as regent, Lal Singh as wazir.
● Kashmir sold to pay indemnity.

Sher-e-Panjab
Maharaja
Ranjit Singh

010
 [Link] and Annexation [Link]-Burma Relations
Policies of the British

Wars and Treaties

● Policy of Ring Fence (Warren Hastings,
● First Anglo-Burma War (1824-26):
1770s-1800s)
o British won, Treaty of Yandaboo.
● Predecessor of subsidiary alliance.
o War indemnity of 1 crore, cession
● Protected major provinces with
of territories.
subsidiary forces in surrounding
o Manipur became independent,
regions.
British resident at Ava.
● Example: Stationing army at Awadh
● Second Anglo-Burma War (1852):
for protection of Bengal.
o Dalhousie, commercial interests
in Burmese teak.
Policy of Subsidiary Alliance (Lord
o Captured Pegu, coastal
Wellesley, 1798 onwards)
provinces, Lower Burma
annexed.
○ Stationed permanent standing army ● Third Anglo-Burma War (1885):
at Indian rulers' expense. o Hostile Thibaw, French and Dutch
○ British Resident placed at the King's negotiations.
court. o Final invasion of Upper Burma,
○ Kingdoms couldn't engage in foreign nationalist movements
relations without British consultation. intensified post-WWI.
○ o 1948: Burma's independence,
Evolution later Myanmar.
○ Stage 1: Help Indian rulers against Anglo-Nepal Relations
rivals. ● Gorkha Expansion
○ Stage 2: Ask for help in return. ● 1813-23: Gorkhas captured Butwal and
○ Stage 3: Use British army, asking for Sheoraj.
subsidy. ● Treaty of Sagauli (1816):
○ Stage 4: High subsidy levels, o Nepal accepted a British resident.
o Ceded Garhwal, Kumaon, Terai
annexation if unpaid.
regions.
o Withdrew from Sikkim.
Kingdoms Annexed
o British empire reached Himalayas,
○ Awadh (1765), Hyderabad (1798), acquired hill station sites.
Mysore (1799), Tanjore (1799). o Gorkhas joined British army.

Policy of Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie,

1798 onwards)
○ Annexation if rulers died without a
natural heir.
○ Examples: Satara, Sambalpur,
Bhagatpur, Udaipur, Nagpur, Jhansi,
Awadh.

011
002
 [Link] Tribal and Peasant
Movements in India

Revolt/Uprising Location Leaders Reasons and About

Triggered by the famine of 1770

Majnu Shah, and economic hardships.
Chirag Ali, Targeted company factories and
Sanyasi Revolt Bihar and Bhawani Pathak, treasuries. Involved both Hindus
(1763-1800) Bengal Debi and Muslims. Inspired literary
Chaudhurani, works like "Anandmath" and "Devi
Musa Shah Chaudhurani". Also known as the
Fakir Rebellion.
Response to the new land
revenue system introduced in
Revolt in Midnapore and Damodar Singh,
Bengal 1772 (Izaredar system). United
Dhalbhum (1766-1774) Jagannath Dhal
Zamindars, Taluqdars, and Ryots
against British policies.
Low caste peasants, followers of
Aniruddhadeva, revolted against
Revolt of Moamarias
Assam Krishnarayan the Ahom king. Supported by
(1769-1799)
demobilized soldiers and
zamindars.
Against oppressive revenue
Civil Uprisings in farmers (izaradars). Involved
Gorakhpur, Basti, and Uttar Pradesh - secret experiments by the
Bahraich (1781) company, involving Major
Alexander Hanny.
Revolt against the British
Revolt of Raja of
Northern Circars Vizayarama Raju demand of 3 lakh rupees from
Vizianagaram (1794)
the king.
Revolt of Dhundia in Organized anti-British elements
Karnataka Dhundia Wagh
Bednur (1799-1800) into a formidable force.
Protested against exorbitant tax
Resistance of Kerala rates on peasants. Utilized
Kerala Varma
Varma Pazhassi Raja Kerala guerrilla warfare tactics,
Pazhassi Raja
(1797; 1800-1805) involving Nairs, Mappilas, and
Pathans.
Following the massacre in
Civil Rebellion in Awadh Benares, which included the
Uttar Pradesh Wazir Ali Khan
(1799) killing of George Fredrick Cherry
and others.
Strikara Bhanj,
Uprisings in Ganjam
Dhananjaya
and Gumsur (1800, Eastern Orissa Refusal to pay revenues.
Bhanj, Doora
1835-1837)
Bisayi

012
 Revolt/Uprising Location Leaders Reasons and About

Dayaram Resistance against municipal tax,

Upsurge in Hathras (1817) Uttar Pradesh
Bhagwant Singh escalating into religious jihad.

Jagabandhu Paikas, traditional land-owning

Bidyadhar, militia, revolted against British due to
Paika Rebellion (1817) Odisha Mukunda Deva, various grievances including land
Dinabandhu policies, salt price hike, and currency
Santra changes.

Waghera Rising Waghera chiefs of

Maharashtra Revolted against alien rule.
(1818-1820) Okha Mandal

Gomdhar Konwar, British retained control over Assam

Ahom Revolt (1828) Assam Maharaja after the First Burma War (1824-26),
Purandar Singh breaking promises to withdraw.

Surat Salt Agitations

Gujarat - Protest against increased salt duty.
(1840s)

Gadkaris Phond,
Disbanded military garrisons led to
Kolhapur and Savantvadi Sawant Subana,
Maharashtra unemployment among hereditary
Revolts (1830, 1836, 1838) Nikam Daji,
military class.
Lakshman Sawant

Islamist revivalist movement aimed

Wahabi Movement Bihar, Bengal, Syed Ahmed of to convert Dar-ul-Harb to
(1860s) NWFP, Punjab Rai Bareilly Dar-ul-Islam through jihad against
non-Muslims.

Bhagat Jawahar Post British takeover of Punjab,

Kuka Movement (1840) Punjab Mal, Baba Ram propagated Swadeshi and
Singh Non-cooperation.

Peasant uprising against landlords

Narkelberia Uprising Mir Nithar Ali/Titu
West Bengal and British indigo planters, sparked
(1825-1835) Mir
by a beard-tax.

Semi-religious group of Hajong and

The Pagal Panthis
Bengal Karam Shah Garo tribes revolted against high
(1825-1835)
rents and zamindar oppression.

Followers of a Muslim sect sought

socio-political and religious
Faraizi Revolt (1838-1857) Bengal Haji Shariat-Allah
changes, aiming to expel British
intruders.

Moplah Uprisings Protested against revenue hikes and

Malabar -
(1836-1854) field size reduction.

013
 Revolt/Uprising Location Leaders Reasons and About

Against British expansion on their

Pahariyas’ Rebellion
Rajmahal Hills - lands, leading to the declaration of
(1778)
damni-kol Area.
Jagannath Singh,
Shyam Ganjan,
Midnapore, Revolted against increased demand
Chuar Uprising (1776) Durjan Singh,
Bengal and economic deprivation.
Madhab Singh,
Subha Singh
Protested British land policies and
Kol Mutiny (1831) Chhotanagpur Buddho Bhagat
the transfer of land to outsiders.
Against British occupation, new
farming policies, and exploitation by
Munda Uprisings (1899) Chhotanagpur Birsa Munda landlords and moneylenders. Led to
the Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act
(CNT), 1908.

[Link] Santhals:
Pioneer Settlers

Early Settlement and Buchanan's ● Settlement Expansion: From 40 villages

Observations in 1838 to 1,473 villages by 1851
● 1810: Buchanan crossed Ganjuria ● Population Growth: Increased from
Pahar, Rajmahal ranges 3,000 to over 82,000 by 1851
● Landscape: Transformed by human
● Revenue: Increased flow into the
labor, fine soil, excellent tobacco, and
Company’s coffers
mustard
● Santhals: Extended cultivation,
Santhal Myths and Conflict with Paharias
displaced hill folk, settled land around
1800 ● Myths and Songs: Refer to a long
Migration and Settlement history of travel and search for a place
● 1780s: Santhals began coming to to settle
Bengal ● Paharias: Resisted but forced to
● Zamindars and British Officials: Hired withdraw deeper into the hills, affecting
Santhals to reclaim land and expand their lives and shifting agriculture
cultivation Life and Challenges in Damin-i-Koh
● Comparison with Paharias: Santhals ● Santhals: Settled, cultivated
cleared forests and ploughed land, commercial crops, dealt with traders
unlike the resistant Paharias and moneylenders
Establishment of Damin-i-Koh ● Economic Pressure: Heavy state taxes,
● 1832: Large area demarcated as high-interest rates from moneylenders
Damin-i-Koh for Santhals (dikus), and zamindars' control over
● Land Grant: Required one-tenth of Damin
the area to be cleared and cultivated
within ten years

014
Santhal Rebellion: Revolts & Risings:

1850s: Santhals rebelled against Locatio Reasons and

Uprising Leaders
zamindars, moneylenders, and the n About
Background
colonial state. Opposed
1855-56: Santhal Revolt took place. suppression of
Location human
Location: Rajmahal Hills Khond Chakra
and Bengal sacrifice, new
Leaders: Sidhu, Kanhu Uprisings Bisnoi
Leadership taxes, and the
entry of
- Oppression by zamindars and
zamindars.
moneylenders
Reasons Protested
- Economic exploitation and social
police and
injustice
Andhra moneylender
Tomma
- Creation of Santhal Pargana Pradesh oppression,
Koya Sora, Raja
covering 5,500 square miles from (East new
Revolts Anantayy
Bhagalpur and Birbhum Godava regulations,
ar
- Led to the enactment of the ri track) and loss of
Outcomes
Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act, 1876 customary
- British perception change: Villages rights.
appeared violent and savage Protested
post-rebellion company rule,
famine,
Bhil Western Govind
- British Response: Rebellion economic
Revolts Ghats Guru
crushed, region searched, suspects distress, and
arrested, villages burned misgovernmen
- Public Display: Images shown in t.
Aftermath of England to demonstrate British Protested
the Rebellion might and ability to impose order company rule
- Illustrated London News: Koli Western
- and
Depictions of Santhals fighting Risings Ghats
unemployment
sepoys, burning villages, and .
Santhal prisoners being taken away
Chittur
- Depictions: British officials Singh,
Political Umaji Naik,
triumphant, rebels in chains Protested
Messages in Bapu
- Message: Emphasized British Ramosi Western British
Illustrations Trimbakji
control and the end of rebellion Risings Ghats annexation
Sawant,
Raja policies.
- Clever in clearing new lands, live
Buchanan meanly Pratap
Singh
on the - Huts: No fence, small sticks, clay
Santhals plaster, small, slovenly, flat-roofed,
Aimed to drive
little arch Khasi Khasi Tirath
away outsiders
Uprising Hills Singh
from the plains.
- Small-grained granite, reddish
The Rocks feldspar, quartz, black mica Revolted
near Kaduya - Fine-grained granite, yellowish Singphos Nirang against
Assam
feldspar, whitish quartz, black mica Rebellion Phidu exploitative
British policies

015
 [Link] Important Revolts ● 1873 saw agrarian unrest due to
aggressive practices of zamindars.
● Peasants in Yushufshahi pargana
Indigo Revolt
formed agrarian leagues.
● Period: 1859-60 ● Main form of struggle was legal
● Location: Bengal resistance.
● Leaders: Digambar Biswas, Bishnu ● Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 secured
Biswas occupancy rights and limited eviction
● About: to court orders.
○ Europeans forced the cultivation ● Supported by B.C. Chatterjee, R.C.
of indigo instead of more Dutt, Indian Association.
profitable crops like rice.
○ Armed rebellion with swords, The Deccan Revolt of 1875
spears, bows, arrows; women
● Account Books Burnt
fought with kitchen utensils.
○ Start Location: Supa, Poona
○ Gomasthas (agents of planters)
(present-day Pune) district
were beaten up.
○ Date: 12 May 1875
○ Indigo Commission (1860) found
● Actions:
planters guilty and criticized their
○ Ryots attacked shopkeepers.
coercive methods.
○ Demanded and burned
○ Declared indigo production
bahikhatas (account books)
unprofitable for ryots.
and debt bonds.
○ Supported by Bengal
○ Looted grain shops.
intelligentsia, Harishchandra
○ Burned houses of sahukars
Mukherji, and Dinbandhu Mitra.
(moneylenders).
○ Indigo production collapsed in
● Spread of Revolt:
Bengal but shifted to Bihar.
○ Areas Affected: Spread from
○ Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Nil
Poona to Ahmednagar.
Darpan (1860), which depicted
○ Extent: Covered 6,500 square
the treatment of Indian peasantry
km, affecting over thirty
by indigo planters.
villages.
Areas of
Revolt ● Pattern:
○ Sahukars attacked.
○ Account books burned.
○ Debt bonds destroyed.
○ Sahukars fled, leaving property
behind.
Pabna Agri Leagues ● Leaders and Background:
○ Leaders: V.B. Phadke
● Period: 1870s & 80s ○ About:
● Location: East Bengal ■ Heavy taxation under
● About: Ryotwari system,
○ Rent Act of 1859 granted land moneylenders were outsiders
ownership to peasants after 12 (Marwaris/Gujaratis).
years of cultivation and paying ■ Post-American Civil War
lagan. (1864), land revenue raised
○ Landlords exploited peasants with by 50%.
court cases, eviction, and
exorbitant revenue.
016
 ■ Led by Kunbi peasants in Rampa Revolt
Maharashtra.
■ Social boycott movement. ● Period: 1916, 1922-24
■ Supported by M.G. Ranade. ● Location: Andhra Pradesh
■ Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act ● Leaders: Alluri Sitarama Raju (Koyas)
of 1879, with significant support ● About: Against British interference in
from Tilak. the Gudem-Rampa tract.
■ Phadke's techniques mentioned
in B.C.C.'s Anandmath. Zamindars' Default on Payments
● British Response:
● Revenue Demand and Security:
○ Concerns: Feared a repeat of
○ Initial Belief: Fixed revenue
the 1857 rebellion.
demand would give zamindars
○ Measures:
security and encourage
■ Established police posts in
investment in estates.
villages.
○ Reality: Regular failure to pay
■ Called in troops.
revenue and accumulation of
■ Arrested 951 people, many
unpaid balances.
convicted.
■ Took several months to restore
Reasons for Failure
order.
● High Initial Demands:
○ Purpose: Minimize anticipated loss
due to fixed revenue and rising
prices.
○ Result: Burden on zamindars
expected to decline with increased
production and prices.
● Depressed Agricultural Prices:
○ Period: 1790s.
○ Effect: Difficult for ryots to pay
dues, impacting zamindars' ability
● Newspaper Report: to pay the Company.
○ Native Opinion (6 June 1876) ● Invariable Revenue:
○ Title: "The ryot and the ○ Regardless of Harvest: Payment
moneylender" had to be punctual.
○ Description: ○ Sunset Law: Payment deadline by
■ Ryots placed spies to watch for sunset, or zamindari auctioned.
government officers. ● Limited Power:
■ Assembled and demanded the ○ Permanent Settlement: Reduced
surrender of bonds from zamindars' ability to collect rent
creditors. and manage estates.
■ Threatened assault and plunder ○ Regulation: Company sought to
control and regulate zamindars,
if refused.
disbanding troops, abolishing
■ Dispersed if government officers customs duties, and bringing
approached. courts under Company
supervision.

017
Collection Challenges Impact on Zamindars

● Zamindar Officer: Amlah collected ● Auction Purchases: Jotedars often

rent. purchased zamindari estates
auctioned for revenue failure.
● Issues: Bad harvests, low prices,
deliberate delays by ryots, and ● Regional Influence: Most powerful in
resistance from rich ryots and village North Bengal; rich peasants and
headmen (jotedars and mandals). headmen (haoladars, gantidars,
● Judicial Process: Long drawn; e.g., mandals) emerged in other parts of
Burdwan had over 30,000 pending Bengal.
suits for rent arrears in 1798. ● Weakened Authority: Jotedars' rise
weakened zamindari authority.
Rise of the Jotedars
Visuals and Context
● Consolidation of Position:
○ Rich Peasants: Jotedars in North ● Figures:
Bengal consolidated their position. ○ Charles Cornwallis
○ Francis Buchanan's Survey: (1738-1805): Governor General
Description of jotedars in Dinajpur of Bengal, introduced
district. Permanent Settlement in 1793.
○ Land Acquisition: By the early 19th ○ Bengal Village Scene (1820) by
century, jotedars had vast land George Chinnery: Depicts
holdings, controlling local trade and everyday life, jotedars' houses.
moneylending.
○ Sharecroppers: Land cultivated by Terms and Figures
sharecroppers (adhiyars or
bargadars) who handed over half ● Taluqdar: One who holds a taluq
the produce to jotedars. (territorial unit).
● Ryot: Peasant; term used in British
Power Dynamics records.
● Sunset Law: Revenue payment
● Village Control: Jotedars' power in deadline by sunset.
villages more effective than ● Permanent Settlement: Revenue
zamindars. system introduced by the British in
● Location: Jotedars lived in villages, Bengal.
directly controlling poor villagers. ● Amlah: Officer collecting rent for
● Resistance: Jotedars resisted zamindar.
zamindars' attempts to increase ● Jotedar: Rich peasants with
revenue, hindered zamindari officials, significant land and local influence.
mobilized dependent ryots, and ● Adhiyars/Bargadars: Sharecroppers
delayed revenue payments. working jotedar land.

General
Cornwallis

018
 Dinajpur
[Link] Jotedars of Dinajpur

Resistance to Zamindars

● Jotedars' Refractory Nature: Economic Context

○ Dinajpur Jotedars: Resisted zamindar
discipline. ● Price Depression Recovery:
○ Revenue Payment: Paid minimal ○ End of Depression: By the early
revenue and fell behind on 19th century, the depression in
installments (kist). prices ended.
○ Land Holding: Held more land than ○ Consolidation: Surviving
entitled by pottahs (deeds). zamindars consolidated power.
● Legal Maneuvers: ○ Flexible Revenue Rules:
○ Complaints: Filed complaints at Strengthened zamindar power.
Fouzdarry Thanna (police station) for ● Final Collapse:
imprisonment. ○ Great Depression of 1930s: Led
○ Dishonor: Complained at munsiff's to the collapse of many
cutcherry for dishonor. zamindars; jotedars
○ Instigation: Instigated ryots to delay consolidated power.
revenue payments.
The Fifth Report

[Link] Zamindars Resist ● Documentation and Debate:

○ Submitted: 1813 to the British
Parliament.
○ Content: Administration and
Survival Strategies activities of the East India
Company.
● High Revenue Demand: ○ Length: 1002 pages (800+
○ Auction Threat: Faced possible pages of appendices).
auction, devised survival ○ Includes: Petitions, collector
strategies. reports, statistical tables,
● Fictitious Sales: revenue, and judicial notes on
○ Example: Raja of Burdwan Bengal and Madras.
transferred zamindari to his ○ Purpose: Addressed concerns
mother to evade Company over the Company's monopoly
takeover. and misrule.
○ Auction Manipulation: Agents ● Historical Insight:
manipulated auctions, ○ Impact: Shaped understanding
repeatedly refused purchases, of rural Bengal in the late 18th
exhausted state and bidders, century.
and reacquired estates at low ○ Critique: Recent research
prices. suggests exaggeration of
● Resistance to Displacement: zamindari collapse and
○ Lathyals (Strongmen): overestimation of land loss.
Attacked new agents. ○ Zamindar Resilience:
○ Ryots: Showed loyalty and Ingenious methods to retain
resisted outsiders. zamindaris despite auctions.
● Auction Data:
○ 1796-97:
○ Advertised land: Sicca rupees
28,70,061.

019
● Revenue Demand: ○ Impact: Increased unpaid revenue
○ Fixed under Permanent balances, severe peasant
Settlement; colonial state couldn’t hardships.
claim enhanced income. ● Peasant Borrowing:
● Financial Resources: ○ Loans: Necessary for paying
○ Colonial government sought to revenue, daily needs, production
maximize land revenue in newly expenses.
annexed territories. ○ Debt: Difficult to repay, mounting
● Economic Theories: debts increased dependence on
○ Influence of David Ricardo’s ideas moneylenders.
on colonial officials. ○ Officials' Observations: Mid-1840s,
widespread peasant
Ricardian Ideas indebtedness.
● Economic Recovery:
● Average Rent: ○ Post-1845: Agricultural prices
○ Landowners should claim only the recovered.
average rent. ○ Revenue Demand: Moderated to
● Surplus: encourage cultivation expansion.
○ State should tax surplus to prevent ○ Cultivation: Peasants extended
cultivators from becoming acreage, transforming
non-productive rentiers. pastureland into fields.
● Bengal Example: ○ Loans: Needed for ploughs, cattle,
○ Zamindars became rentiers, living seeds, and land, leading to further
on rental incomes. reliance on moneylenders.

Revenue Demand and Peasant Debt The Cotton Boom

● Initial Settlement: ● Dependence on American Cotton:

○ Time: 1820s. ○ Pre-1860s: Three-fourths of
○ Revenue Demand: High, Britain’s raw cotton imports
causing peasants to desert came from America.
villages. ○ British Concerns: Reliance on
○ Issues: Poor soil, fluctuating American supplies was risky.
rainfall, inability to pay revenue. ● Search for Alternatives:
○ Collectors: Extracted payments ○ Cotton Supply Association:
severely, seizing crops, fining Founded in 1857 in Britain.
villages. ○ Manchester Cotton Company:
● Economic Crisis: Formed in 1859.
○ 1830s: Agricultural prices fell ○ Objective: Encourage global
sharply post-1832, income cotton production.
declined. ● India as a Supplier:
○ Famine: 1832-34, one-third ○ Potential: Suitable soil,
cattle and half the human favorable climate, cheap labor.
population died. ● American Civil War: Broke out in 1861,
drastically reducing American cotton
exports.

020
 ● Response: Urgent messages to India ○ Moneylenders Violating Norms:
for increased cotton exports. Customary norms, once regulated,
● Bombay Merchants: Encouraged were violated.
cultivation and provided advances. ● Customary Norms and Violations:
○ Pre-Colonial Era: Interest could
Impact on Deccan Ryots not exceed the principal, ensuring
"fair interest."
● Expansion of Cotton Cultivation: ○ Colonial Era: This norm broke
○ Access to Credit: Rs 100 down; some moneylenders
advance per acre of cotton. charged exorbitant interest rates
○ Cotton Acreage: Doubled (e.g., Rs 2,000 on a Rs 100 loan).
between 1860 and 1864. ● Complaints and Exploitative Practices:
○ British Imports: By 1862, over ○ Overpriced Essentials: Ryots had
90% of cotton imports to Britain to buy goods from moneylenders
were from India. at inflated prices.
○ Outcome: Rich peasants ○ Harvest Seizure: Moneylenders
benefitted, but most faced took produce without crediting it
increased debt. to ryots’ accounts and refused to
● End of American Civil War: issue receipts.
○ Revival of American Cotton:
Post-1865, Indian cotton Petition from Mirajgaon Ryot
exports declined.
○ Credit Withdrawal: Export ● Ryot’s Grievances:
merchants and sahukars ○ High Prices: Goods sold at 25-50%
restricted advances and higher rates than cash payments.
demanded debt repayment. ○ Harvest Mismanagement:
Produce taken without proper
Revenue Demand and Peasant Debt accounting or receipts.
● Moneylender's Perspective:
● Increased Revenue Demand: ○ Ensuring debt repayment by
○ New Settlement: Revenue controlling the ryot's produce and
demand increased by 50-100%. overpricing essentials as a form of
○ Challenges: Falling cotton collateral security.
prices and decreased
cultivation. Impact on Peasants
○ Moneylender Refusal:
Moneylenders lost confidence ● Deed of Hire:
in ryots’ repayment ability. ○ Possessions Sold: Ryots sold
possessions to pay off debt and
Ryots' Anger Towards Moneylenders then rented them back.
○ Example: A peasant sold and then
● Dependence and Exploitation: hired back his bullocks and
○ Ryots' Anger: Ryots were carriages, paying Rs 4 monthly.
angered by the deepening
debt and dependency on
moneylenders.

021
 ● Example:
● Relationship Dynamics: ○ Over 12 years, a Rs 100 loan could
○ Ownership Loss: Ryots became accrue over Rs 2,028 in interest.
tenants of their former
possessions. Timeline of Key Events
○ Dependency: Increased reliance
● 1765: English East India Company
on moneylenders for basic
gains Diwani of Bengal.
survival.
● 1773: Regulating Act passed by the
British Parliament to oversee the East
Manipulative Practices and Legal
India Company.
Frameworks
● 1793: Permanent Settlement
● Manipulating the Limitation Law implemented in Bengal.
(1859): ● 1800s: Santhals begin settling in the
○ Loan Bond Validity: Law limited Rajmahal hills.
loan bond validity to three years. ● 1818: First revenue settlement in the
○ Moneylenders' Tactic: Renewing Bombay Deccan.
bonds every three years, rolling ● 1820s: Agricultural prices start to
over the principal and decline.
accumulated interest into new ● 1840s-50s: Gradual agrarian
loans. expansion in the Bombay Deccan.
● Petition to Deccan Riots Commission: ● 1855-56: Santhal rebellion occurs.
○ Ryots' Complaints: Detailed how ● 1861: Cotton boom starts.
loans were continuously rolled ● 1875: Deccan villages experience
over, increasing debt peasant rebellions.
exponentially.
1765
● Transition to Formal Contracts:
○ British Stance: Insisted on legally
enforceable contracts, rejecting
1773
informal agreements.
○ Ryots Coerced: Ryots were forced
into signing contracts they did not 1793
understand.
● Fear and Misery:
○ Contracts as Oppression: Legal 1800s
documents became symbols of
oppression.
○ Ryots' Helplessness: Ryots feared 1818
contracts but had no choice but to
comply due to their need for loans.

1820s
The System of Loans
1840-50s
● Initial Loan:
○ Rs 100 at Rs 3-2 annas per month.
● New Bonds:
○ Every few years, the original 1855-56
loan was combined with
accumulated interest, 1861
exponentially increasing the
debt.
1875
022
 [Link] In Modern History

Abolition of Sati: Controlling Child Marriage:

● Regulation of 1829 (Act XVII): ● Native Marriage Act, 1872:

○ Sati declared illegal and ○ Not applicable to Hindu, Muslim, and
other recognized faiths.
punishable by criminal courts.
● Age of Consent Act, 1891:
○ Initially applicable to Bengal.
○ Important figures: BM Malabari (Parsi
○ Later extended to Bombay and Reformer).
Madras with modifications in ○ Set the minimum age for girl marriage
1830. at 12.
○ Introduced by Andrew Scoble, passed
Preventing Female Infanticide: by Lord Lansdowne.
○ Rakhmabai case (1887) and
● Bengal Regulations of 1795 & 1804: Phulomani Dasi case (1889).
○ Infanticide declared illegal and ○ Supported by B.M. Malabari, Pandita
equated to murder. Ramabai Saraswati.
○ Opposed by Romesh Chunder Mitter,
● 1870 Act:
B.G. Tilak.
○ Compulsory birth registration. ● Sarda Act, 1930:
○ Verification of female children ○ Named after Rai Sahib Harbilas
after some years of birth. Sharda.
○ Marriage age: boys 18, girls 14.
Widow Remarriage: ● Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment)
Act, 1978:
● Widow Remarriage Act (Act XV), 1856 ○ Marriage age: girls 18 (from 15), boys
(Lord Canning): 21 (from 18).
○ Drafted by Dalhousie.
○ Legalized widow remarriage. Education of Women:
○ Children from such marriages
● 1819:
considered legitimate.
○ Calcutta Female Juvenile Society set
○ Efforts by ICV (Principal of Sanskrit up by Christian Missionaries.
College, Calcutta). ● 1849:
○ In Maharashtra, Jagannath Shankar ○ Bethune School by JED Bethune
Sheth and Bhau Daji (Ram Krishna Lad) (President of Council of Education in
promoted girls' education. Calcutta).
○ Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded the ○ ICV established more than 35 girls'
Widow Remarriage Association in the schools in Bengal.
1850s. ● 1854:
○ Karsondas Mulji advocated widow ○ Wood's Despatch emphasized the
need for female education.
remarriage through "Satya Prakash" in
● 1880s:
Gujarati in 1852. ○ Dufferin hospitals established.
○ DK Karve married a widow in 1893, ● 1914:
dedicated his life to the upliftment of ○ Women's medical service initiated for
Hindu widows, became the secretary of training nurses and midwives.
the Widow Remarriage Association, and ● 1916:
opened a widows' home in Poona for ○ Indian Women University by DK Karve.
vocational training of high caste ○ Lady Hardinge Medical College, Delhi.
widows.
○ In Madras, Veerasalingam Pantulu and
others like BM Malabari, Narmad
(Narmadashankar Labhshankar Dave),
MG Ranade, and K Natarajan were
involved in the cause.

023
 [Link]'s Organizations:

1882: 1910:

● Arya Mahila Samaj founded by ● First meeting of the Bharat Stree

Pandita Ramabai Saraswati (PRS). Mahamandal in Allahabad led by
Sarda Devi Chaudhurani (editor of
● PRS was awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind
the journal "Bharati", founded by her
Medal for community service in 1919. uncle Rabindranath Tagore).
● PRS founded Sharada Sadan where ● Objectives: Promotion of women's
doctrines of Christianity were taught to education, abolition of the Purdah
women. system, improvement in the
● Ramabai Ranade established a socio-economic and political status
branch of Arya Mahila Samaj in of women across India.
Bombay.
1925:
1904: ● The National Council of Women in
India played a vital role under the
● Ladies Social Conference (Bharat leadership of Mehribai Tata.
Mahila Parishad) founded by
Ramabai Ranade in Bombay.
● Ramabai Ranade chaired the first
session of the India Women
Conference held in Bombay in 1904.
● Founded the Hindu Ladies Social Club
in Bombay for the development of
public speaking among women.
1927:
● Associated with Prarthana Samaj.
● Authored her autobiography "Amchya ● All India Women's Conference
Ayushyatil Kahi Athavani". (AIWC) founded by Margaret
● Parent organization: National Social Cousins (Irish-Indian educationist,
Conference (1887). suffragist, and Theosophist).
● Later became President of Bombay ● First women's organization with an
egalitarian approach.
Seva Sadan (1908) and Poona Seva
● First conference held at Ferguson
Sadan (1909). College, Pune.
● Important founding members:
Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad, Rani
Sahiba of Sangli, Sarojini Naidu,
Kamla Devi Chattopadhyaya
(sister-in-law of Sarojini Naidu), and
Lady Dorab Tata.
● Objectives: To work for a society
based on the principles of social
justice, integrity, equal rights and
opportunities, and to secure for every
human being the essentials of life
determined by planned social
distribution rather than the accident
of birth or sex.
024
Notable Women: ● Formed 3 political parties:
○ Independent Labour Party
● Cornelia Sorabji: India's first female ○ All India SC Federation
barrister. ○ Republican* Party of India (1956 -
● Rukhmabai: India's first woman by dismissing AI SC Federation)
practicing doctor.
● Muthulakshi Reddy: First woman All India Depressed Class Association
legislator of India. (1928)
○ Introduced legislation to improve
women's education, raise the age ● Aim: Uplift depressed class (Scheduled
of marriage to 14 for girls through Castes) & they never demanded a
the Sarda Act of 1930, aid separate electorate
programs for women's health, and ● First President: M.C. Rajah (first leader
end the controversial system of who organized SC at a national level)
devadasi dedication to temples in ○ M.C. Rajah - B.S. Moonje Pact:
1929. Moonje offered reserved seats to
the Scheduled Castes in return for
Women's Indian Association: Rajah's support. The Rajah-Moonje
Pact was a precursor for the
● Location: Adyar, Madras. Poona Pact.
● Year: 1917. ○ Rajah supported joint electorates
● First President: Annie Besant. ○ Books by M.C. Rajah: The
● Activities: Followed the Indian National Oppressed Hindu and An
Congress's stance against separate Unforgettable Dalit Voice
electorates for minorities and women.
Mahatma Gandhi

[Link]’ Rise ● 1925: All India Spinners Association

● 1932: All India Anti-Untouchability
League
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar ● 1934: Harijan Sevak Sangh
● 1934: All India Village Industries
● 1924: Bahishkrit Hitakarni Sabha Association
(Outcastes Welfare Association)
● 1930: All India Depressed Class All India Depressed Class League
Congress/Federation*
● 1936: Independent Labour Party ● 1935: Formed by Jagjivan Ram
● 1942: All India SC Federation ● First conference held at Nagpur
○ First All India political party ○ President: Raja of Kolhapur
exclusively for Scheduled Castes ○ Vice President: B.R. Ambedkar
(SC)
○ Founded in National Convention of South India
SC held at Nagpur
○ Presided by Rao Bahadur N. Shivraj ● 1920s: Non-Brahmin leader: E.V.
(renowned Dalit leader from Ramaswamy (Self-Respect Movement)
Madras) ● Kerala: Sri Narayana Guru
○ General Secretary: P.N. Raibhoj ● Led struggle against caste domination
(Bombay) ● Slogan: "One religion, one caste, one
● 1950: Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha God for mankind"
● 1956: Final manuscript: The Buddha or Karl ● His disciple: Sahadaran Ayyapan
Marx ○ Slogan: "No religion, no caste, no
god for mankind"

025
 Keshab Chandra Sen & Brahmo Samaj
[Link]-Cultural Reform
Movements & Their Leaders ● Made Acharya in 1858
● Popularized the movement & opened
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (RRR) & Brahmo branches outside Bengal
Samaj ● Advocated inter-caste marriages
● Campaigned for women's education
● Raja Ram Mohan Roy ● Dismissed from office of Acharya in
○ Father of Indian Renaissance 1865
○ Maker of Modern India ● Formed Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866
○ 1814: Atmiya Sabha @Calcutta ● Tagore's Samaj became Adi Brahmo
○ Books: Gift to Monotheists (1809) & Samaj
Precepts of Jesus (1820) ● 1878: Disgusted followers of Keshab
○ Govt Regulation 1829: Sati formed Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
declared a crime (reason for split: Keshab married his
○ Supported David Hare to found 13-year-old daughter to a minor Hindu
Hindu College in 1817 Maharaja of Cooch-Behar)
○ 1825: Vedanta School ● Leaders: Ananda Mohan Bose,
○ Linguist Shibchandra Deb & Umesh Chandra
○ 1828: Brahmo Sabha (later Datta
renamed Brahmo Samaj) ○ PB: Dayal Singh College @Lahore
■ Purify Hinduism & preach Monotheism in 1910
■ Did not believe in the authority of the
Vedas Prarthana Samaj
■ Emphasized the promotion of charity
○ Supported revolutions in Naples & ● 1867: Founded by Atmaram Pandurang
Spanish America @Bombay (helped by Keshab) + RG
○ Condemned oppression of Ireland Bhandarkar
by absentee English landlords ● Precursor: Paramhansa Sabha (secret
○ Associates: David Hare, Alexander society promoting liberal ideas &
Duff, Debendranath Tagore, PK encouraging breakdown of caste and
Tagore, Chandrashekhar Deb, communal barriers)
Tarachand Chakraborty ● 1870: MG Ranade joined the Samaj
● Debendranath Tagore & Brahmo ○ 4-Point Social Agenda:
Samaj 1. Disapproval of caste system
○ Founder of Tattvabodhini Sabha 2. Women's education
(1839) 3. Widow remarriage
○ Joined Samaj in 1842 4. Raising marriage age
○ Prominent followers: Rammohan,
the Derozians, and independent ● DK Karve & Vishnu Shastri: champions
thinkers - Ishwar Chandra of social reform alongside Ranade
Vidyasagar (ICV) & Ashwini Kumar ○ Karve + Ranade: Widow
Dutta Remarriage Movement & Widows'
○ Tagore worked on two fronts: Home Association
● Within Hinduism: reformist movement ● Other leaders: RG Bhandarkar & NG
○ Outside: opposed Christian Chandavarkar
missionaries for their criticism of
Hinduism and their conversion
attempts
● Debendranath discouraged penances
among Brahmos

026
 [Link] Revolt of 1857
● Ramabai Ranade associated with
Prarthana Samaj
This outline of the Revolt of 1857 covers the
Young Bengal Movement major causes, events, and consequences of
the uprising, providing a detailed
● Founder: Henry Vivian Derozio understanding of how various factors
● 1828: Inspired by the French Revolution economic, political, administrative, and
● Taught @Hindu College from 1826-1831 socio-religious led to the revolt. Below is a
(removed due to radicalism)
summarized view of the key points:
● Journal: Jnanvesan
● First nationalist poet of modern India
Causes of the Revolt:
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (ICV)
1. Economic Factors:
● Blended Indian & Western ○ Destruction of traditional Indian
thought economy through British policies.
● 1850: Became principal ○ Draconian land reforms and
of Sanskrit College decline of agriculture.
● Supported widow remarriage ○ Displacement of Indian traders
● Crusader against child marriage & and artisans.
polygamy 2. Political Factors:
● Secretary of Bethune School ○ Expansionist policies like the
Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary
Balshastri Jambhekar Alliance.
○ Denial of rights to native rulers,
● Newspaper: Darpan (1832) especially the Mughal rulers.
● Father of Marathi Journalism 3. Administrative Factors:
● 1840: Digdarshan ○ Widespread corruption and
● Founder of: exploitation in administration.
○ Bombay Native General Library 4. Socio-Religious Factors:
○ Native Improvement Society
○ Racial discrimination and British
● First professor of Hindi @Elphinstone
interference in religious customs.
College
○ Christian missionary activities and
● Director: Colaba Observatory
reform laws like the abolition of
sati.
Paramhansa Mandali
5. Influence of Outside Events:
● 1849 @Maharashtra ○ British losses in the Crimean,
● Founders: Dadoba Pandurang (Brother Punjab, and Afghan wars
of Atmaram), Mehtaji Durgaram & motivated Indians.
others 6. Discontent Among Sepoys:
● Secret society to reform Hindu religion ○ Issues like caste restrictions, travel
& society prohibitions, unequal pay, and the
● Ideology closely linked to Manav infamous introduction of greased
Dharma Sabha cartridges.
● Real religion is based on love & moral
conduct
● Branches: Poona, Satara, and others

027
Key Events of the Revolt: Consequences:

1. Outbreak at Meerut (10 May 1857): 1. End of East India Company Rule:
○ Mutiny by sepoys, which quickly ○ The Government of India Act, 1858
transferred power from the East
spread to the cavalry and civilian
India Company to the British
population. They attacked British Crown.
establishments and marched to ○ A new office of Secretary of State
Delhi. for India was created, and direct
2. Capture of Delhi (11 May 1857): control over India was established.
○ Delhi fell into rebel hands, and 2. Changes in Administration:
Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared ○ The British Viceroy became the
direct representative of the Crown.
the leader of the revolt.
○ A policy of moderation toward
3. Spread of the Rebellion: Indian rulers and communities
○ Revolt spread across North India, was adopted to prevent future
with key centers being Kanpur, uprisings.
Lucknow, Jhansi, Gwalior, and 3. Military Reforms:
Arrah. ○ Indian soldiers were now recruited
○ Prominent leaders included Nana based on loyalty rather than
competence, with a larger
Sahib, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Begum
proportion of European soldiers to
Hazrat Mahal, and Kunwar Singh. avoid future revolts.
4. Fall of Delhi (September 1857): 4. Social and Economic Reforms:
○ After intense fighting, Delhi was ○ Though the rebellion failed, it led to
recaptured by the British, who the first significant recognition of
massacred many rebels and Indian grievances, prompting
reforms aimed at placating
civilians. Bahadur Shah Zafar was
Indians to some degree.
captured, and his sons were
executed.

Suppression of the Revolt:

● By mid-1858, British forces, led by

commanders like Sir Colin Campbell,
Major General Havelock, and Hugh
Rose, suppressed the revolt.
● Leaders like Rani Lakshmi Bai and
Tantya Tope were killed or captured.

Lessons and Analysis:

● The revolt, though widespread, lacked

unity and coordination across regions
and classes.
● Many Indian rulers and elites,
especially from regions like Punjab,
Kashmir, and Bengal, remained loyal
to the British.
● The revolt marked a crucial turning
point in Indian history, leading to the
eventual rise of organized nationalist
movements.

028
 [Link] in Colonial 4. Character of Towns
India
● Definition: Contrasted with rural areas,
representing specific economic
1. Introduction activities and cultures.
● Economy:
● Topics: Urbanization in colonial India, ○ Rural: Agriculture, foraging, rearing
characteristics of colonial cities, social animals.
changes. ○ Towns: Artisans, traders,
● Focus Cities: Madras (Chennai), administrators, rulers.
Calcutta (Kolkata), Bombay (Mumbai). ● Domination: Towns thrived on
● Origins: Fishing and weaving villages. agricultural surplus and taxes.
● Economic Shift: Became trade centres ● Fortifications: Symbolised separation
due to the English East India Company. from the countryside.
● Fluid Separation: Pilgrimage, famine
2. Timeline migrations, trade routes, and market
extensions.
● Madras settled by Company agents in
1639. 5. Mirza Ghalib's Account
● Calcutta settled in 1690.
● Bombay given to the Company in 1661 ● 1857 Delhi Occupation: Describes
by the English king, as part of the escape to the countryside during British
Portuguese dowry. forces' attack.
● Company Offices: Established trading
and administrative offices. 6. Mughal Era Towns

3. Colonial Cities ● Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries:

Concentrations of populations,
● Characteristics: By the mid-19th monumental buildings, imperial
century, these settlements became grandeur.
major cities controlling the country. ● Important Centres: Agra, Delhi, Lahore.
● Institutions: Set up to regulate ● Residences: Mansabdars and jagirdars
economic activity and show authority. maintained houses in these cities for
● Political Domination: New experiences status.
for Indians in these cities. ● Services: Artisans, grain markets,
● City Layouts: Different from older Indian treasury, fortified palaces, gardens,
towns. mosques, temples, colleges, bazaars,
● Colonial Architecture: Buildings bore caravanserais.
colonial marks. ● Town Focus: Palaces and principal
mosques; South Indian towns focused
on temples, commercial centres.

7. Social Order

● Medieval Towns: Social positions were

well-known, dominated by the ruling
elite.
● Kotwal: Oversaw internal affairs and
policing in North India towns.

029
8. Decline and Development 11. Notable Facts

● Political and Commercial ● Kotwal of Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru’s

Realignments: Old towns declined, grandfather, Ganga Dhar Nehru, was
new towns developed. the kotwal before 1857.
● Mughal Power Erosion: Led to the ● Names of Cities: Madras, Bombay,
decline of towns associated with Calcutta were Anglicised names of
Mughal rule. original villages, now Chennai,
● New Regional Powers: Regional Mumbai, Kolkata.
capitals like Lucknow, Hyderabad,
Poona, and Nagpur gained 12. Data Production
importance.
● Migration: Traders, administrators, ● Colonial Rule: Based on the
artisans moved to new capitals for production of enormous data.
work and patronage. ● British Records: Detailed records of
● Warfare: Provided employment for trading activities to regulate
mercenaries, creating new commercial affairs.
settlements (qasbah and ganj). ● Urban Surveys: Regular surveys,
statistical data, and official reports.
9. Economic Activity
13. Mapping and Control
● Uneven Effects: Renewed economic
activity in some areas, decline in ● Mapping: Early colonial government
others due to war and uncertainty. focused on mapping for
● Trade Networks: European understanding and control.
commercial Companies set up bases ● Town Maps: Planned development,
(Portuguese in Panaji, Dutch in commerce, and power consolidation.
Masulipatnam, British in Madras, ● Maps' Information: Hills, rivers,
French in Pondicherry). vegetation, ghats, houses, roads,
commercial possibilities, taxation
10. Rise of Colonial Port Cities strategies.

● Shift: Land-based empires replaced 14. Municipal Administration

by sea-based European empires.
● Economic Capitals: Madras, Calcutta, ● Tax Collection: Systematic annual
Bombay became new economic municipal tax collection from the late
capitals post-Battle of Plassey (1757). 19th century.
● Colonial Administration: Centres of ● Indian Representation: Some
colonial administration and political responsibilities handed to elected
power. Indian representatives.
● Urban Development: New buildings, ● Municipal Corporations:
institutions, ordered urban spaces, Administered water supply, sewerage,
new occupations. roads, public health.
● Population Growth: By 1800, these ● New Records: Municipal records
were the largest cities in India. generated.

030
 Madras Native Association
[Link] Associations
Before Inc ● 1852: Founded by Gazulu
Lakshminarasu Chettiar (also founded
Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha The Crescent newspaper).

● 1836: Founded by associates of Raja East India Association

Rammohan Roy (RRR), Gourishankar
Tarkabagish. ● 1866: Founded in London by Dadabhai
● Objective: Promote Bengali language & Naoroji.
build public opinion. ● Objective: Discuss the Indian question
& influence public men in England to
Zamindar Association/Landholders' promote Indian welfare.
Society
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
● 1837: Founded by Raja Radhakant Dev &
Dwarkanath Tagore. ● 1867: Founded by M.G. Ranade & others
● Objective: Safeguard interests of (including S.S. Chiplunkar).
landlords. ● Role: Acted as a bridge between
● Significance: Beginning of organized government & people.
political activity (first).
● Methods: Constitutional agitation.

Bengal British Indian Society

● 1843: Founded by George Thompson.

● Objective: Collection & dissemination
of information relating to the actual Indian League
condition of people & promote general
public interest. ● 1875: Founded by Sisir Kumar Ghosh.
● Objective: Stimulate sense of
British Indian Association nationalism in people & encourage
political education.
● 1851: Formed by Landholders' Society +
Bengal British Indian Society. Indian Association of Calcutta/Indian
○ 1st President: Radhakant Deb. National Association
○ 1st General Secretary: Debendranath
Tagore. ● Superseded Indian League.
● Petition to British Parliament with the ● 1876: Founded by Surendranath
following demands: Banerjea & Anand Mohan Bose.
○ Establishment of a separate ● Sponsored: All India Conference - first
legislature of popular character. at Calcutta in 1883.
○ Separation of executive from ● Objective: Promote political, intellectual
judiciary. & material advancement of people by
○ Reduction in salaries of higher legitimate means.
officers. ● Activities:
○ End of Company's monopoly in salt ○ Protested against the reduction of
production, abkari & stamp duties. the age limit to 19 in 1878.
○ Demanded simultaneous holding
of CSE in England & India.
○ Indianization of higher
administrative posts.
○ Led campaign against repressive
Arms Act & Vernacular Press Act.
● Merged with INC in 1886.

031
Bombay Presidency Association Formation of INC (1885)

● 1885: Founded by Badruddin Tyabji, ● Founder: A.O. Hume (retired Civil

Pherozshah Mehta & K.T. Telang. Servant Officer).
● Objective: Champion Indian interests & ● Theories:
hosted the first meeting of INC in ○ Safety Valve Theory: Proposed by
Bombay. Lala Lajpat Rai (Young India).
○ Conspiracy Theory: Rajani Palme
Madras Mahajan Sabha Dutt (Marxist theory, offshoot of
safety valve).
● 1884: Founded by M. Viraraghavachari, ○ Lightning Conductor
B. Subramaniya Aiyer & P. Theory/Nationalist Theory: G.K.
Anandacharlu. Gokhale.
● Objective: Create an organization of ● Objective: Facilitate dialogue between
All-India level to free the nation from educated Indians & Britishers.
British rule.
● Associated with P. Rangaiyya Naidu. INC: 1st Session

Gujarat Sabha ● 1885: Held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit

College, Bombay (initially planned for
● 1884: Founded in Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Pune but moved due to cholera
● Members: Vallabhbhai Rathod, Hardik outbreak).
Khurana, D.J. Civil & Mitesh Pandya. ● Delegates: Mostly lawyers (no women);
● Gandhi: Served as its president from 72 total attendees, including 2 Muslims.
1918 to 1919. ● Demands:
● Role: Pivotal in Kheda Satyagraha. ○ Abolition of the Indian Council in
● Merged with INC in 1920. London.
○ Reduction of military expenditure.
INC Formation & Key Events ○ Appointment of a commission to
inquire into Indian administration.
Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883) ○ Civil Service Examination to be
conducted in India.
● C.P. Ilbert: Law member of Executive
Council. Key Figures & Events
● Provisions: Proposed to allow Indian
judges & magistrates to convict ● 1890: Kadambini Ganguly - 1st woman
Europeans in criminal cases. graduate of Calcutta University.
○ Indian judges were previously not
allowed to convict Europeans
(except in Presidency towns:
Bombay, Madras, Calcutta).
● Opposition: From British settlers in
India, particularly tea & indigo
plantation owners.
● Resolution: Reintroduced in 1884 as the
Criminal Procedure Code Amendment
Act.
○ If an Indian judge tried Europeans,
a minimum of 50% European jurors
was required.

032
 [Link] Of Militant Nationalism
(1905-19)
Economic Critique (Key Figures)

● Dadabhai Naoroji: Poverty and

Global and Indian Historical Events:
Un-British Rule in India (1901).
● R.C. Dutt: Economic History of India
● 1896: Italian army got defeated by
(1901).
Ethiopians.
● M.G. Ranade: Essays on Indian
● 1899-1902: Boer Wars — Gandhi
Economics (1898).
supported it and was awarded
● G.K. Gokhale, Dinshaw Edulji Wacha, G.
Kaiser-i-Hind for his work relating to
Subramaniya Iyer.
ambulance service.
● 1905: Japan's victory over Russia.
Indian Councils Act 1861
Indian Freedom Movement and Key
● Nominated political figures &
Personalities:
intellectuals (1862–1892):
○ Syed Ahmed Khan
● Swami Dayanand Saraswati: "India for
○ Kristodas Pal
Indians" slogan.
○ V.N. Mandlik
○ K.L. Nulkar
Militant School of Thought:
○ Rasbehari Ghosh
● Raj Narain Bose
Civil Rights ● Ashwini Kumar Datta
● Aurobindo Ghosh
● 1897: Tilak's arrest + deportation of Natu
● V.S. Chiplunkar
brothers without trials.
● Bipin Chandra Pal
● Bal Gangadhar Tilak
United Indian Patriotic Association ● Lala Lajpat Rai
● 1888: Founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Anti-Partition Campaign (1903-05):
& Raja Shiv Pratap Singh of Benaras.
● Objective: Counter Congress
● Leaders:
propaganda.
○ Surendranath Banerjee (Bengalee)
○ Krishna Kumar Mitra (Hitabadi)
○ P. Ray

Vande Mataram Movement:

● Initial Stage: Led by moderate leaders

like Surendranath Banerjee & Krishna
Kumar Mitra.
● KK Mitra gave the slogan of TOTAL
BOYCOTT for the first time in his journal
Sanjibani.
● Spread to the deltaic regions of Andhra
Pradesh.

033
1905 Benaras Session (Gopal Krishna Nandalal Bose:
Gokhale):
● First recipient of a scholarship from the
● Supported the anti-partition and Indian Society of Oriental Art (founded
Swadeshi movement. in 1907 by Gaganendranath and
● Differences between moderates and Abanindranath Tagore).
extremists emerged.
● Surendranath Banerjee & Anand Mohan Muslims Participating in Swadeshi
Bose addressed large gatherings. Movement:
● Aurobindo Ghosh: "Political freedom is
the life-breath of the nation." ● Barrister Abdul Rasul
○ Charged with sedition for his ● Liaqat Hussain
writings in Bande Mataram. ● Guznavi
● Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

1906 Calcutta Congress (Dadabhai

Swadeshi Sangram: Naoroji):

● Led by: ● Goal: Self-government or Swaraj.

○ VO Chidambaram Pillai ● Extremists' Demands: Passive
○ Subramania Siva resistance as the Indian National
○ Some lawyers at Tirunelveli, Tamil Congress (INC)'s agenda.
Nadu. ● Outcome: President not an extremist
● VO Chidambaram Pillai was a follower but respected by both factions; Swaraj
of Tilak. was declared the goal.
● Strikes led by:
○ Subramania Siva
○ VO Chidambaram Pillai
Bengal National College (1906): ● In Punjab: Strikes by arsenal and
railway workers led by Lala Lajpat Rai
● First President: Aurobindo Ghosh. and Ajit Singh.
● Inspired by Rabindranath Tagore's
Shantiniketan. Government Acts to Suppress Swadeshi
Movement:

● 1907: Swadeshi Meeting Act.

National Council on Education (1906): ● 1908: Criminal Law (Amendment) Act.
● 1908: Indian Newspapers (Incitement to
● Aim: Promote science and technology Offences) Act.
as part of the Swadeshi industrialization ● 1908: Explosive Substances Act.
movement. ● 1910: Indian Press Act.
● Founders:
○ Rabindranath Tagore
○ Rajnikant Sen
○ Dwijendralal Ray
○ Mukunda Das
○ Syed Abu Mohammad
● In Tamil Nadu: Subramania Bharati
associated with the Chennai Jan
Sangham, composed Sudesha
Geetham.

034
 30th December 1906: Formation of the All
India Muslim League:
Key Contributions:
● Founder: Nawab Khwaja Salimullah.
● P.C. Ray: Bengal Chemical Factory
(during Swadeshi). 1907 Surat Congress Session (Rash Behari
● VO Chidambaram Pillai: Steam Ghosh):
Navigation Company (during
Swadeshi). ● Moderate-extremist split.
● Bharat Mata Association: Founded by ● Leaders Arrested:
Nilkantha Brahmachari and Vanchi ○ Tilak
Ayyer. ○ Ajit Singh
○ Chidambaram Pillai
National Anthem: ○ Aurobindo Ghosh (in the Alipore
Conspiracy Case).
● Sung for the first time in 1911 at the ● Outcome: Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin
Calcutta session of the INC (President: Chandra Pal later retired from active
BN Dhar). politics.

N.M. Joshi:
[Link] Activities
● Father of modern trade unionism in
India.
● Founder of the Social Service League PLACE: Bengal
in 1911.
YEAR: 1902
Bal Gangadhar Tilak:
● 1st revolutionary group under
Jnanendranath Basu @ Midnapore.
● 1880: Helped found the New English
● In Calcutta, Anushilan Samiti.
School (later became Fergusson
○ Founders: Promotha Mittar,
College).
Jatindranath Banerjee, Barindra
● 1893: Initiated the Ganesh festival.
Kumar Ghosh, Satish Chandra
● 1895: Started the Shivaji festival.
Basu.
● 1897: Called for "No Tax" campaigns.
○ Began as a gymkhana.
○ The name comes from Bankim
1906 Simla Deputation:
Chandra Chatterjee's novel
● Led by Agha Khan. Anushilan Tatva.
● Demand: Separate electorate for
YEAR: 1906
Muslims.
● April: Inner circle within Anushilan
Samiti started the weekly Yugantar
(name taken from Shivnath Shastri's
novel).
○ Editors: Barindra Kumar Ghosh,
Bhupendranath Dutta.
○ 30 crore Indians --> 60 crore
hands.

035
● Barisal Conference: YEAR: 1912
○ In 1907, Barindranath Ghosh wrote
Vartaman Rananiti (Rules of ● Bomb thrown at Viceroy Hardinge by
Modern Warfare). Rashbehari Bose & Sachin Sanyal.
○ In 1905, Aurobindo Ghosh wrote ○ Known as the Delhi Conspiracy
Bhavani Mandir (a pamphlet on (Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy trial).
revolutionary activities). ○ Key figures: Basant Kumar Biswas,
Amir Chand, Avadh Behari.
YEAR: 1907 ○ Rashbehari Bose was the
mastermind.
● The Yugantar group attempted to ● Jatindranath Mukherjee (Bagha Jatin)
assassinate Sir Fuller (1st Lt Governor of led Jugantar.
new East Bengal & Assam).
● December: Attempts to derail the train YEAR: 1914-17
of Lt Gov Andrew Fraser.
○ 5 Dec: Bomb @ Narayannagar. ● Zimmerman Plan/German Plot (during
○ Arrested: Barindra Kumar Ghosh, WWI):
Bibhuti Bhushan Sarkar, Ullash ○ Jugantar Party arranged German
Kumar Dutt. arms imports through
sympathizers.
○ Jatindranath Mukherjee assigned
Rashbehari Bose to lead
insurrections in Upper India.
○ The group raised funds through
taxicab and boat dacoities.
○ The plan was to form a guerrilla
force and seize Fort Williams but
was leaked.
○ Bagha Jatin died in Balasore in
1915 after a gunfight.

PLACE: Maharashtra (MH)

YEAR: 1908

● Alipore Conspiracy (Muraripukur

Conspiracy): YEAR: 1879
○ Key members: Aurobindo Ghosh,
● Ramosi Peasant Force: Founded by
Barindra Kumar Ghosh.
Vasudev Balwant Phadke (included Koli,
○ Barindra Ghosh led a secret
Bhil, and Dhangar communities).
society of revolutionaries.
○ Ullaskar Dutt: bomb maker.
YEAR: 1897
○ Hemchandra Das Kunungo:
learned bomb making in ● Chapekar brothers (Damodar &
Germany. Balkrishna) murdered Poona's Plague
○ Prafulla Chaki & Khudiram Bose Commissioner, Rand, and Lt Ayerst.
attempted to assassinate
Magistrate Kingsford.
■ They accidentally killed 2 British
women (family of Pringle
Kennedy).
■ Chaki shot himself; Khudiram
was tried and hanged.
● Barrah Dacoity (organized by Dacca
Anushilan under Pulin Das):
○ Raised funds for revolutionary
activities in East Bengal.

036
YEAR: 1899 PLACE: Abroad

● Mitra Mela founded by VD Savarkar.

○ It merged with Abhinav Bharat in YEAR: 1905
1904, inspired by Mazzini's Young
Italy. ● Indian Home Rule Society/India House:
○ Founded in London by Shyamji
YEAR: 1909 Krishnaverma.
○ Journal: The Indian Sociologist.
● A.M.T. Jackson, collector of Nashik, was ○ Members: VD Savarkar, Lala
killed by Anant Lakshman Kanhere, a Hardayal.
member of Abhinav Bharat.
YEAR: 1909
PLACE: Punjab (PB)
● Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated
Lala Lajpat Rai (LL Rai): Published Punjabee. Curzon Wyllie in London.

Ajit Singh: Founded PLACE: Paris & Geneva

Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan in Lahore,
published journal Bharat Mata. ● Madam Bhikaji Cama, a Parsi
revolutionary:
● Other leaders: ○ Published Bande Mataram and
○ Aga Haider. supported the Indian Home Rule
○ Syed Haider Raza. Society.
○ Bhai Parmanand. ○ Co-founded the Paris Indian
● Radical Urdu poet: Lalchand Falak. Society.
○ Unfurled the Indian flag at the 2nd
YEAR: 1907 Socialist Congress in Stuttgart,
Germany.
● Pagdi Sambhal Jatta agitation led by
Ajit Singh resulted in his imprisonment YEAR: 1915
at Mandalay.
○ Peasant mobilization against ● Berlin Committee for Indian
reduced ownership status. Independence:
○ Protested against Colonization ○ Founded by Virendranath
Act and Doab Bari Act. Chattopadhyaya, Bhupendranath
● Ajit Singh attended the 1907 INC Dutta, Lala Hardayal.
session. ○ Sent a mission led by Raja
● Fled to Iran via Karachi and Paris, Mahendra Pratap Singh,
founded Indian Revolutionary Barkatullah, and Obaidullah Sindhi
Association in Paris. to Kabul to organize a Provincial
Indian Government.

PLACE: Singapore

YEAR: 1915

● Singapore Mutiny:
○ Leaders: Jamadar Chisti Khan,
Jamadar Abdul Gani, Subedar
Daud Khan.

037
 Leaders
[Link] Ghadhr
● Prominent Leaders:
○ Lala Hardayal.
○ Ramchandra.
○ Bhagwan Singh.
○ Kartar Singh Saraba.
○ Barkatullah.
○ Bhai Parmanand.

Komagata Maru Incident and World War I

● 1914 Events:
○ Komagata Maru incident: A ship
Formation and Structure from Singapore carrying Sikh and
Punjabi Muslims was denied entry
● Headquarters and Branches:
into Canada and forced to return
○ Headquarters: San Francisco.
to India.
○ Branches: Along the U.S. coast and
○ Outbreak of the First World War.
in the Far East.
● Aftermath:
○ The Ghadhr Party was organized
○ British authorities detained the
around a weekly newspaper, The
immigrants in Calcutta with plans
Ghadhr.
to deport them to Punjab.
○ The immigrants resisted, resulting
Membership and Early Activities
in a clash that left 22 dead.
● Members: ○ The incident enraged Ghadr
○ Primarily ex-soldiers and peasants leaders, sparking plans for a
from Punjab who migrated to the violent revolt to expel the British.
USA and Canada seeking better
Planned Attack and British Response
employment opportunities.
● Pre-Ghadhr Activities:
● Leaders Involved:
○ Led by Ramdas Puri, G.D. Kumar,
○ Kartar Singh Saraba.
Taraknath Das, Sohan Singh
○ Raghubar Dayal Gupta.
Bhakna, and Lala Hardayal
○ Rashbehari Bose.
(arrived in 1911).
○ Sachin Sanyal.
○ Established ‘Swadesh Sevak Home’
● Planned Attack:
in Vancouver and ‘United India
○ February 21, 1915, was chosen as
House’ in Seattle.
the date for the Ghadr uprising.
○ The Ghadhr was established in
● British Counteraction:
1913.
○ The British government learned of
the plan and made preemptive
Program
arrests, suppressing the
● Objectives: movement before it could unfold.
○ Organize assassinations of British
Suppression and Legislation
officials.
○ Publish revolutionary and
● British Measures:
anti-imperialist literature.
○ The Defence of India Act, 1915,
○ Work among Indian troops
was the main and harshest
stationed abroad.
legislation employed by the
○ Procure arms.
British to dismantle the Ghadr
○ Initiate simultaneous revolts in all
movement.
British colonies.

038
 [Link] & Nationalist Response Government Attitude

● Opposition to Tilak:
○ Barred from entering Punjab and
World War I & Nationalist Response Delhi.
WWI: Supporters ● Actions Against Besant:
○ June 1917: Besant, B.P. Wadia, and
● Moderates George Arundale were arrested
● Extremists under the Defence of India Act
1915.
Home Rule League Movement
○ (S. Subramania Iyer renounced his
● Prominent Leaders: knighthood in protest).
○ Tilak, Annie Besant, G.S. Khaparde, ○ August 1917: Montague
Subramaniya Iyer, Joseph Baptista, Declaration (August Declaration).
Jinnah. ○ September 1917: Besant was
● Tilak's League: released.
○ Established: April 1916.
○ September 1918: Tilak went abroad
○ First Meeting: Belgaum.
○ Headquarters: Poona. regarding his libel case against
○ Regions Covered: Maharashtra Valentine Chirol (for his book
(excluding Bombay city), Karnataka, Indian Unrest, which labeled Tilak
Central Provinces, and Berar. as the "Father of Indian Unrest").
● Besant's League:
○ Established: September 1916. 1916 Lucknow Session
○ Headquarters: Madras.
○ Regions Covered: Rest of India. ● Key Events:
○ Branches: 200 branches (loosely ○ Tilak started the Home Rule
organized compared to Tilak’s Movement in April 1916.
league). ○ Reunion of Congress factions.
○ Organizing Secretary: George ○ Lucknow Pact (Tilak-Jinnah
Arundale. Pact):
○ Other Key Members: B.P. Wadia, C.P. ■ Congress accepted the
Ramaswamy Iyer. demand for separate
○ Note: Tilak’s and Besant’s leagues electorates for Muslims.
never merged.

Home Rule Movement: Later Joined By

● Prominent Figures:
○ Motilal Nehru.
○ Jawaharlal Nehru.
○ Bhulabhai Desai.
○ C.R. Das.
○ K.M. Munshi.
○ B. Chakravarty.
○ Saifuddin Kitchlew.
○ MMM.
○ Jinnah (led Bombay division).
○ Tej Bahadur Sapru.
○ Lala Lajpat Rai.

039
Montague’s Statement (August 1917) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13th April 1919)

● Key Points: ● Cause:

○ The British government declared ○ Arrest of Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr.
self-government for Indians as a Satyapal.
government policy. ○ Occurred during Baisakhi
○ Nationalists' demand for celebrations.
self-government could no longer ● British Response:
be termed seditious. ○ General Dyer imposed martial law
○ Introduced the concept of (in the background of the Ghadar
"responsible government." Movement).
○ The concept of dyarchy was to be ● Aftermath:
developed. ○ Rabindranath Tagore renounced his
knighthood.
○ Gandhi relinquished the title
Kaiser-i-Hind.
○ Gandhi withdrew the movement on
18th April 1919.
○ Historian AJP Taylor: "This event was
the decisive moment when Indians
were alienated from British rule."
○ Montague referred to it as
“Preventive Murder.”
○ Udham Singh (alias Ram
Mohammad Singh Azad)
Rowlatt Act assassinated Dyer in 1940 and was
later hanged.
● Overview:
○ An extension of the Defence of 1919: Hunter Committee
India Regulations Act 1915.
● Also Known As: Disorders Inquiry
○ Also known as the Anarchical &
Committee.
Revolutionary Crimes Act.
● Head: Lord William Hunter (former
○ Based on recommendations from
Solicitor-General for Scotland).
the Rowlatt Commission to
● Indian Members:
investigate seditious conspiracy
○ Sir Chimanal Harilal Setalvad (Vice
among Indian people.
Chancellor of Bombay University).
● Provisions:
○ Pandit Jagat Narayan (lawyer,
○ Allowed the deportation of
member of the Legislative Council of
activists without trial for two years.
UP).
○ Accepted non-acceptable
○ Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmed
evidence under the Indian
(lawyer from Gwalior).
Evidence Act.
● Government's Action:
○ Suspended the right of habeas
○ Before the committee proceedings,
corpus.
the government passed the
● Opposition:
Indemnity Act (often referred to as
○ Indian members who resigned in
the “whitewashing bill”) to protect its
protest: Jinnah, MMM,
officers.
Mazhar-ul-Haq, B.N. Sharma.
● Congress View:
● Repeal:
○ The INC set up a non-official
○ Repealed in 1922 by Lord Reading.
committee consisting of M. Nehru,
C.R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M.R. Jayakar,
and Gandhi.

040
 [Link] ● 1906-1914: Phase of Passive Resistance
○ 1906: Satyagraha against
Registration Certificates
■ Formed Passive Resistance
The Role of Individuals in Nationalism Association
○ Campaigns against restriction of
● Association with Nation-Building Indian migration, poll tax, and
● Examples: Garibaldi (Italy), George invalidation of Indian marriages
Washington (American War of ○ Protest against Transvaal
Independence), Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam) Immigration Act
● Mahatma Gandhi as the ‘Father’ of the ○ 1904: Phoenix Farm
Indian nation ■ Inspired by John Ruskin's Unto
● Influence of society on leaders like This Last
Gandhi ○ 1910: Tolstoy Farm
■ Named by Herman Kallenbach
after the Russian writer &
moralist
■ Functioned until 1913
○ Gokhale in India
■ Toured the country, mobilized
public opinion in support of
Indians in South Africa
○ Compromise Solution: Gandhi, Lord
Hardinge, CF Andrews, General
Smuts

Gandhi’s Initial Activities

Gandhi’s Return to India ● 1916: Opening of Banaras Hindu

University (BHU)
● January 1915 ● Invited due to his South African work
● Returned to India after 20 years abroad ● Criticized the Indian elite for ignoring
● Time spent in South Africa as a lawyer the poor
and community leader ● Emphasized that true self-government
● Developed techniques of non-violent required addressing the needs of
protest (satyagraha) peasants and workers
● Promoted religious harmony and
addressed discrimination against lower Gandhi’s Vision for Indian Nationalism
castes and women
● Speech at BHU
Indian Political Landscape in 1915 ● Highlighted disparity between the elite
and the poor
● British Colony ● Called for Indian nationalism to be
● Active political movements inclusive and representative of all
● Indian National Congress (INC) had Indians
branches in major cities and towns

Making of Gandhi

● 1894-1906: Moderate Phase of Struggle

○ Set up Natal Indian Congress
○ Published the paper Indian
Opinion

041
Opportunity to Act ○ Gandhi’s Demand:
■ Gandhi demanded a 35% hike
● December 1916 and undertook a fast unto
● Gandhi approached by a peasant from death.
Champaran, Bihar ○ Key Figures:
● Reported harsh treatment of peasants ■ Anusuya Sarabhai (social
by British indigo planters worker), Shankerlal Banker
○ Settlement:
The Making and Unmaking of ■ The dispute was settled with a
Non-Cooperation 35% wage rise.
● Kheda Satyagraha (1918) – First
● Champaran Satyagraha (1917) – First Non-cooperation
Civil Disobedience ○ Causes:
○ Context: Rajkumar Shukla invited ■ Crop failure in Kheda due to
Gandhi to address the issues of drought, with a yield less than
Indigo planters in Champaran, 1/4th of normal.
Bihar. ■ Government still demanded
○ Problems: taxes.
■ Peasants forced to grow indigo ○ Actions:
on 3/20th of their land ■ Gandhi encouraged farmers
(Tinkathia System). not to pay taxes.
■ European planters demanded ■ Leadership: Sardar Vallabhbhai
high rents and illegal dues to Patel, Narhari Parekh, and
maximize profits. Mohanlal Pandya.
○ Gandhi’s Intervention: 25% of the ○ Outcomes:
money was given to farmers after ■ Government concessions:
Gandhi’s involvement. property was returned, and tax
○ Leaders Associated: suspended for the year.
■ Rajendra Prasad,
Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadeo Emergence of a Wider Movement
Desai, Narhari Parekh, and J.B.
Kripalani ● 1919 Context:
■ Other contributors: Brajkishore ○ Rowlatt Act continued harsh
Prasad, Anurag Narayan Sinha, wartime measures
Ramnavmi Prasad, ○ Gandhi called for a nationwide
Shambhusharan Verma campaign against the Rowlatt Act
○ Achievements: ○ Amritsar, April 1919: British troops
■ 25% compensation for fired on a nationalist meeting
peasants. (Jallianwala Bagh massacre)
● Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) – First ● Satyagraha Against Rowlatt Act
Hunger Strike ○ Leadership:
○ Dispute: ■ Led by Gandhi, also called the
■ Discontinuation of plague Black Act
bonus led to disputes between ○ Activities:
cotton mill owners and workers. ■ Gandhi organized Satyagraha
■ Workers demanded a 50% rise Sabha
in wages. ■ Nationwide hartal, fasting, and
prayer
○ Impact:
■ Shifted the orientation of the
national movement to the
masses

042
● Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) & No-Changers
Khilafat Andolan
○ Three Demands: ● Leaders: Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai
■ Favourable treaty for Turkey Patel, Rajendra Prasad, M.A. Ansari.
■ Redressal of Punjab wrongs ● Goals:
■ Establishment of Swaraj ○ Oppose council entry.
○ Khilafat Committee: ○ Advocate constructive work and
■ Formed in 1919 by Maulana continued non-cooperation.
Azad, Ali brothers, Shaukat Ali, ○ Prepare for civil disobedience
and Mohammad Ali quietly.
■ Congress supported the ● Beliefs:
movement ○ Parliamentary work would lead to
■ Gandhi aimed to merge neglect of constructive work.
Khilafat with the ○ Loss of revolutionary zeal and
Non-Cooperation Movement political corruption.
○ Key Events:
■ November 1919: All India Khilafat Differences and Compromise
Conference (Delhi), Gandhi as
president ● Disagreements:
○ Led to the defeat of the Swarajist
proposal of “ending or mending”
at the Gaya Session (1922).
[Link] and ○ C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru
No-Changers resigned from INC and formed the
Swarajist Party.
● Compromise:
After Gandhi’s arrest, nationalist ranks ○ Meeting in Delhi (1923) led to an
experienced disintegration, disorganization, agreement.
and demoralization. ○ Swarajists could contest elections
as a group within the INC.
Swarajists ○ Swarajists agreed to join
legislative councils while
● Leaders: C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Amjad maintaining unity with the INC.
Khan.
● Goals: Swarajist Manifesto for Elections (1923)
○ End the boycott of legislative
councils. ● Stance:
○ Enable nationalists to enter ○ Strong anti-colonial position.
councils for their benefit. ○ Criticized British motives in India.
○ Aim to “end or mend” the councils. ○ Claimed reforms were a facade
● Beliefs: for selfish interests.
○ Council entry would not negate ○ Presented nationalist demands for
the movement but open a new self-government in councils.
front. ○ Planned uniform, continuous, and
○ Council work would boost morale consistent obstruction within
during the political vacuum. councils if demands were rejected.
○ Councils could serve as arenas of
political struggle.

043
Gandhi’s Attitude Towards Swarajists Drawbacks

● Initially opposed but reconciled after ● Lacked public outreach compared to

his release in 1924. the INC.
● Expressed solidarity with Swarajists ● Relied on newspapers and publications.
during government crackdowns. ● Obstructionist strategy had limitations.
● Agreement at the Belgaum session ● Could not maintain coalition
(1924) for Swarajists to work within partnerships.
councils as part of INC. ● Failed to resist perks and privileges of
power.
Swarajists' Activity in Councils ● Did not support the peasant cause in
Bengal, losing Muslim support.
● Challenges:
○ Weakened by widespread riots Constructive Work by No-Changers
and internal divisions
(Responsivist-Non-Responsivist ● Efforts:
lines). ○ Established ashrams for working
○ Lost support of many Muslims in among tribals and lower castes.
Bengal. ○ Popularized Charkha and Khadi.
○ Death of C.R. Das further ○ Set up national schools and
weakened the party. colleges with non-colonial
● Responsivists: ideology.
○ Advocated cooperation with the ○ Worked for Hindu-Muslim unity.
government. ○ Promoted boycott of foreign
○ Sought to protect Hindu interests. clothes and liquor, removal of
● Outcomes: untouchability.
○ Main leadership withdrew from ○ Served as the backbone of civil
legislatures in March 1926. disobedience.
○ Faction fought 1926 elections but ● Drawbacks:
did not perform well. ○ National education did not reach
○ Finally walked out in 1930 following rural or poor urban populations.
the resolution for Purna Swaraj at ○ Khadi was costlier than Western
the Lahore Session (1929). clothing.
○ Economic grievances of landless
Achievements and agricultural laborers (mostly
Harijans) were not addressed.
● Outvoted the government several times
with coalition partners. Emergence of New Forces
● Made powerful speeches against the
government. ● 1930s Developments:
● Vithalbhai Patel elected as Speaker of ○ Indian masses joined the national
Central Assembly in 1925. movement.
● Defeated the Public Safety Bill of 1928. ○ National-level portrayal of political
● Filled the political vacuum and exposed ideas.
hollowness of the Montford scheme. ○ Gandhian philosophy of
● Demonstrated creative use of councils. Satyagraha gained confidence
among common people.
○ Influences from international
political thinkers.

044
 [Link] Disobedience Delhi Manifesto (1929)
Movement (CDM)
● Conditions for attending RTC:
○ Formulate a constitution for
Background dominion status implementation,
acting as a Constituent Assembly.
● Post Non-cooperation Movement ○ Congress should have majority
○ Gandhi focused on social reforms. representation.
● 1928: ● General amnesty for political prisoners
○ Considered re-entering politics. and a policy of conciliation..
○ Supported all-India campaign
against the all-White Simon 1929 Lahore Session
Commission.
○ Gandhi supported but did not ● December 1929: Congress session in
participate. Lahore.
○ Supported peasant satyagraha in ○ Jawaharlal Nehru elected as
Bardoli. President.
○ Commitment to “Purna Swaraj”
(complete independence).
● 26 January 1930: Observance of
“Independence Day”.
○ National flag hoisted, patriotic
songs sung.
○ Gandhi’s instructions: Village and
city declarations, simultaneous
meetings, and use of drums for
advertising.
○ Activities: Spinning, service to
Disappointment with Nehru Report
untouchables, Hindu-Muslim
● Figures like J. Nehru, Bose, and reunification, prohibition work.
Satyamurthy expressed
Events
disappointment.
● December 1928:
● 1929: Gandhi traveled extensively,
○ Calcutta Session of Congress,
organized constructive work along the
President: Motilal Nehru.
lines of Bardoli Agitation (1928).
○ Formation of All India Youth
● 31 Oct 1929: Irwin’s Declaration – British
Congress.
government aimed to facilitate India
○ Nehru Report approved.
attaining dominion status in the future.
○ One-year ultimatum to the
○ No mention of any timeline.
government to accept dominion
○ Promised a Round Table
status or face civil disobedience for
Conference after the Simon
complete independence
Commission submitted its report.
Events of 1929

● CWC appointed a Foreign Cloth Boycott

Committee.
● Britain had a Labour government under
PM Ramsay MacDonald.
● SoS for India: Wedgewood Benn.
● 31 Oct 1929: Irwin's Declaration (Diwali
declaration) aimed to restore faith in
British policy and promised an RTC

045
● 2 Nov 1929: Delhi Manifesto – National Gandhi’s Eleven Demands
leaders put forward certain conditions
for attending the RTC. ● Issues of General Interest
○ Viceroy Irwin rejected the ○ Reduce expenditure on army and
demands. civil services by 50%.
● Dec 1929: Lahore Session of Congress, ○ Introduce total prohibition.
President: Jawaharlal Nehru (Gandhi ○ Reforms in CID.
backing). ○ Change Arms Act for popular
○ Round Table Conference to be control of firearms licenses.
boycotted. ○ Release political prisoners.
○ Congress decided to boycott the ○ Accept Postal Reservation Bill.
First RTC. ○ Reduce rupee-sterling exchange
○ Passed the resolution on ‘Poorna ratio to 1s 4d.
Swaraj.’ ○ Introduce textile protection.
○ Civil Disobedience Movement for ○ Reserve coastal shipping for
complete independence to be Indians.
launched. ○ Reduce land revenue by 50%.
○ 26 January to be observed as ○ Abolish salt tax and government's
‘Independence Day’/Swarajya Day. salt monopoly.
● 31 Dec 1929: Ravi river, tricolour flag of
freedom hoisted by J. Nehru. Empowerment of Gandhi to Initiate CDM
● 26 Jan 1930: Independence Pledge
(drafted by M. Gandhi). ● Congress Working Committee
empowered Gandhi due to the
Gandhi’s Rationale for Salt government’s lack of response.
● Gandhi chose salt as the focal point for
● Gandhi described the salt tax as a the movement, decision solidified by
“wicked dog-in-the-manger policy”. the end of February.
● High tax rates and destruction of
surplus salt. The Salt March (Dandi March)
● Deprives people of a vital necessity and
promotes waste. ● Dandi March (12 March - 6 April 1930)
● Considered the tax a fourfold curse: ○ Women Participation: Sarojini
destruction of industry, property, Naidu, Kamaladevi
national expenditure, and excessive tax. Chattopadhyay.
○ Gandhi’s Future Action Directions:
Salt Satyagraha Movement to fight
against salt tax monopoly.
● March 1930:
○ Gandhi led the Salt March.
○ Targeted the British salt monopoly
law.
○ Salt was essential and its
monopoly was deeply unpopular.
○ Aimed to mobilize discontent
against British rule.
● 12 March 1930:
○ Gandhi began his march from
Sabarmati ashram.
○ Reached the ocean after three
weeks, made salt, breaking the
law.
○ Parallel salt marches were
conducted across India.

046
Spread of the Movement [Link] War II and Congress
Position
● The Salt March brought Mahatma
Gandhi to global prominence.
● It was widely covered by European and September 1939:
American press.
● War broke out.
Women's Participation ● Gandhi and Nehru criticized Hitler and
Nazis.
● The Salt March saw large-scale ● Congress promised support in
participation by women. exchange for a post-war
● Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, a socialist independence guarantee.
activist, persuaded Gandhi to include
women. Congress Ministries Resign (October 1939):
● Many women, including Kamaladevi,
broke salt or liquor laws and were ● Congress ministries resigned after
arrested. failed negotiations on war support and
independence.
Impact on British Perception
1938 Haripura Conference:
● The Salt March made the British realize
their Raj might not last forever. ● Plan for the formation of the National
● It led to the convening of the Round Planning Committee.
Table Conferences in London.
1939 Tripuri Session:
Regional Participation
● Key Figures:
● Tamil Nadu (TN) ○ Rajendra Prasad
○ C. Rajagopalachari: ○ Pattabhi Sitaramayya
■ Organized a march from
Thiruchirapalli to Ambedkar’s Response:
Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore
coast. ● Ambedkar on Separate Electorates:
■ Faced violent eruptions of ○ Argued that separate electorates
masses and violent repressions were necessary for the Depressed
by police. Classes.
■ Led the Choolai Mills Strike. ○ Believed they needed political
● Malabar power to protect themselves
○ K. Kelappan (Vaikom Satyagraha): against organized tyranny.
■ Organized salt marches.
○ P. Krishna Pillai:
■ Future founder of the Kerala
Communist Movement.
■ Defended the national flag
during a police lathi-charge on
Calicut beach in November
1930.

047
Forward Bloc: World War II Context:

● Formation and Activities: ● World War II was fought between the

○ May 1939: Formed by Bose and his Fascist forces of Nazi Germany and the
followers. Axis Powers. Britain needed support
○ Vice-President: S. S. Cavesheer. from India in fighting the war. The
○ Location: Makur, Unnao (UP). Congress had two demands:
○ Formed as a new party within ○ To form a Constituent Assembly
Congress. after the war for deciding the
○ 1st All India Conference held in political structure of Free India.
Nagpur. ○ Some form of responsible
○ Declared as a socialist political government to be established.
party.
○ June 22, 1940: Considered the Linlithgow's Response:
founding date.
○ Passed a resolution titled "All ● Viceroy from 1936-1944.
Power to the Indian People," urging ● Rejected Congress’s demands.
militant action against British rule. ● Tried to use the Muslim League and the
○ August 1942: British authorities Princes against Congress.
banned the Forward Bloc. ● Declared that the Government aimed
to resist aggression at present.
1937: ● Promised to set up a consultative
committee to seek advice whenever
● Gandhi’s "Nai Talim" advocated for required.
basic education for all. ● Promised consultations with
representatives of several communities
May 1940: and Princes for the modification of the
Government of India Act 1935.
● Top secret Draft Revolutionary
Movement Ordinance prepared, aimed Congress Working Committee (CWC)
at launching pre-emptive strikes on Resolution:
Congress.
● India was denied freedom itself, hence
Zetland’s Statement (during British PM it could not be part of a war for
Winston Churchill’s tenure): democratic freedom.
● Britain should end imperialism and
● Branded Congress as a purely Hindu establish democracy in its own
organization. colonies.
● Government should declare the
January 1940: method of applying the principle of
democracy to India.
● Linlithgow announced that the goal of
British policy in India was dominion
status of the Westminster variety after
the war.

March 1940 Lahore Session:

● Pakistan Resolution adopted by the

Muslim League.

048
Government Response: Ramgarh Session of Congress (March
1940):
● Linlithgow tried to use the Muslim
League and the Princes against the ● Congress’s Resolution:
Congress. ○ It would resort to mass struggle
● Declared that the Government aimed once Congress was
to resist aggression at present. organizationally fit or if the
● Set up a consultative committee to circumstances required.
seek advice whenever required. ● Left-Wing Group:
● Promised consultations with ○ Subhash Bose and Forward Bloc,
representatives of several communities CPI, CSP, the Royalists urged
and Princes for the modification of the Congress to take immediate
Government of India Act 1935. measures for a mass movement.
● Nehru’s Stand:
Reaction of Congress: ○ Saw the imperialist character of
the Government but would not
● Rejected the Viceregal's statement as a contribute to a Nazi Germany win.
repetition of old imperialist policy. ○ Followed Congress’s majority
● Decided not to support the war and opinion.
called for Congress ministers to resign.
● Congress leadership was against
immediate and anti-imperialistic mass
struggle.

Hidden Agenda of the Government:

● To suppress any voices which rose

against the Government and gain
support in war.
● Acquired emergency powers for the August Offer (1940):
center by amending the Government of
India Act 1935. ● Context:
● Defense of India Ordinance was ○ Proposed after Hitler's success and
enforced to restrict civil liberties. the fall of Belgium.
● Draft Revolutionary Movement ○ Britain sought India's support in
Ordinance was prepared to prevent the war.
Congress’s movement. ● Offer Details:
● The Government could call Allied troops ○ Dominion Status: Mentioned as an
from India to support the war. objective for India for the first time.
○ Expansion of Viceroy’s Executive
Council.
○ Constituent Assembly: To be set
up after the war, primarily
composed of Indians to decide the
constitution based on social,
economic, and political situations.
○ Government Control: Defense,
minority rights, treaties with states,
and All India Services to remain
under government control.
○ Consent of Minorities: No future
constitution to be adopted without
minority consent.

049
 ● Key Demands:
○ Japanese Government to explicitly
recognize India as an independent
nation.
[Link] Chandra Bose ○ Recognition of the League as
India’s national representative.
○ Indian National Army to be
Escape and Activities (1941-1942) recognized as an Allied army, with
prisoners of war handed over to it.
● Departure from India: Left in 1941 ○ Assurance of India's
disguised and lived in Germany from post-independence relations with
1938-45. Japan and respect for its
● In Berlin: sovereignty.
○ Established “Free India Radio.”
○ Raised a unit of Indian Prisoners of Bose in Japan (1943)
War under the name “Freedom ● Arrival and Objectives:
Army (Mukti Sena).” ○ Arrived in Japan in May 1943 to
○ Utilized Berlin Radio, later known as seek Japanese support for
Azad Hind Radio. Its headquarters expelling the British and achieving
were shifted to Singapore and Indian independence.
then to Rangoon. ○ After Mohan Singh's arrest and
removal from INA, Bose took
Tokyo Conference (March 1942) command of the Indian National
Army.
● Indian National Army Initiatives:
● Background:
○ Azad School: For training recruits
○ Rash Bihari Bose and Jawaharlal (POWs).
Nehru formed the Indian ○ Rani Jhansi Regiment: First
Independence League in 1928. women’s regiment in Asia under
○ The Tokyo Conference led to the Captain Laxmi Swaminathan.
formation of a new chapter of the ○ Officer’s Training School: Under
Indian Independence League. Habib Ur Rehman.
○ Indian National Army (Azad Hind
Fauz): Planned for the liberation of Provisional Government of Free India
India with Mohan Singh Deb as the (October 1943)
proposed Commander-in-Chief.
● Formation and Recognition:
● Results: ○ Provisional Government of Free
○ The conference was attended by India was formed on 21 October
Indians from Burma to Malaya but 1943 in Singapore.
faced apprehension regarding ○ Recognized by Japan, Germany,
Japanese interests. Italy, Croatia, Burma, Thailand,
○ A decision was made to meet in Nationalist China, and the
Bangkok at a future date. Philippines.
○ All-Malayan Indian
Independence League (1942,
Singapore): Organized by Rash
Bihari Bose, addressing issues of
local Indians in plantations.
○ Bangkok Conference (June 1942):
Chaired by Rash Bihari Bose,
passed a 34-point resolution
making the Indian National Army
subordinate to the Indian
Independence League.

050
● Territorial Gains: Germany and INA
○ Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
Ceded by the Japanese ● Freedom Army (Mukti Sena): Formed
Government, renamed as from Indian POWs captured by
Shaheed Dweep and Swaraj Germany and Italy.
Dweep. ● Free Indian Legion (Infanterie
○ National Flag Hoisting: 30 Regiment 950) (1942): Regiment of the
December 1943. German Army formed from Indian
● Military Campaigns: volunteers.
○ Battle of Imphal (March-July ● Bose's Nickname in Germany: Known
1943): INA and Japanese forces as Netaji.
attempted to invade Imphal but ● Famous Slogan: "Jai Hind" from the Free
were driven back by Allied forces. India Center in Germany.
○ Battle of Kohima: Another
unsuccessful attempt to encircle Origin and Phases of INA
the British.
○ Military Actions: ● Initiation:
■ March 1944: INA began a ○ Idea initiated by Mohan Singh.
military campaign against ○ September 1942: Formation of the
Burma, with “Delhi Chalo” as 1st division of INA.
the battle cry. ● Second Phase:
■ January 1944: INA HQ shifted to ○ June 1943: Bose arrived in Tokyo
Rangoon, with war cry “Chalo and took command of INA.
Delhi.” ○ August 1943: Subhas Chandra Bose
■ April 1944: INA flag hoisted on became Supreme Commander of
Indian mainland at Moirang, INA.
Manipur by Colonel Malik of ○ October 1943: Bose formed the
Bahadur Group. Provisional Government of Free
India in Singapore.
Final Events and Legacy ● Key Figures:
○ Finance: H. C. Chatterjee
● Final Address: ○ Broadcasting: M. A. Aiyar
○ July 1944: Bose addressed Gandhi ○ Women’s Department: Lakshmi
as the Father of the Nation from Swaminathan
Azad Hind Radio. ● Slogan: "Give me blood, I will give you
● Death: freedom" (Malaya).
○ 18 August 1945: Bose died ● November 1943: Andaman and Nicobar
mysteriously in an air crash at Islands were given to INA by Japanese
Taipei (Taiwan). Army.
● January 1944: INA HQ shifted to
INA and Subhas Chandra Bose Rangoon; war cry: "Chalo Delhi."
● March 1944: Azad Hind Fauz crossed
● Political Mentor: Chittaranjan Das (CR Burma border.
Das). ● April 1944: INA flag hoisted for the first
● March 1940: Convened time on Indian mainland at Moirang,
Anti-Compromise Conference at Manipur.
Ramgarh, a joint effort of Forward Bloc ● July 1944: Bose addressed Gandhi from
and Kisan Sabha. Azad Hind Radio.
● Pseudonyms: ● August 1945: Bose’s death in an air
○ Peshawar: Ziauddin crash at Taipei (Taiwan).
○ Germany: Orlando Mazzotta
○ Tokyo: Abid Hussain

051
End of World War II and Subsequent Events RIN Mutiny (1946)

● 2 September 1945: End of World War II. ● Causes:

● 19 September 1945: Announcement of ○ Poor pay, food, and racial
Elections. discrimination led to a mutiny
● Elections scheduled between under Ratings of HMIS Talwar.
December 1945 and January 1946. ○ Flags of Congress, Muslim League,
● Constituent Assembly and Election and CPI were hoisted.
Commission (EC) to be formed based ● Resolution:
on these elections. ○ Ended by intervention of Sardar
● Muslim League: Announced direct Patel; despite assurances,
action from 16 August 1946. mutineers faced trials.
○ Led to violence in Bombay with a
General Elections, 1945 loss of 200 lives.
● Significance:
● Labour Party under Clement Atlee ○ Cabinet Mission was sent to India
came to power. on 19th February 1946.
● Sir Patrick Lawrence became the new
Secretary of State for India. Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
● Major Steps Taken:
○ Announcement of General ● Composition: Sir Patrick Lawrence, Sir
Elections in India after 10 years; the Stafford Cripps, V. Alexander.
last one was held in 1936. ● Objectives:
● Congress: ○ Arrangements for Interim
○ Won 91% of non-Muslim seats. Government.
○ Had absolute majority in Madras, ○ Devise mechanism for the
United Province, Bihar, Orissa, formation of the Constitution of
Central Province. Free India.
● Muslim League: ● Plan Details:
○ Secured all Muslim seats. ○ Common Centre: Control of
○ Had absolute majority in Sindh defense, communication, and
and Bengal. external affairs.
● Significance: ○ Interim Government: Formed from
○ Muslim League established as a the Constituent Assembly with
dominant Muslim party unlike in minimal Viceroy interference.
the Elections of 1935. ○ Constituent Assembly: Formation
○ Separate Electorate and Limited based on democratic principles.
franchise contributed to ○ Voting in 3 groups (General,
communal voting in the elections. Muslims, Sikhs) through
Proportional Representation.
○ 389 members: 292 from Provinces,
93 from Princely states, 4 from
Chief Commissioner Provinces.
○ Subjects Allocation: All except
Union and Residuary to Provinces.
○ Princely States: Retain all subjects
and free to join either India or
Pakistan.
○ Three-tier Executive and
Legislature: Provincial, Section, and
Union level.

052
 ● Reasons for Partition:
[Link] Negotiations and ○ Punjab: Sikh leaders and
Partition Congressmen feared being
overwhelmed by Muslim majorities.
○ Bengal: Bengali Hindus feared
Political Negotiations and Partition permanent Muslim dominance and
sought political control through
Developments Leading to Partition division.

● 1945: Labour government in Britain The Withdrawal of Law and Order

committed to granting independence
to India. ● The Bloodbath and Governance
● Early 1946: Provincial elections held. Collapse:
○ Congress won the “General” ○ Duration: The violence continued
category seats. for about a year from March 1947
○ Muslim League won the majority in onwards.
reserved Muslim seats. ● Governance Collapse:
○ Punjab: Violence affected both ○ Penderel Moon observed police in
Muslims and Hindus. Bahawalpur failing to act during
arson and killings in Amritsar in
Mahatma Gandhi’s Opposition March 1947.
○ Severe bloodshed occurred later
● Gandhi’s View: in the year due to a breakdown of
○ Described his stance as “a voice in authority.
the wilderness.” ● British Officials' Inaction:
○ Viewed those dividing India as ○ Indecisive and hesitant to
enemies of Islam and India. intervene.
● Quotes: ○ People in distress were advised to
○ Prayer Meeting, 7 September contact Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, or
1946: Advocated unity between Jinnah.
Hindus and Muslims. ○ Uncertainty about who held
○ Harijan, 26 September 1946: authority.
Criticized the demand for Partition ● Indian Leaders' Involvement:
as contrary to Islamic principles. ○ Preoccupied with independence
negotiations.
Towards Partition ○ Many Indian civil servants in
affected provinces feared for their
● Direct Action: lives.
○ 16 August 1946: Muslim League ● Communal Tensions:
announced “Direct Action Day.” ○ Indian soldiers and policemen
● Spread of Violence: acted based on religious
○ By March 1947, violence spread to affiliations.
northern India. ○ Professional commitment was
● Congress Decision: compromised, leading to
○ In March 1947, Congress high policemen aiding co-religionists
command voted to divide Punjab and attacking other communities.
into Muslim-majority and
Hindu/Sikh-majority regions.
○ Sought similar division for Bengal.

053
Mahatma Gandhi's Efforts ● Recovery Operation:
○ Estimated 30,000 women
● Gandhi's Campaign: “recovered” in total: 22,000 Muslim
○ At 77, Gandhi dedicated himself to women in India and 800 Hindu
restoring communal harmony. and Sikh women in Pakistan.
○ Traveled from Noakhali (East ○ Operation continued until 1954.
Bengal) to Bihar, Calcutta, and ● Case Study:
Delhi. ○ A Sikh youth’s marriage to a
○ Aimed to stop Hindu-Muslim Muslim girl and their eventual
violence and reassure minority tragic fate illustrate the trauma
communities. faced by “recovered” women.
● Efforts in East Bengal:
○ In October 1946, Gandhi visited Preserving “Honour”
East Bengal where Muslims
targeted Hindus. ● Concept of Honour:
○ Persuaded local Muslims to ensure ○ Ideas of honour involved
Hindu safety. protecting "zan" (women) and
● Efforts in Delhi: "zamin" (land).
○ Worked to build trust between ○ Women were often killed by their
Hindus and Muslims. own communities to avoid
○ Shahid Ahmad Dehlavi likened "enemy" violation.
Gandhi's arrival in Delhi on 9 ● Example:
September 1947 to "the arrival of ○ In Thoa Khalsa, Rawalpindi, ninety
the rains after a particularly long women reportedly jumped into a
and harsh summer." well to avoid capture.
○ 28 November 1947: Gandhi ○ Survivors commemorate this
addressed a meeting of Sikhs at event as martyrdom.
Gurdwara Sisganj on Guru Nanak’s
birthday. Experiences in Different Regions
○ Expressed shame over the
absence of Muslims in Chandni ● Punjab:
Chowk. ○ Most bloody and destructive.
● Impact of Gandhi’s Fast: ○ Near-total displacement of Hindus
○ Led many Hindu and Sikh migrants and Sikhs to India and Muslims to
to fast with him. Pakistan between 1946 and 1948.
○ The fast had an "electric" effect, ● Other Regions:
making people realize the folly of ○ Migration continued in Uttar
violence against Muslims. Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
○ Gandhi's martyrdom ultimately and Hyderabad through the 1950s
ended the violence. and 1960s.
○ Urdu-speaking muhajirs mostly
“Recovering” Women moved to Karachi-Hyderabad in
Sind.
● Experiences of Women:
○ Women faced rape, abduction, and
forced resettlement.
○ Many formed new family bonds but
were later forcibly returned to their
original families.

054
● Bengal: ● Counterview:
○ Migration was protracted with ○ The history of conflict coexisted
people moving across a porous with a history of sharing and
border. mutual cultural exchange.
○ Bengali division was less total; ○ Changing circumstances shaped
many Bengali Hindus stayed in people’s thinking.
East Pakistan and Bengali Muslims
in West Bengal.
○ Bengali Muslims rejected Jinnah’s
two-nation theory and created Communal Politics
Bangladesh in 1971-72.
● Commonality: ● Some scholars view Partition as the
○ Women and girls were targeted in result of communal politics
both Punjab and Bengal. developing in the early 20th century:
● Impact: ○ Separate electorates for Muslims
○ Partition viewed as necessary to (1909 and 1919) influenced
ensure political balance and communal politics.
dominance for various groups. ○ Separate electorates allowed
Muslims to elect their own
Factors Leading to Partition representatives.
○ Politicians used sectarian slogans
● Complexities and interplay of and favours to build support.
communal tensions, political failures, ○ Community identities became
and the reactions of various groups markers of opposition and hostility.
contributed to the decision for Partition. ● Limitations:
● Evaluate which factors were most ○ Separate electorates had a
influential in leading to Partition and profound impact but were not the
why. sole cause of Partition.
○ Early 20th-century developments
Culminating Point of a Long History? also contributed to communal
identities.
● Historical Perspective:
○ Some historians argue Jinnah’s
theory of Hindus and Muslims as
separate nations has historical
roots in medieval times.
○ They connect 1947’s events to
long-standing Hindu-Muslim
conflict.

055
 [Link] Movement of the
Working Class

● Low wages
● Employment of child labor
● Unhygienic and hazardous working
conditions
● No support from early nationalists
● Dual exploitation by foreign
government and local capitalists
● Absence of basic amenities
● Long working hours

Contribution of Important Personalities:

● Bal Gangadhar Tilak:

● Lala Lajpat Rai:
○ One of the Lal Bal Pal trio; radical ○ Known as Punjab Kesari; one of the
nationalist but a social Lal Bal Pal trio.
conservative. ○ President of INC in Calcutta
○ Known as "The father of the Indian Special Session of 1920.
○ Founded Servants of the People
unrest" by Sir Valentine Chirol and Society in Lahore in 1921.
"The Maker of Modern India" by ○ Traveled to the US in 1917.
Mahatma Gandhi. ○ Led a non-violent march against
○ Strong advocate of Swaraj the Simon Commission; later died
from injuries after a police assault.
("self-rule"). ○ Founded Arya Gazette; authored
○ Slogan: "Swarajya is my birth-right several works including The Story
and I shall have it!" of My Deportation (1908), Arya
○ Joined Congress in 1890; opposed Samaj (1915), The United States of
America: A Hindu’s Impression
moderate attitude. (1916), The Problem of National
○ Addressed the Bubonic Plague Education in India (1920), Unhappy
issue through articles in Kesari India (1928), England's Debt to
(Marathi) and Maratha (English). India (1917), and various
autobiographical writings.
○ Charged with incitement to ○ Wrote biographies of Mazzini,
murder and sentenced to 18 Garibaldi, Shivaji, and Shrikrishna.
months’ imprisonment after the
Chapekar brothers killed Plague Efforts for Reform of Labor Conditions:
Commissioner Rand and Lt. Ayerst.
● 1870:
○ Defended Prafulla Chaki and ○ Sasipada Baneerjee started
Khudiram Bose for the mistaken Workingmen’s Club and
killing of two women; sentenced to newspaper Bharat Shramjeevi.
six years in Mandalay, Burma. ● 1878:
○ Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was his pushed for a labor bill in the
lawyer. Bombay legislative assembly.
○ Founded All India Home Rule ● 1880:
League in 1916–18 in Maharashtra, ○ Narayan Meghajee Lokhanday
started Bombay Mill and Millhands
Central Provinces, Karnataka, and Association and newspaper
Berar region. Deenbandhu.
○ Impressed by the Russian ● 1899:
Revolution; authored The Arctic ○ Great Indian Peninsular Railway
strike, supported by Tilak’s Kesari
Home in the Vedas and Shrimadh and Maratha.
Bhagvad Gita Rahasya.

056
● 1921: [Link] of British
○ Formation of All India Trade Union Policies in India
Congress (AITUC).
○ First President: Lala Lajpat Rai.
○ First General Secretary: Dewan Indian Factories Act 1881:
Chaman Lal.
● 1926: ● Focus: Child labor (ages 7 to 12)
○ The Trade Union Act, 1926. ● Restrictions:
○ Organized trade unions as legal ○ Children under 7 years prohibited
associations. from working
○ Procedures for registration and ○ Maximum working hours: 9 hours
regulation of trade unions. ○ 4 holidays per month
○ Secured civil and criminal ○ Hazardous machinery must be
immunity for legitimate trade properly fenced off
union actions.
● 1928: Indian Factories Act 1891:
○ Six-month strike in Bombay Textile
● Children:
Mills led by Girni Kamgar Union.
○ Minimum age: 9 years (formerly 7
○ Industrial unrest with the rise of
years)
communist groups: S. A. Dange,
○ Maximum age: 12 to 14 years
Muzaffar Ahmed, P. C. Joshi, Sohan
○ Working hours: 7 hours
Singh Joshi.
● Women:
● 1929:
○ Fixed maximum working hours: 11
○ Public Safety Ordinance and Trade
hours
Disputes Act.
○ 1.5 hours interval
○ Made strikes in public utility
● Men: Working hours left unregulated
services illegal.
○ Weekly holidays: Provided for all
○ Forbade coercive or purely
● Note: These laws did not apply to
political trade union activity.
British-owned tea and coffee
● 1929:
plantations; labor was treated poorly.
○ Meerut Conspiracy Case.
● Post-Revolt of 1857:
○ Arrest of 31 labor leaders; trial
○ Policy of annexation was
leading to convictions of Muzaffar
abandoned.
Ahmad, S.A. Dange, Joglekar, Philip
○ New policy: Depose or punish but
Spratt, Ben Bradley, Shaukat
not annex.
Usmani, and others.
● 1876:
● 1931:
○ Queen adopted the title:
○ Split in AITUC; formation of All India
Kaiser-i-Hind (Queen Empress of
Trade Union Federation led by N. M.
India).
Joshi.
● 1937:
○ During elections, AITUC supported
Congress.
○ Congress ministries were
sympathetic to workers' causes.
● 1938-1945:
○ Workers joined World War II effort
and dissociated from Quit India
Movement after Russia joined the
war.

057
 [Link] Of Education

Economic Impacts of British Rule in India:

1781:
● Charter Act of 1813:
○ Allowed one-way free trade for ● Calcutta Madrasah by Warren Hastings
British citizens. ○ Focus: Study of Muslim law and
● Commercial Crops: related subjects
○ Cotton, jute, groundnut, oilseeds,
sugarcane, tobacco. 1791:
● Plantation Sector:
○ Tea, coffee, rubber, indigo. ● Sanskrit College @Benaras by
● Ship-Building Industry: Jonathan Duncan
○ 1813 Law: Prohibited ships below ○ Focus: Study of Hindu law and
350 tonnes from sailing between philosophy
India and Britain.
○ 1814 Law: India-built ships were 1800:
not considered 'British-registered
vessels.' ● Fort William College by Wellesley
● Steel Industries: ○ Purpose: Training of civil servants
○ Forced to produce high standard in Indian languages and customs
steel; unable to produce low ○ Closed in 1802
standard steel.
1813:
● 1853:
○ First Cotton Textile Mill in Bombay ● Charter Act 1813: Allocation of 1 lakh
by Cowasjee Nanabhoy. pounds for education
● 1855: ○ Funds not made available until
○ First Jute Mill in Rishra (Bengal). 1823
● Nationalist Critique of Colonial ○ Controversy regarding the
Economy: direction of the funds
○ D. Naoroji: Theory of economic ○ Official introduction of state
drain in "Poverty & Un-British Rule support for education
in India."
○ R.C. Dutt: "The Economic History of 1817:
India."
○ G.V. Joshi: ● Hindu College @Calcutta
■ Expenditure on railways viewed ○ Founded by RRR & David Hare, with
as Indian subsidy to British Alexander Duff
industries.
1824:

● Sanskrit College @Calcutta by

Government
○ Additional colleges set up at Delhi
and Agra

058
1835: ■ Bottom: Villages - vernacular
primary schools
● Macaulay's Minute (also known as ■ High schools -
Adam's Report) Anglo-Vernacular
○ In favor of Anglicist education ■ District level - Affiliated
○ Promoted Downward Filtration colleges
Theory (DFT) ■ Presidency towns (Bombay,
○ View: Indian learning was inferior Madras, Calcutta) - Affiliated
to European learning universities
○ James Thomson Scheme ○ Vernacular schools for primary
■ James Thomson was Lt. education; English for higher
Governor of NW Provinces studies
(1843-53) [NWP = present-day ○ Introduction of secular education
UP except Faizabad & Lucknow ○ Grants-in-aid system to
division] encourage private enterprise
■ Comprehensive scheme of
village education in vernacular 1857:
■ Useful subjects: mensuration
and agricultural science ● Establishment of Universities in
■ Purpose: To train personnel for Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta
newly established Revenue
Department and Public Works 1882-83:
Department
○ 1847: Establishment of IIT Roorkee ● Hunter Education Commission
○ Background: Earlier schemes
1849: neglected primary and secondary
education
● Bethune School @Calcutta ○ 1870: Education transferred to
○ Also known as Calcutta Female provinces
School ○ Aims: Review progress of
○ Founded by JED Bethune with education since the 1854 Despatch
assistance from ICV ○ Focus: Primary and secondary
education
1854: ○ Recommendations:
■ Special care for extension and
● Wood's Despatch improvement of primary
○ Known as the Magna Carta of education (vernacular)
English Education in India ■ Transfer of control of primary
○ First comprehensive plan for the education to district and
spread of education in India municipal boards
○ Government responsibility for ■ Secondary education divided
mass education; rejected into literary (leading to
Downward Filtration Theory university) and vocational
○ Systematized hierarchy: (commercial careers)
■ Address inadequate facilities
for female education and
spread education outside
presidency towns

059
1882: ■ 12-year school course; 3-year
degree
● Establishment of Punjab University ■ Separate board for secondary
and intermediate education
1887: ■ Less rigidity in university
regulations
● Establishment of Allahabad University ■ Universities should be
centralized, unitary
1902: residential-teaching
autonomous bodies, rather
● Raleigh Commission
than scattered affiliated
○ Purpose: Review conditions and
colleges
prospects of universities in India
○ Report: 13 volumes providing a
○ Resulted in the Indian Universities
comprehensive survey of
Act, 1904
educational problems from
secondary to university education
1904:
○ Establishment of Board of Women
● Indian Universities Act, 1904 Education in Calcutta University
○ Focus: Study and research ○ Government received Saddler
○ Reduced number of fellows and Report and sent it to Provincial
their term in office; increased Governments in 1920
government-nominated fellows
1929:
○ Government power to veto
university regulations and amend
● Hartog Committee
or pass regulations
○ Aim: Report on development of
○ Stricter conditions for affiliation of
education
private colleges
○ Main Recommendations:
○ Allocation of 5 lakhs pounds for 5
■ Emphasis on primary
years to improve higher education
education without hasty
and universities
expansion
○ Inference: Increased government
■ Deserving students should
control; criticized by Gokhale as a
continue to high school and
retrograde measure
intermediate stages
■ Average students should be
1917-19:
directed towards vocational
● Saddler University Commission courses after 8th standard
○ Aim: Study and report on problems
1937:
of Calcutta University
○ Applicable to other universities as
● Wardha Scheme of Basic Education
well
○ Organized by INC National
○ Observations:
Conference on Education in
October 1937 in Wardha
○ Zakir Hussain Committee
○ Main Principle: Learning through
activity
○ Provisions:

060
 ■ Inclusion of basic handicraft Development of Technical Education:
■ First 7 years of schooling
integrated with free and ● 1847: Engineering College @Roorkee
compulsory nationwide ● 1856: Calcutta College of Engineering
education system (through ● 1858: Overseers' School at Poona raised
mother tongue) to status of COEP (Bombay University)
■ Teaching in Hindi from 2nd to ● Madras University: Guindy College of
7th standard, and in English Engineering
only after 7th
■ Establish contact with the Subsidiary Alliance
community around schools
through service ● Treaty between British East India
■ Suitable techniques for Company and Indian princely states.
implementing the main idea of ● Indian kingdoms lost sovereignty to the
basic education English.
■ Limited development due to ● Features:
the start of WWII and ○ Framed by Lord Wellesley
resignation of Congress (1798-1805).
ministries in October 1939 ○ First used by French
Governor-General Marquis Dupleix.
1944: ○ Indian ruler had to dissolve own
armed forces and accept British
● Sergeant Plan forces.
○ Developed by Central Advisory ○ Ruler had to pay for British army
Board of Education maintenance; failure led to ceding
○ Objective: Achieve the same level territory.
of educational attainment as in ○ British promised non-interference
England within 40 years in internal affairs.
○ Main Recommendations: ○ Indian ruler surrendered power to
■ Pre-primary: Ages 3 to 6 conduct international relations to
■ Primary: Ages 6 to 11 - Free, the company.
universal, and compulsory ○ Indian state could not form
■ High school: Ages 11 to 17 - For alliances with other foreign
selected children powers.
■ 3-year university course after ○ Could not employ foreign
higher secondary nationals other than Englishmen.
○ Two types of high schools: ○ Needed British approval for
■ Academic political connections with other
■ Technical and vocational Indian states.
■ Adequate technical, ○ British Resident stationed in the
commercial, and arts Indian Court.
education
■ Abolition of intermediate
course
■ Eliminate adult illiteracy within
20 years
■ Emphasis on teacher training,
physical education, and
education for physically and
mentally handicapped

061
Effect: ● Permanent Settlement Agreement:
○ Zamindars recognized as
● Loss of jobs due to army dissolution. permanent landowners.
● East India Company became the de ○ Paid 89% of annual revenue to the
facto ruler. state, kept 11%.
● Issues:
Doctrine of Lapse ○ High rent, insecure land rights for
cultivators.
● Annexation policy by Lord Dalhousie ○ Zamindars struggled with high
(1848-1856). revenue demands.
● Features: ○ Company couldn't increase
○ Princely state without a legal male revenue as prices rose.
heir would be annexed.
○ Adopted son could not be 2. Ryotwari System
proclaimed heir to the kingdom.
○ Adopted son inherited personal ● Introduction:
property and estates, not titles or ○ Devised by Captain Alexander
pensions. Read and Sir Thomas Munro.
○ Doctrine used before Dalhousie ● Mechanism:
(e.g., Kittur in 1824). ○ Land revenue paid directly by
farmers to the state.
Effect: ○ Cultivators (Ryots) had full rights
over sale, transfer, and leasing.
● Many Indian states lost sovereignty and
○ Regions: Tamil Nadu, later
became British territories.
extended to Maharashtra, Berar,
● Contributed to the Indian revolt of 1857.
East Punjab, Coorg, Assam.
● Advantages:
[Link] Revenue Systems In ○ Eliminated middlemen.
British India ● Issues:
○ Empowered subordinate revenue
officials, leading to exploitation by
1. Zamindari System
moneylenders.
● Introduction:
○ Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 3. Mahalwari System
1793 through Permanent
Settlement. ● Introduction:
● Mechanism: ○ Devised by Holt Mackenzie in 1822.
○ Land revenue collected by ● Mechanism:
intermediaries (Zamindars). ○ Revenue collected by village
○ Government share: 10/11th of total headmen on behalf of the village
land revenue. (Mahal).
○ Regions: West Bengal, Bihar, ○ Revenue periodically revised.
Odisha, UP, Andhra Pradesh, ○ Regions: Popularized in Agra and
Madhya Pradesh. Awadh, extended to Madhya
Pradesh, Punjab.

062
● Issues: [Link] National Congress
○ Faulty survey assumptions led to Sessions
manipulations and corruption.
○ Often cost more to collect revenue
than the revenue collected. 1. First Session (1885, Bombay)

● President: W.C. Bannerjee

4. Taluqdari System
● Formation of Indian National Congress.
● Definition:
○ Varied meanings in different 2. Second Session (1886, Calcutta)
regions.
○ In Oudh, a great landholder. ● President: Dadabhai Naoroji
○ In Bengal, second to Zamindar.
● Post-Permanent Settlement: 3. Third Session (1887, Madras)
○ New taluqs created by Zamindars
for fiscal management. ● President: Syed Badruddin Tyabji (first
Muslim President)
5. Malguzari System
4. Fourth Session (1888, Allahabad)
● Region:
○ Central Provinces. ● President: George Yule (first English
● Mechanism: President)
○ Malguzars (revenue farmers under
the Marathas) given proprietary 5. 1896 (Calcutta)
rights by the British.
● President: Rahimtullah Sayani
○ Responsible for revenue payment.
● 'Vande Mataram' sung by
● Structure:
Rabindranath Tagore.
○ Village headman replaced if
unable to meet revenue
expectations. 6. 1899 (Lucknow)
○ Malguzars held special land
● President: Romesh Chandra Dutt
descriptions (Sir land, Khudkasht
● Demand for permanent fixation of Land
land).
revenue.

7. 1901 (Calcutta)

● President: Dinshaw E. Wacha

● First appearance of Gandhiji on the
Congress platform.

8. 1905 (Benaras)

● President: Gopal Krishan Gokhale

● Formal proclamation of the Swadeshi
movement.

9. 1906 (Calcutta)

● President: Dadabhai Naoroji

● Resolutions on Swaraj, Boycott,
Swadeshi, and National Education.

063
10. 1907 (Surat) 17. 1919 (Amritsar)

● President: Rash Bihari Ghosh ● President: Motilal Nehru

● Split in Congress into Moderates and ● Support extended to Khilafat
Extremists. Movement.

11. 1910 (Allahabad) 18. 1920 (Special Session, Calcutta)

● President: Sir William Wedderburn ● President: Lala Lajpat Rai

● M.A. Jinnah opposed the separate ● Gandhi moved the Non-cooperation
electorate system. resolution.

12. 1911 (Calcutta) 19. 1920 (Nagpur)

● President: B.N. Dhar ● President: C. Vijayaraghavachariar

● First recital of 'Jan-Gan-Man'. ● Reconstitution of Congress Working
Committees on a linguistic basis.
13. 1915 (Bombay) ● Jinnah left Congress.

● President: Sir S.P. Sinha 20. 1922 (Gaya)

● Constitution altered to admit
delegates from the extremist section. ● President: C.R. Das
● Formation of Swaraj Party.
14. 1916 (Lucknow)
21. 1924 (Belgaum)
● President: A.C. Majumdar
● Unity between Moderates and ● President: M.K. Gandhi (only session
Extremists. presided by Gandhi).
● Lucknow Pact signed with the Muslim
League. 22. 1925 (Kanpur)

15. 1917 (Calcutta) ● President: Sarojini Naidu (first Indian

woman President).
● President: Annie Besant (first woman
President). 23. 1927 (Madras)

16. 1918 (Special Session, Bombay) ● President: Dr. M.A. Ansari

● Resolutions against the use of Indian
● President: Syed Hasan Imam troops abroad and Simon Commission
● Deliberation on Montagu–Chelmsford boycott.
Reforms. ● Adoption of resolution on Purna Swaraj.

1927 Madras session

064
24. 1928 (Calcutta) 30. 1938 (Haripura)

● President: Motilal Nehru ● President: Subhas Chandra Bose

● Formation of All India Youth Congress. ● National Planning Committee set up
under Nehru.
25. 1929 (Lahore)
31. 1939 (Tripuri)
● President: Jawahar Lal Nehru
● Passed the resolution on ‘Purna Swaraj’ ● President: Rajendra Prasad
and decided to launch the Civil ● Bose re-elected but resigned; formed
Disobedience movement. Forward Bloc.
● 26 January to be observed as
‘Independence Day’. 32. 1940 (Ramgarh)

● President: Abul Kalam Azad

● Planned Civil Disobedience movement.

33. 1941–45

● Key Events: Quit India Movement, RIN

Mutiny, INA trials.
● Constitutional Negotiations: Cripps
Mission, Wavell Plan, Cabinet Mission.
● No Congress sessions held.

34. 1946 (Meerut)

● President: J.B. Kripalani

26. 1931 (Karachi)
● Last session before independence.
● President: Vallabhbhai Patel
● Resolutions on Fundamental Rights and
National Economic Programme. [Link]-General
● Endorsement of Gandhi-Irwin Pact. & Viceroys Of India
● Gandhi nominated for the Second
Round Table Conference.
Warren Hastings (1773-1785)
27. 1934 (Bombay)
● Regulating Act of 1773
● President: Rajendra Prasad ● Pitt’s India Act of 1784
● Amendment in the Congress ● The Rohilla War of 1774
Constitution. ● The First Maratha War (1775-1782) and
the Treaty of Salbai (1782)
28. 1936 (Lucknow) ● Second Mysore War
(1780-1784)
● President: Jawahar Lal Nehru
● Push towards socialist ideas.

29. 1937 (Faizpur)

● President: Jawahar Lal Nehru

● First session held in a village.

065
Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) Lord Hardinge I (1844-1848)

● Third Mysore War (1790-1792) and ● First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) and
Treaty of Seringapatam (1792) Treaty of Lahore (1846)
● Social reforms like the abolition of
Cornwallis Code (1793) female infanticide

● Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793) Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) ● Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)

● Annexation of Lower Burma (1852)
● Introduction of the Subsidiary Alliance ● Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse
System (1798) ● Wood’s Despatch (1854)
● Fourth Mysore War (1799) ● Laying down of first railway line
● Second Maratha War (1803-1805) connecting Bombay and Thane (1853)
● Establishment of Public Works
Lord Minto I (1807-1813) Department (PWD)

● Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh

(1809)

Lord Hastings (1813-1823)

● Anglo-Nepal War (1814-1816) and Treaty

of Sagauli (1816)
● Third Maratha War (1817-1819) and
dissolution of Maratha Confederacy
● Establishment of Ryotwari System
(1820)

Lord Amherst (1823-1828) Lord Canning (1856-1862)

● First Burmese War (1824-1826) ● Revolt of 1857

● Establishment of universities at
Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835) Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay (1857)
● Abolition of East India Company and
● Abolition of Sati System (1829) transfer to Crown by Government of
● Charter Act of 1833 India Act (1858)
● Indian Councils Act (1861)

Lord John Lawrence (1864-1869)

● Bhutan War (1865)

● Establishment of High Courts at
Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1865)

Lord Lytton (1876-1880)

● Vernacular Press Act (1878)

● Arms Act (1878)
● Second Afghan War (1878-1880)
Lord Auckland (1836-1842) ● Queen Victoria assumed the title
'Kaiser-i-Hind' or Queen Empress of
● First Afghan War (1838-1842) India

066
Lord Ripon (1880-1884) Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916)

● Repeal of Vernacular Press Act (1882) ● Annulment of Partition of Bengal (1911)

● First Factory Act (1881) ● Transfer of capital from Calcutta to
● Government resolution on local Delhi (1911)
self-government (1882) ● Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha
● Ilbert Bill controversy (1883-1884) (1915)
● Hunter Commission on education
(1882) Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)

● Lucknow Pact (1916)

● Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
● Montagu’s August Declaration (1917)
● Government of India Act (1919)
● Rowlatt Act (1919)
● Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919)
● Launch of Non-Cooperation and
Khilafat Movements

Lord Reading (1921-1926)

● Chauri Chaura incident (1922)

Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)
● Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation
Movement (1922)
● Third Burmese War (1885-1886)
● Establishment of Swaraj Party (1922)
● Establishment of Indian National
● Kakori train robbery (1925)
Congress (1885)
Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)
● Simon Commission to India (1927)
● Factory Act (1891)
● Harcourt Butler Indian States
● Indian Councils Act (1892)
Commission (1927)
● Setting up of Durand Commission
● Nehru Report (1928)
(1893)
● Deepavali Declaration (1929)
● Lahore session of Congress (Purna
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
Swaraj Resolution) (1929)
● Dandi March and Civil Disobedience
● Appointment of Police Commission
Movement (1930)
(1902)
● First Round Table Conference (1930)
● Appointment of Universities
● Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
Commission (1902)
● Indian Universities Act (1904)
● Partition of Bengal (1905)

Lord Minto II (1905-1910)

● Swadeshi Movements (1905-1911)

● Surat Split of Congress (1907)
● Establishment of Muslim League (1906)
● Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

067
 33. Important British
Lord Willingdon (1931-1936) Committees and Commissions.
● Communal Award (1932)
● Second & Third Round Table Campbell Commission:
Conference (1932)
● Poona Pact (1932) ● Year: 1865-66
● Government of India Act (1935) ● Regions affected: Orissa, Bengal, Bihar,
Madras
Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944) ● Casualties: Nearly 2 million lives lost,
with Orissa losing 1 million.
● Resignation of Congress ministries after ● Outcome: Marked a turning point in the
the outbreak of WWII (1939) history of Indian famines; led to the
● Tripuri Crisis & formation of Forward formation of a committee chaired by
Bloc (1939) Sir George Campbell.
● Lahore Resolution of the Muslim League
(1940) Strachey Commission:
● 'August Offer' (1940)
● Formation of the Indian National Army ● Year: 1878
(1941) ● Chairman: Sir Richard Strachey
● Cripps Mission (1942) ● Recommendation: State interference in
● Quit India Movement (1942) food trade during famines.
● Context: Followed another major
Lord Wavell (1944-1947) famine in 1896-97.

● C. Rajagopalachari’s CR Formula (1944) Lyall Commission:

● Wavell Plan and Simla Conference
(1942) ● Year: 1897
● Cabinet Mission (1946) ● Chairman: Sir James Lyall
● Direct Action Day (1946) ● Recommendation: Development of
● Announcement of end of British rule by irrigation facilities.
Clement Attlee (1947)

Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)

● June Third Plan (1947)

● Redcliff Commission (1947)
Sir
● India's Independence (15 August 1947)
James
Lyall
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (1948-1950)

● Last Governor-General of India before

the office was permanently abolished
in 1950
MacDonnell Commission:

● Year: 1900
● Chairman: Sir Anthony (later Lord)
McDonnell
● Recommendation: Continuous
operation of the official machinery
dealing with famine to control food
scarcity timely.

068
First Law Commission: Hilton Young Commission:

● Year: 1834, under the Charter Act, 1833 ● Year: 1926

● Chairman: T.B. Macaulay ● Appointed by: Linlithgow
● Outcome: Led to the codification of the
penal code and the Criminal Procedure Scott-Moncrieff Commission:
Code.
● Year: 1901
Second Pre-Independence Law ● Focus: Irrigation
Commission: ● Appointed by: Curzon

● Year: 1853 Fraser Commission:

● Chairman: Sir John Romilly
● Year: 1902
Third Pre-Independence Law Commission: ● Focus: Police Reforms
● Appointed by: Curzon
● Year: 1862
● Chairman: Sir John Romilly Hunter Commission:

Fourth Pre-Independence Law ● Year: 1919

Commission: ● Focus: Punjab Disturbances
● Appointed by: Chelmsford
● Year: 1879
● Chairman: Dr. Whitley Stokes

Post-Independence Law Commission:

● Year: 1955
● Outcome: Continued law reforms in
India.

Mansfield Commission:

● Year: 1886
● Appointed by: Dufferin
William Wilson Hunter Harcourt Butler
Fowler Commission:

● Year: 1898 Butler Commission:

● Appointed by: Elgin II
● Year: 1927
Babington Smith Commission: ● Focus: Indian States' relation with the
British Crown
● Year: 1919 ● Appointed by: Irwin
● Appointed by: Chelmsford
Whiteley Commission:

● Year: 1929
● Focus: Labour
● Appointed by: Irwin

Sapru Commission:

● Year: 1935
● Focus: Unemployment
● Appointed by: Linlithgow

069
Chalfield Commission: Act of Settlement of 1781:

● Year: 1939 ● Amended the previous act.

● Focus: Army ● Governor General and Council
● Appointed by: Linlithgow
exempted from the jurisdiction of the
Floud Commission: Supreme Court for official acts.
● Revenue matters exempted from
● Year: 1940 Supreme Court control.
● Focus: Tenancy in Bengal ● Personal Laws applied for trials of
● Appointed by: Linlithgow Hindus and Muslims.
Durand Commission: ● Calcutta population under Supreme
Court jurisdiction.
● Year: 1893 ● Governor General and Council could
● Focus: Defining the Durand Line frame rules for provincial courts and
between India and Afghanistan (now councils.
between Pakistan and Afghanistan; a
small portion touches India in Pitt’s India Act of 1784:
Pakistan-occupied Kashmir).
● Made Madras and Bombay
presidencies subordinate to Bengal,
[Link]
making Calcutta the capital of British
Developments
India.
● Governors' Councils established in
Bombay and Madras.
Regulating Act of 1773:
● Distinguished between commercial
● First Act passed by the British and political activities of the East India
Parliament to control the East India Company:
Company in India. ○ Court of Directors handled
● Governor of Bengal became “Governor commercial affairs.
General of Bengal” (Warren Hastings ○ Board of Control managed
was the first). political affairs, civil, and military
● Executive Council with four members operations.
for assistance. ● Significance: Marked the British
● Bombay and Madras presidencies were Government’s first step towards central
made subordinate to the Bengal administration in India.
Presidency.
● Supreme Court in Calcutta established
in 1774 (one Chief Justice and two
judges).
● Court of Directors required to report
revenue, civil, and military affairs to the
British Government.

070
Charter Act of 1793: Charter Act of 1853:

● Commander-in-Chief not a member of ● Separated legislative functions from

the Governor General Council unless
appointed. administrative functions.
● Extended overriding power given to ● Added six Legislative Councilors to the
Cornwallis to future Governor Generals. Governor General Council (Indian
● Governor General gained more power
Legislative Council acted like a
over Bombay and Madras.
● Trade monopoly of the Company mini-Parliament).
extended by 20 years. ● Extended Company’s rule without a
specific timeframe.
Charter Act of 1813:
● Introduced local representation in the
● Company's territories under the Indian Legislative Council.
sovereignty of the British Government. ● Made civil services open to all, ending
● Local Government could impose taxes appointments by recommendation and
and punish defaulters.
● Ended East India Company's monopoly starting open competition.
over trade with India (except tea, ● Significance: Formation of the Indian
opium, and China trade). Legislative Council marked legislation
● Allowed missionaries to come to India.
as a separate function of the
Charter Act of 1833: government and indicated the British
Government could terminate the
● Governor General of Bengal became Company’s contract at any time.
Governor General of India (William
Bentinck was the first).
● Governor General had full control over
revenue, civil, and military affairs.
● East India Company ceased
commercial activities and became an
administrative body.
● Company's trade links with China
closed down.
● Significance: Final step in the process
of centralization in India.

Follow us on : Government of India Act of 1858:

● Also known as the Act of Good

Government of India.
● Abolished the East India Company and
transferred powers to the Crown.
● Viceroy became the new designation of
the Governor General of India.
● Abolished the Board of Control and the
Court of Directors, ending the Double
Government.
● Created the Office of Secretary of State
for India, who was a member of the
British Cabinet.
● The Secretary of State was assisted by
a Council of India of 15 members.

071
Indian Councils Act 1861:

● Viceroy could nominate Indians to the ● Indians allowed in the Executive Council
extended Legislative Council (e.g., of the Viceroy for the first time (e.g.,
Viceroy Canning nominated three Satyendra Prasad Sinha as a Law
Indians in 1862). member).
● Restored legislative powers to the ● Introduced separate representation for
Bombay and Madras Presidencies. Presidency Corporations, Chambers of
● Formed new legislative councils in Commerce, Universities, etc.
Bengal (1862), North Western Province
(1886), and Punjab (1897). Government of India Act of 1919
● Viceroy empowered to issue (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms):
Ordinances in emergencies, valid for six
● Separated Central and Provincial
months.
Subjects, with the power to make laws
● Recognized the Portfolio system started
on their respective subjects.
by Lord Canning in 1859.
● Introduced Dyarchy (dual rule) in the
Indian Councils Act 1892: Provinces.
○ Reserved Subjects: Administered
● Increased the number of non-official by the Governor General and his
members in Central and Provincial executive council.
Legislative Councils while maintaining ○ Transferred Subjects: Administered
an official majority. by Governor General with his
● Expanded functions of Legislative council, responsible to the
Councils, including discussing the legislative council.
budget and addressing questions to ● Replaced Indian Legislative Council
the executive. with a bicameral Parliament (Upper
● Nominated non-official members to House and Lower House).
the Central Legislative Council on the ● Three of the six members of the
Viceroy’s recommendation and to the Viceroy’s Executive Council were to be
Provincial Legislative Council by the Indians.
Governor. ● Introduced Separate Electorates for
Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians,
Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley-Minto and Europeans.
Reforms): ● Limited franchise based on property,
tax, and education.
● Enlarged the Legislative Council (e.g.,
● Provincial Budget separated from the
Central Legislative Council members
Central Budget.
increased from 16 to 60).
● Non-official majority allowed in
Provincial Legislative Councils.
● Separate Electorates for Muslims
introduced.

L: Lord Chelmsford; R: Edwin Montagu

072
Government of India Act of 1935: [Link] and Newspaper
● Provided for an All-India Federation of
provinces and princely states.
● G. Subramaniya Iyer:
● Divided subjects into Centre, Provincial,
○ The Hindu & Swadesamitran
and Concurrent Lists. ● Bal Gangadhar Tilak:
● Residuary powers with the Governor ○ Kesari & Mahratta
General. ● Surendranath Banerjea:
● Diarchy abolished and Provincial ○ Bengalee
autonomy introduced. ● Sisir Kumar Ghosh & Motilal Ghosh:
○ Amrita Bazaar Patrika
● Provinces acted as independent units
● Gopal Krishna Gokhale:
of administration. ○ Sudharak
● Bicameralism introduced in six out of ● Manmohan Ghosh & Devendranath
eleven provinces. Tagore (NN Sen - writer):
● Separate Electorates extended to ○ Indian Mirror
depressed classes and women. ● Devendranath Tagore:
● Extended franchise to 10% of the ○ National Newspaper
● Dadabhai Naoroji:
population.
○ Voice of India & Rast Goftar
● Established the Reserve Bank of India ● G. P. Varma:
and a Federal Court. ○ Hindustan & Advocate
● Shyamji Krishna Varma:
Government of India Act of 1947: ○ Indian Sociologist
● Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar
● Implemented the Mountbatten Plan, Ghosh, Madam Cama:
leading to the partition of India and ○ Bande Mataram (from Paris)
creation of two independent ● Madan Lal Dhingra, Bhikaji Cama,
Dominions: India and Pakistan. Virendranath Chattopadhyay
(founder):
● Governor Generals appointed in both
○ Talwar
Dominions by the British King. ● Lala Hardayal:
● Authorized Dominions to govern as per ○ Ghadar
the Act of 1935 or make modifications. ● Raja Ram Mohan Roy:
● Constituent assemblies empowered to ○ Sambad Kaumudi, Mirat-ul-Akbar
frame and enact the Constitution. & Banga-Duta (with Dwarkanath
● Governors designated as Head of State Tagore & others)
● B. M. Malabari:
and required to work on the advice of
○ Indian Spectator
the Council of Ministers.
● Abolished the office of Secretary of
State.
● British paramountcy over princely
states ended.
● Significance: British rule ended, and
India became independent on August
15, 1947.

073
 ● Mahatma Gandhi:
○ Vegetarian (England), Young India
● Girishchandra Ghosh, later - (1919), Indian Opinion (South
Harishchandra Mukerji: Africa, 1903), Harijan (English),
○ Hindu Patriot Harijanbandhu (Gujarati),
● Bankim Chandra Chatterjee: Harijansevak (Hindi) & Navjeevan
○ Bangadarshana ● Annie Besant:
○ New India & Commonweal
● Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar:
○ Shom Prakash
● Gopal Hari Deshmukh:
○ Induprakash
● Karsondas Mulji:
○ Satya Prakash (Gujarati, 1852)
● Mohammad Ali:
○ Comrade
● Sir Syed Ahmed Khan:
○ Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq & The Causes of
Indian Revolt (to support British)
● Dayal Singh Majithia: ● Maulana Azad:
○ Tribune ○ Al-Hilal & Al-Balagh
● Bipin Chandra Pal: ● Swami Vivekananda:
○ Paridasak ○ Udbodhana & Prabuddha Bharat
● Barindra Kumar Ghosh, ● K. M. Pannikar:
Bhupendranath Dutta: ○ Hindustan Times
○ Yugantar ● V. M. Mandalik:
● Taraknath Das: ○ Native Opinion
○ Free Hindustan ● James Augustus Hicky (1st
● G. D. Kumar: Newspaper):
○ Svadesh Sevak ○ The Bengal Gazette
● Ajit Singh: ● T. K. Madhavan:
○ Reshwa ○ Deshabhimani
● Pherozshah Mehta (editor - ● Marshman (PYQ):
Horniman): ○ Samachar Darpan (1st weekly
○ Bombay Chronicle Bengali)
● M. K. Chand: ● Viceroy Hardinge:
○ Milap ○ My Indian Year
● Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya:
○ Abhyudaya (Hindi weekly), Leader,
Maryada & Hindustan
● B. R. Ambedkar:
○ Bahishkrit Bharat (1927),
Mooknayak (1920), Janata
(1930-1956) & Prabuddha Bharat
(1956)
● Sachindranath Sanyal:
○ Bandi Jivan
● Jawaharlal Nehru:
○ National Herald
● Motilal Nehru:
○ Independent

074
● Romesh Chunder Dutt: [Link] the
○ Economic History of India (1901) Constitution
● Dadabhai Naoroji:
○ Poverty & Un-British Rule in India
(1901) The Beginning of a New Era
● Mahadev Govind Ranade:
○ Essays on Indian Economics (1898) ● Date of Effect: The Indian Constitution
● Prithwis Chandra Ray: came into effect on 26 January 1950.
○ The Poverty Problem in India (1870) ● Distinction: It is the longest constitution
● Din Bandhu Mitra: in the world.
○ Nil Darpan ● Reasons for Complexity:
● Michael Madhusudan Dutta: ○ India’s size and diversity required a
○ The Things Mirror (English detailed and meticulously drafted
translation of Nil Darpan) & document.
Meghnad Badh Kavya ○ Aimed to heal past and present
● Nazir Ahmad (PYQ): wounds and unite diverse classes,
○ Mirat-ul-Uroos (The Bride's Mirror) castes, and communities.
● G. E. Ward: ○ Intended to foster democratic
○ The Bride's Mirror (English institutions in a historically
translation of Mirat-ul-Uroos) hierarchical society.
● Stanley Wolpert:
○ Nehru: A Tryst with Destiny The Framing Process
● Arvind Panagariya & Jagdish
● Timeline: The Constitution was framed
Bhagwati:
between December 1946 and
○ India's Tryst with Destiny
December 1949.
● Jawaharlal Nehru:
● Process:
○ Glimpses of World History
○ Drafts were discussed clause by
clause in the Constituent
Assembly of India.
○ The Assembly held eleven sessions
over 165 days.
○ Drafts were revised by various
committees and sub-committees.

A Tumultuous Time

● Mahatma Gandhi: ● August 1946:

○ The Story of My Experiments with ○ The Great Calcutta Killings marked
Truth, Key to Health & Hind Swaraj a year of rioting.
(Indian Home Rule) ○ Violence continued with the
● Vinayak Damodar Savarkar: Partition, causing millions to flee
○ The Indian War of Independence and many to perish.
1857, Hindutva: Who is Hindu ● Princely States:
(Ratnagiri Jail) ○ About one-third of the
● S. A. Dange: subcontinent was under princely
○ Gandhi vs Lenin control.
● Swami Vivekananda: ○ After the British departure, the
○ Raja Yoga, Jnana Yoga & Karma status of princely states was
Yoga ambiguous.
● Subhas Chandra Bose:
○ The Indian Struggle (PYQ)
● Sir Surendranath Banerjee:
○ A Nation in Making (PYQ)
● Lala Lajpat Rai:
○ Autobiographical

075
 Public Submissions and Opinions
[Link] Making of the
Constituent Assembly ● Examples of Submissions:
○ All India Varnashrama Swarajya
Sangh: Suggested the Constitution
should reflect ancient Hindu
● Members: principles, including prohibition of
○ Chosen based on the provincial cow-slaughter.
elections of 1946. ○ Low-caste Groups: Demanded an
○ Included representatives from end to ill-treatment and
reservation of seats based on
princely states as they joined the population.
Union. ○ Linguistic Minorities: Asked for
○ Muslim League boycotted early freedom of speech in mother
sittings, making it a tongues and redistribution of
Congress-dominated Assembly. provinces on a linguistic basis.
● Composition: ○ Religious Minorities: Sought
○ 82% of Assembly members were special safeguards.
Congress members. ○ Various Organizations: Requested
○ Congress members had diverse adequate representation on
public bodies and legislatures.
views, including atheists, secularists,
socialists, and defenders of
landlords. [Link] Members of the
○ Included independent members, Constituent Assembly
representatives of different castes,
religious groups, and women. ● Total Members: 300
● Debates and Public Influence: ● Important Figures:
○ Intense debates within the Assembly ○ Jawaharlal Nehru:
reflected diverse opinions. ■ Moved the "Objectives
Resolution".
○ Public opinions were collected via
■ Proposed the National Flag of
submissions and reported in India design: a horizontal
newspapers. tricolour of saffron, white, and
○ Proposals were publicly debated, dark green with a navy-blue
shaping consensus on various wheel in the center.
issues. ○ Vallabh Bhai Patel:
■ Worked behind the scenes.
■ Played a key role in drafting
reports and reconciling
opposing views.
○ Rajendra Prasad:
■ President of the Assembly.
■ Ensured constructive
discussions and provided
equal speaking opportunities.

○ B.R. Ambedkar:
■ Chairman of the Drafting
Committee of the Constitution.
■ Former political opponent of
Congress, joined the Union
Cabinet as law minister on
Gandhi’s advice.

B.R.
Ambedkar

076
 ● Key Points:
○ Emphasized learning from
○ K.M. Munshi: historical examples without
■ Lawyer from Gujarat. copying them.
○ Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar: ○ Aimed for democracy, though the
■ Lawyer from Madras. specific form was to be decided
○ B.N. Rau: through deliberations.
■ Constitutional Advisor. ○ Advocated for a system of
■ Prepared background papers government fitting Indian context
on political systems in other and values.
countries. ○ Sought to merge liberal
○ S.N. Mukherjee: democratic ideas with socialist
■ Chief Draughtsman. economic justice.
■ Praised by Ambedkar for clarity ● Objective:
in legal drafting. ○ Create a unique Indian
Constitution blending Western
achievements with Indian realities.
The Constitution Drafting Process
○ Encouraged creative adaptation
● Duration: Took three years. rather than mechanical
● Volume: Discussions recorded in eleven application of foreign ideas.
bulky volumes.
● Interest: Debates revealed divergent [Link] of
views on language, political systems, British Influence
and moral values.

● Somnath Lahiri's View:

[Link] Vision of the Constitution ○ Saw British imperialism influencing
the Constituent Assembly.
○ Urged Indians to free themselves
"Objectives Resolution" (13 December 1946) from imperial rule.
○ Assembled in winter 1946-47 with
● Introduced By: Jawaharlal Nehru. British still in India.
● Content: ○ Interim administration led by
○ Proclaimed India as an Jawaharlal Nehru, under Viceroy
"Independent Sovereign Republic". and British Government.
○ Guaranteed justice, equality, and ○ Lahiri criticized the Assembly as
freedom. British-made, working British plans.
○ Assured safeguards for minorities,
backward and tribal areas,
Depressed Classes, and Other ● Nehru’s Perspective on the
Backward Classes. “Objectives Resolution”:
○ Did not use the term
Nehru's Speech on 13 December 1946 "democratic" in the Objectives
Resolution.
● Historical References: ○ Believed that the word
○ American Revolution: Mentioned "republic" implied democracy.
as a model of enduring ○ Emphasized that
constitutional success. the Assembly derived
○ French Revolution: Highlighted for its strength from
its revolutionary spirit and the will of the people,
challenges. not state papers.
○ Russian Revolution: Noted for ○ Stressed that the
creating the Soviet Socialist Constitution should
Republics. reflect the
passions and
aspirations of
the masses.

077
● Social and Political Struggles: ● Pre-Independence Constitutional
○ 19th-century social reformers Developments:
advocated for social justice, such ○ Earlier reforms were enacted by
as against child marriage and for colonial government, not directly
widow remarriage. debated by Indians.
○ Swami Vivekananda and Jyotiba ○ Limited franchise and colonial
Phule sought reforms for justice framework persisted under the
and equality. 1935 Act.
○ National movement aimed at ● Nehru's Vision (13 December 1946):
democracy and justice, influenced ○ Envisioned a constitution for an
by social and economic struggles. independent, sovereign Republic
● British Constitutional Reforms: of India.
○ Reforms (1909, 1919, 1935) ● Key Figures and Events:
introduced gradual Indian ○ Winter 1946-47: British presence in
participation. India, Interim Government under
○ Congress won in eight out of Nehru.
eleven provinces in 1937 elections ○ British Reforms:
under the 1935 Act. Montague-Chelmsford Reforms
● Problems with Separate Electorates: (1919) and Government of India
○ B. Pocker Bahadur’s Plea (27 Act (1935).
August 1947): ○ Constituent Assembly: Formation
■ Advocated for separate influenced by British conditions
electorates to ensure minority and nationalist aspirations.
representation. ● Govind Ballabh Pant's Concerns (27
■ Argued that minorities needed August 1947):
proper representation to
harmonize with others.
■ Believed non-minorities could
not fully understand or
represent minority needs.
● Nationalist Opposition:
○ R.V. Dhulekar: Criticized separate
electorates as a British
divide-and-rule strategy. ○ Impact on Minorities:
○ Sardar Patel: ■ Believed separate electorates
■ Opposed separate electorates, would be harmful and suicidal
citing them as harmful and to minorities.
divisive. ■ Argued that isolation would
■ Asserted that separate prevent minorities from
electorates had led to partition integrating into the majority
and bloodshed. and hinder their growth.
■ Called for unity and removal of ■ Stressed that segregating
such divisive measures. minorities would limit their
○ Govind Ballabh Pant: influence and effective voice in
■ Acknowledged need for governance.
understanding and empathy ○ Nation Building:
towards minorities. ■ Emphasized the need for
■ Opposed separate electorates political unity and assimilation
as it would isolate minorities within the nation.
and hinder effective ■ Advocated for treating
governance. individuals as citizens rather
than focusing on
community-based identities.
■ Warned that divided loyalties
could weaken the State and
democracy.

078
● N.G. Ranga's Views: Hansa Mehta on Women’s Rights
○ Suggested that real minorities
were the poor and downtrodden, ● Women’s Demands:
not specific communities. ○ Advocated for social, economic,
○ Criticized the limited impact of and political justice.
constitutional rights on the ○ Opposed reserved seats or
economically disadvantaged. separate electorates, favoring
○ Called for practical measures to equality as the basis for mutual
ensure effective enjoyment of respect.
rights by the poor, such as
protection and support. J. Nagappa and K.J. Khanderkar on
● Jaipal Singh on Tribal Rights: Depressed Castes
○ Tribal Conditions:
■ Described tribals as historically ● J. Nagappa’s Perspective:
exploited and dispossessed. ○ Highlighted the systematic
■ Urged that the new marginalization of Depressed
independent India should Castes.
ensure equality of opportunity ○ Asserted that they were not a
and protect tribal rights. numerical minority but faced
■ Advocated for legislative significant discrimination.
representation and reservation ● K.J. Khanderkar’s View:
of seats to ensure tribal voices ○ Described the historical
were heard. suppression of Depressed Castes.
■ Criticized societal neglect and ○ Emphasized the need for both
called for integration and equal legislative and societal changes to
treatment. address their issues.

Constituent Assembly Recommendations

[Link] Castes
● Abolished untouchability.
● Opened Hindu temples to all castes.
Ambedkar vs. Gandhi on Separate ● Reserved seats in legislatures and
Electorates government jobs for lower castes.

● Ambedkar’s Demand: Public Reception

○ Initially supported separate
electorates for Depressed Castes. ● Recognized as necessary but not
● Gandhi’s Opposition: sufficient for eradicating social
○ Opposed separate electorates, discrimination.
fearing permanent segregation. ● Needed changes in societal attitudes
beyond legislative measures.
Constitutional Protections for Depressed
Castes

● Dakshayani Velayudhan’s Argument:

○ Called for moral safeguards rather
than just privileges.
○ Emphasized the need to remove
social disabilities faced by
Harijans.

079
Debate on Central vs. State Powers K. Santhanam’s View (Madras)

● Jawaharlal Nehru's Position: ● Strengthening States:

○ Advocated for a strong Central ○ Argued that reallocating powers to
Government. states would strengthen both the
○ Argued that a weak Centre would Centre and the states.
harm national interests, impede ○ Criticized the misconception that
peace, and reduce international adding powers to the Centre
effectiveness. would make it stronger.
○ Emphasized the need for central ○ Warned that overburdening the
authority to coordinate vital Centre could lead to inefficiency.
matters. ● Fiscal Concerns:
○ Believed the proposed allocation
Draft Constitution Structure would impoverish provinces.
○ Concerned that states would
● Three Lists of Subjects: struggle with development due to
○ Union List: Subjects exclusive to lack of finances.
the Central Government. ○ Predicted potential provincial
○ State List: Subjects vested with the revolts against a highly centralized
states. system.
○ Concurrent List: Shared
responsibilities between Centre Sir A. Ramaswamy Mudaliar’s View
and states. (Mysore) (21 August 1947)
● Additional Powers:
○ More subjects under Union control ● Patriotism and Centralization:
compared to other federations. ○ Warned against assuming that
○ Control over minerals and key advocating for a strong Centre
industries by the Union. was the sole indicator of
○ Article 356: Centre could take over patriotism.
state administration on Governor’s ○ Emphasized the need for balanced
recommendation. examination of resources and
powers.
Fiscal Federalism
Need for Central Authority
● Taxation:
○ Central Government: Retained ● Ambedkar’s Position:
customs duties and company ○ Supported a strong and united
taxes. Centre.
○ Shared Taxes: Income tax and ○ Desired a more powerful Centre
excise duties shared with states. than that created under the
○ State Taxes: Estate duties Government of India Act of 1935.
assigned to states. ● Gopalaswami Ayyangar’s Position:
● State Levies: ○ Advocated for maximizing the
○ States could levy land and strength of the Centre.
property taxes, sales tax, and tax ● Balakrishna Sharma’s Argument:
on bottled liquor. ○ Believed a strong Centre was
essential for national planning,
economic mobilization,
administration, and defense.

080
Shift in Nationalist Positions Post-Partition Gandhi’s Final Stand on Language (October
12, 1947)
● Pre-Partition Agreement:
○ Congress had agreed to ● View: Hindustani should be a blend of
considerable provincial autonomy Sanskritised Hindi and Persianised
to appease the Muslim League. Urdu.
● Post-Partition Realignment: ● Inclusion: Should admit words from
○ Nationalists shifted towards regional and foreign languages.
centralization due to ongoing ● Ideal: A rich and powerful language
violence and chaos. reflecting the full range of human
○ Centralization seen as necessary thought and emotions.
for stability and economic ● Criticism: Opposed confining the
planning. language to just Hindi or Urdu.
○ Resulted in a Constitution biased
towards Union rights over state
rights. [Link] Controversy in the
Constituent Assembly
[Link] Language
of the Nation

R. V. Dhulekar’s Advocacy for Hindi

Language Debate in the Constituent
Assembly ● Early Sessions:
○ Demanded Hindi as the language
● Issue: How to forge national unity with for constitution-making.
diverse languages and cultural ○ Dismissed members not knowing
heritage. Hindi as unworthy.
● Congress Decision (1930s): Accepted ○ Continued in Hindi despite
Hindustani as the national language. interruptions.
● September 12, 1947:
Mahatma Gandhi’s View ○ Speech reignited debates on
national language.
● Advocated Hindustani as it was a ● Language Committee’s Compromise:
blend of Hindi and Urdu. ○ Hindi (Devanagari script) to be the
● Believed Hindustani could unify diverse official language.
communities (Hindus, Muslims, North, ○ Transition to Hindi gradual; English
South). to remain for 15 years.
● Emphasized its multicultural nature and ○ Provinces allowed to use regional
ability to integrate various linguistic languages for official purposes.
elements. ● Dhulekar's Stand:
○ Wanted Hindi as the national
Language Evolution and Politics language, not just official.
○ Criticized those opposing Hindi
● 19th Century Changes: and advocating Hindustani.
○ Hindustani began to diverge into
Hindi and Urdu due to communal
conflicts.
○ Hindi: Sanskritisation movement
aimed to purge Persian and Arabic
words.
○ Urdu: Increasingly Persianised.
○ Result: Language became
associated with religious identities.

081
Shrimati G. Durgabai’s Concerns

● Fear of Domination:
○ Expressed concerns about Hindi overshadowing regional languages.
○ Noted strong opposition in non-Hindi-speaking areas.
○ Advocated for caution to avoid resentment and maintain inclusiveness.
● Appeal for Accommodation:
○ Shri Shankarrao Deo and T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar emphasized mutual
adjustment and avoiding forced imposition of Hindi.

Timeline of Key Events

Date Event

1945 Labour Government comes into power in Britain.

December-January
General Elections in India.
1946

16 May 1946 Cabinet Mission announces constitutional scheme.

6 June 1946 Muslim League accepts Cabinet Mission’s scheme.

16 June 1946 Cabinet Mission presents scheme for Interim Government.

2 September 1947 Congress forms Interim Government with Nehru as Vice-President.

13 October 1947 Muslim League decides to join Interim Government.

3-6 December 1947 British Prime Minister Attlee meets Indian leaders; talks fail.

9 December 1947 Constituent Assembly begins its sessions.

29 January 1948 Muslim League demands dissolution of Constituent Assembly.

16 July 1948 Last meeting of the Interim Government.

11 August 1948 Jinnah elected President of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.

14 August 1948 Pakistan Independence; celebrations in Karachi.

14-15 August 1947 India celebrates Independence.

December 1949 Constitution is signed.

Notes: Edited And Illustrated By Rupam Baidya And Khanak Sharma

082