Examples of Semiconductors

Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly
used semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication, and
gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.
Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as follows:
• Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is made
up of only a single type of element. Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are the most common
types of intrinsic semiconductor elements. They have four valence electrons (tetravalent).
They are bound to the atom by a covalent bond at absolute zero temperature.
When the temperature rises due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded and become
free to move through the lattice, thus creating an absence in its original position (hole).
These free electrons and holes contribute to the conduction of electricity in the
semiconductor. The negative and positive charge carriers are equal in number.
The thermal energy is capable of ionising a few atoms in the lattice, and hence, their
conductivity is less.
The Lattice of Pure Silicon Semiconductor at Different Temperatures
•At absolute zero Kelvin temperature: At this temperature, the covalent
bonds are very strong, there are no free electrons, and the semiconductor
behaves as a perfect insulator.
•Above absolute temperature: With an increase in temperature, a few
valence electrons jump into the conduction band, and hence, it behaves like a
poor conductor.
Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor
The energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below.
In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons, as well as holes. The total current is the
sum of the electron current Ie due to thermally generated electrons and the hole current Ih.
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of electrons existing in a conduction band decreases
exponentially with an increasing band gap (Eg).
n = n0e-Eg/[Link].T
Where,
Eg = Energy band gap
Kb = Boltzmann’s constants
Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a
small number of suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The process
of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor is called DOPING.
Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced by a dopant atom in the doped
semiconductor. An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified into types:
•N-type Semiconductor
•P-type Semiconductor
N-Type Semiconductor
•Mainly due to electrons
•Entirely neutral
•I = Ih and nh >> ne
•Majority – Electrons, and Minority – Holes
When a pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium) is doped by pentavalent
impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi), then four electrons out of five valence electrons bond
with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity atom donates a
free electron for conduction in the lattice and is called a “Donar“.
Since the number of free electrons increases with the addition of an impurity, the
negative charge carriers increase. Hence, it is called an n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile positive
ion. As conduction is due to a large number of free electrons, the electrons in the
n-type semiconductor are the MAJORITY CARRIERS, and holes are the MINORITY
CARRIERS.
P-Type Semiconductor
•Mainly due to holes
•Entirely neutral
•I = Ih and nh >> ne
•Majority – Holes, and Minority – Electrons
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga), then the three
valence electrons of the impurity bond with three of the four valence electrons of the
semiconductor.
This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are
ready to accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
With an increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are
increased. Hence, it is called a p-type semiconductor.
Crystal, as a whole, is neutral, but the acceptors become an immobile negative ion. As
conduction is due to a large number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are
MAJORITY CARRIERS, and electrons are MINORITY CARRIERS.
Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
 Properties of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or
circumstances. This unique property makes it an excellent material to conduct
electricity in a controlled manner which is highly required required.
Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because of
external energy (thermal agitation). It causes a certain number of valence
electrons to cross the energy gap and jump into the conduction band, leaving
an equal amount of unoccupied energy states, i.e., holes. The conduction due
to electrons and holes is equally important.

•Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm

•Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
•Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative
•Current flow: Due to electrons and holes
Why Does the Resistivity of Semiconductors Go Down with
Temperature?
The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors
is due to their difference in charge carrier density.

The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature

because the number of charge carriers increases rapidly with an
increase in temperature, making the fractional change, i.e., the
temperature coefficient negative.
 Some Important Properties of Semiconductors
❖ Semiconductors act like insulators at zero Kelvin. On increasing the
temperature, they work as conductors.
❖ Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be
modified by doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy
conversion, switches and amplifiers.
❖ Lesser power losses.
❖ Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
❖ Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
❖ The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with an increase in
temperature and vice-versa.
 Real Life Applications of Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor
(like metal) and an insulator (like rubber). It can conduct electricity under certain conditions
but not as freely as conductors do. Semiconductors are fundamental components in
electronics and are used in devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
 Applications of Semiconductor
Semiconductors, due to its unique property is widely used in
various devices that we use in our daily lives. The real life
applications of semiconductors are mentioned below:

Electronics Industry
Semiconductors form the foundation of modern electronic devices
such as computers, smartphones, and televisions. Silicon is the
most widely used semiconductor material and is crucial for
manufacturing integrated circuits (ICs) and microchips. These
components are essential for processing and storing information,
enabling the functioning of electronic gadgets. They are also used
to make memory devices.
Energy Generation
Semiconductor-based solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity through
the photovoltaic effect. Silicon-based photovoltaic cells are the most common
type used in solar panels. When sunlight hits the semiconductor material, it
excites electrons, generating an electric current. This clean and renewable energy
source has revolutionized how we generate electricity and reduce our reliance on
fossil fuels.
LEDs
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor devices that emit light when an
electric current passes through them. The LEDs are highly energy-efficient and
have replaced the traditional incandescent and fluorescent lights in the various
applications including the residential lighting, automotive headlights and
streetlights.
The semiconductor material determines the color of emitted light making the
LEDs versatile for the different lighting needs. Indium Gallium Nitride, Aluminum
Gallium Indium Phosphide etc. are some semiconductors used in making of LEDs.
Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices that amplify or switch electronic signals.
Transistors are used as microcontrollers, switch and digital logic circuits. Most of
the transistors are made using silicon. However, germanium and gallium arsenide
are other two options of semiconductors that are used in transistors.
RFID Tags
Radiofrequency Identification Tags are used to check in and check out in metro
stations, used in contact less payment and electronic toll collection. The
semiconductors receive data in the form of radio signal and process the
information.
Defense System
In defense system, semiconductors are used in drone technology, radar system
and navigation system. They are integral components in radar systems, which
detect and track aircraft, missiles, ships, and other objects. Semiconductor-based
radar systems provide long-range detection capabilities, high-resolution imaging,
and advanced signal processing for target identification and tracking.
 Real Life Experiments of Semiconductors
The real life experiments of semiconductors are discussed below:
Diode Testing
One common experiment involves testing semiconductor diodes to the
understand their behavior. By connecting a diode to the power supply and
measuring the voltage across it and students can observe the diode's forward
and reverse the bias characteristics. This experiment helps demonstrate the
diode's rectifying properties essential for the electronic circuits.
Transistor Amplification
Another experiment involves using the transistors to amplify signals in the
electronic circuits. The Students can build simple transistor amplifier circuits
using the common semiconductor components and observe how changes in the
input voltage result in the amplified output signals. This experiment illustrates
the transistor's role as the key component in the signal processing and
amplification.
 Conductive Polymers
An electric current results of the orderly movement of charges in a material
as a response of forces that act on them, when a voltage is applied. The
positive charges flow in the direction of the electric field applied, whereas
the negative charges move in the opposite direction. In the majority of
materials, a current is resulted by the flux of electrons, known as electric
conduction (see more at [c] of "Links" Section).
The structure of these materials has conjugated chains, that is, an
alternating single and double bond between the atoms. The process of
doping of conductive polymers becomes easier due to these conjugated
bonds. In this process, defects and deformations in the polymeric chain are
formed. An electron-deformation pair, or also an electron-phonon cloud
pair, is called polarons, which is responsible by the conductivity in
polymers. Bipolarons and solitons, other types of quasi-particles, also participates in the conductivity
mechanism. The type of soliton, bipolaron, or polaron formed depends on the dopant used. Their
meaning and the physics behind that is beyond the scope of this subject.
Polyaniline
Polyaniline is one of the most promising conductive polymers and, therefore, one of the most studied ones.
This polymer, in fact, is a family of polymers that is classified by aromatic rings bonded together by nitrogen
atoms. Its structure is composed by x units of reduced species alternated with 1-x units of oxidized species, as
observed in figure 6.

The doping process occurs through the protonation of the

nitrogen atoms in the amine groups of the polyaniline by
an acidic solution, oxidizing the structure. Thus, positive
charges are formed in the polyaniline structure that moves
as the structure resonates, shown in figure 7.
Polypyrrole
The polypyrrole is one of the conductive polymers studied in the research that resulted in the Nobel prize. It is
obtained by the oxidization of the pyrrole, resulting in the structure shown below.

The Redox process of the addition of an anion to the structure that is responsible to the conductive properties
of the polypyrrole. Again here, the resonance occurs to stabilize the carbocation, moving the charge, resulting
in conductivity, mechanism similar as shown for the previous polymers.
 Synthesis of conducting polymers
There are three ways to produce conductive polymers:
reactional chemistry,
electrochemical, and
photoelectrochemical, being the first one the most used, due to its high
profitability and efficiency.
The chemical process consists in the union of monomers by the addition of the oxidizing or reducing agents that
makes the neutral polymer to a cationic or anionic ionic complex, ending the reaction by the bonding of this
complex to the counter-ion of the redox agent. This process requires a high control, since the reaction is very
exothermic and emits gases, requiring proper treatment and equipment of protection.

The electrochemical method consists in the electronic deposition of the polymer in the electrode. The solution that
the electrode is immersed has the monomers and the dopants. When a voltage or a current strong enough is
applied, the monomers oxidize resulting in the polymerization. This process results in polymers with shape of the
electrode, requiring a posterior processing to get the shape desired.
The photoeletrochemical process is based on photoexcitation of the polymer or in compounds that have catalyst
properties in presence of light, oxidizating the monomers resulting in a polymerization. Even though this process
is simple and environmentally friendly, the mechanical properties of the resulting polymer is not good.
Conductive polymers are prepared by many methods. Most conductive polymers are prepared by oxidative
coupling of monocyclic precursors. Such reactions entail dehydrogenation:

n H–[X]–H ═ H–[X]n–H + 2(n–1) H+ + 2(n–1) e−

Figure: Band Structure for Conductors, Semiconductors, and
Insulators: a) for monovalent metals; b) divalent metal; c) Insulators;
and d) Semiconductors
Since the conductivity of a conductive polymer is due to the charge formed by the dopant, as the doping level
increases, more charges are formed in the polymer and, thus, results in a greater conductivity. The conductivity of a
conductive polymer is also temperature dependent, because as the temperature increases the molecules becomes
farther from each other. Thus, the doping effect is more effective and, consequently, the amount of charges, which
is the doping level of the polymer is greater, increasing the conductivity. Moreover, as the temperature increases, the
energy of an electron is related with the temperature by the Boltzmann relationship. Because of that, the greater the
temperature, the greater is the energy of the electrons, and, consequently, the easier is to excite the electron to the
conduction band. The best-known and most studied conductive polymers are polyacetilene, polyaniline, and
polypyrrole due to their wide range of applications.
Applications
This type of materials has generated interesting in many field of study, due to its conductivity properties as a
metals, but remaining its relatively inert and good mechanical properties. There are many applications of these
materials in electronics, such as batteries, sensors, and microelectronics devices. The polypyrrole and polyaniline
are currently used in protection of metals, as an anti-corrosive coating. In the medical field, the conductive
polymers can be used in the production artificial muscles, biosensors, and drugs controlled-release agents.
 Optical fibre
Optical fibre has revolutionised
the communication sector and
It has made efficient data
transmission possible.
It consumes less power and
is non-flammable. In this article,
let us learn about optical fibre,
types of optical fibre, working of
optical fibre and its advantages
in detail.
 What Is an Optical Fibre?
Optical fibre is the technology associated with data transmission using light
pulses travelling along with a long fibre which is usually made of plastic or
glass. Metal wires are preferred for transmission in optical fibre communication
as signals travel with fewer damages. Optical fibres are also unaffected by
electromagnetic interference. The fibre optical cable uses the application of
total internal reflection of light. The fibres are designed such that they facilitate
the propagation of light along with the optical fibre depending on the
requirement of power and distance of transmission. Single-mode fibre is used
for long-distance transmission, while multimode fibre is used for shorter
distances. The outer cladding of these fibres needs better protection than
metal wires.
 Types of Optical Fibres
The types of optical fibres depend on the refractive index, materials used, and mode of
propagation of light.
The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:
•Step Index Fibres: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which has a single uniform
index of refraction.
•Graded Index Fibres: The refractive index of the optical fibre decreases as the radial distance
from the fibre axis increases.

The classification based on the materials used is as follows:

•Plastic Optical Fibres: The polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material for the
transmission of light.
•Glass Fibres: It consists of extremely fine glass fibres.

The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:

•Single-Mode Fibres: These fibres are used for long-distance transmission of signals.
•Multimode Fibres: These fibres are used for short-distance transmission of signals.
How Does an Optical Fibre Work?
The optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection. Light rays can be used
to transmit a huge amount of data, but there is a problem here – the light rays travel in
straight lines. So unless we have a long straight wire without any bends at all, harnessing
this advantage will be very tedious. Instead, the optical cables are designed such that
they bend all the light rays inwards (using TIR). Light rays travel continuously, bouncing
off the optical fibre walls and transmitting end to end data. Although light signals
degrade over progressing distances, depending on the purity of the material used, the
loss is much less than using metal cables.

A Fibre Optic Relay System consists of the following components:

•The Transmitter – It produces the light signals and encodes them to fit to transmit.
•The Optical Fibre – The medium for transmitting the light pulse (signal).
•The Optical Receiver – It receives the transmitted light pulse (signal) and decodes them
to be fit to use.
•The Optical Regenerator – Necessary for long-distance data transmission.
Advantages of Optical Fibre Communication

❖ Economical and cost-effective

❖ Thin and non-flammable

❖ Less power consumption

❖ Less signal degradation

❖ Flexible and lightweight

Q1. What is used for the fabrication of optical fibres that are used for communication?
Silica or multi-component glass are used for the fabrication of optical fibres.
Q2. Why is silica used for the fabrication of the optical fibres?
Silica has a perfect elasticity until it reaches the breaking point, which makes it best for fabrication.
Q3. What is the principle of fibre optical communication?
Total internal reflection is the principle on which the optical fibre communication is based.
Q4. Name the factors that are responsible for generating attenuation of optical power in fibre.
Following are the factors that are responsible for generating attenuation of optical power in fibre:
•Absorption
•Scattering
•Waveguide effect
Q5. Why are plastic-clad silica fibre optic cables not user-friendly?
Following are the reasons why plastic-clad silica fibre optic cables not user-friendly:
The fibres are insoluble in organic solvents
Bonding becomes difficult
Connector application becomes difficult as there is excessive plasticity in the cladding
Q6. What are the benefits of optical fibre cable?
Following are the benefits of optical fibre cable:
The data security is excellent
It is cost-effective
It won’t be affected by interference
Q7. What is the bandwidth of optical fibre?
900 THz is the bandwidth of the optical fibre.
Q8. What is core in the optical fibre?
The core is the inner part of the optical fibre, which carries light.
Q9. List a few advantages of optical fibre communication.
A few advantages of optical fibre communication are:
Less signal degradation
Thin and non-flammable
Economical and cost-effective
Less power consumption
 Biodegradable materials
Biodegradable materials, those are capable to be broken down by living
organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or water molds, and reabsorbed by the
natural environment.
The term usually refers to the natural breakdown of waste by
microorganisms. All biodegradable materials are formed of organic
compounds, which means they contain carbon atoms, and they may be
naturally occurring or human-made.

Mineral substances (e.g., metals, glass, and conventional plastics) are not
considered biodegradable, though they may physically break down over
extended periods of time. The disposal of nonbiodegradable waste is a
primary source of pollution. For a material to be labeled “biodegradable,”
the European Union requires that at least 90 percent of the original
material can be degraded into water, minerals, and carbon dioxide in a
maximum of six months.
 Examples of Biodegradable Materials
❖ Wood ❖ Fishing industry waste
❖ Wool ❖ Biodiesel

❖ Paper ❖ Bioethanol

❖ Eggshells ❖ Nicotine-based bipesticides

❖ Soy wax
❖ Fruit peels
❖ Dry tree leaves
❖ Sawdust
❖ Branches
❖ Some detergents
❖ Paints based on pigments extracted from plants such as turmer
❖ Waste from the sugar industry ❖ Paints based on pigments extracted from minerals such as iron
❖ Waste from the wine industry ❖ Guano
❖ Paperboard
Advantages of biodegradable materials
The use of biodegradable materials offers multiple benefits for both the environment
and society. Some of the main advantages are described below:
•They do not generate long-term waste: These materials decompose naturally in a
relatively short period of time, meaning they do not leave any persistent residues in
the environment.
•Reducing carbon pollution: By reducing dependence on traditional fossil-fuel-derived
plastics, carbon emissions are reduced. In addition, the degradation process of
biodegradable materials does not produce toxic gases or contribute to the
greenhouse effect.
•Ease of recycling: Biodegradable materials are easily recyclable, either through
composting or by producing new products. This encourages a more circular and
sustainable economy.
•Composting compatibility: Many biodegradable materials, such as those made from
corn starch or cellulose, are suitable for composting, turning waste into natural
fertilizers without the need for chemicals