1.

Clause and Phrase

A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. It can be independent (complete thought) or
dependent (incomplete thought). Clauses can stand alone as sentences if they are independent.
A phrase is a group of related words that lacks a subject, a verb or both. It functions as a single part of
speech and does not convey a complete idea.
Examples of Clauses:
1. He finished his homework before dinner. (Independent Clause)
2. Because she was late, she missed the meeting. (Dependent Clause)
Examples of Phrases:
1. After the storm (Prepositional Phrase)
2. Walking through the forest (Participial Phrase)
Phrases are parts of sentences, while clauses can be entire sentences or parts of them.

2. Compound Subject and Compound Predicate

A compound subject consists of two or more subjects joined by a coordinating conjunction (like and or
or) that share the same verb. A compound predicate has two or more verbs or verb phrases joined by a
conjunction, describing what the subject does.
Examples of Compound Subject :
1. Tom and Jerry play together every day.
2. My brother and sister are visiting us.
Examples of Compound Predicate :
1. She washed the dishes and cleaned the floor.
2. They laughed and danced all night.
Sometimes, sentences have both a compound subject and compound predicate.
For instance:
John and Mary cooked dinner and watched a movie.
This has both a compound subject (John and Mary) and a compound predicate (cooked dinner and
watched a movie). These constructions add variety and richness to sentence structure.

3. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A transitive verb requires a direct object to complete its meaning; it transfers action to something. An
intransitive verb does not require an object and makes sense on its own.
Examples of Transitive Verbs:
1. She wrote a letter. (What did she write? A letter.)
2. He kicked the ball. (What did he kick? The ball.)
Examples of Intransitive Verbs:
1. The baby cried. (No object needed)
2. They arrived late. (No object needed)
Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive depending on usage. Example: She sings beautifully
(intransitive); She sings songs beautifully (transitive). Understanding the difference helps in sentence
construction and clarity.

4. Helping and Linking Verbs

Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs) assist the main verb to form tenses, voices, or moods. Linking verbs
connect the subject to a subject complement, often describing a state of being.
Examples of Helping Verbs:
1. He is going to school. (is helps form present continuous tense)
2. They have finished their homework. (have helps form present perfect tense)
Examples of Linking Verbs:
1. She is a doctor. (is links subject with complement)
2. The soup tastes delicious. (tastes links subject with the adjective)
Some verbs like is, was, become, seem function as linking verbs. Others like have, do, will, can function
as helping verbs. Recognizing their role depends on context.
5. Adverbial and Complement
An adverbial adds information about how, when, where, or why an action happens. A complement
completes the meaning of the subject or verb, often following linking verbs.
Examples of Adverbials:
1. She spoke loudly. (How?)
2. He will arrive in the morning. (When?)
Examples of Complements:
1. She is a teacher. (Noun complement)
2. The cake smells good. (Adjective complement)
Adverbials modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, while complements complete the sentence by
giving more information about the subject or object. A sentence can contain both.

6. Finite and Non -Finite Verbs

A finite verb changes according to the subject and tense; it shows agreement and time. A non-finite verb
does not change with the subject or tense and includes infinitives, participles, and gerunds.
Examples of Finite Verbs:
1. He works every day. (present tense, singular subject)
2. They played football yesterday. (past tense, plural subject)
Examples of Non -Finite Verbs:
1. She likes to dance. (infinitive)
2. Running in the park is fun. (gerund)
Finite verbs form the core of a sentence's predicate. Non-finite verbs cannot function alone as the main
verb but act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

7. Gerund and Participle

A gerund is the -ing form of a verb used as a noun. A participle is also a verb form, often -ing or -ed,
used as an adjective.
Examples of Gerunds:
1. Swimming is my favorite activity.
2. She enjoys reading novels.
Examples of Participles:
1. The boiling water spilled. (present participle)
2. The broken window was fixed. (past participle)
While both use -ing forms, gerunds function as nouns, and participles function as adjectives. Context
helps in distinguishing them.

8. Direct and Indirect Object

A direct object receives the action of the verb. An indirect object indicates to or for whom the action is
done.
Examples of Direct Object :
1. She baked a cake.
2. They watched a movie.
Examples of Indirect Object :
1. She gave him a gift. (him = indirect, gift = direct)
2. He told me a story. (me = indirect, story = direct)
The indirect object usually comes before the direct object and answers “to whom” or “for whom.”

9. Auxiliary and Modal Verb

An auxiliary verb (helping verb) assists the main verb in forming tenses, voices, or aspects. A modal verb
expresses possibility, ability, permission, or necessity.
Examples of Auxiliary Verbs:
1. She has finished her work.
2. They are playing football.
Examples of Modal Verbs:
 1. You should study more.
2. He can drive a car.
Modal verbs always precede the base form of a verb. Auxiliary verbs may include be, have, do and are
more flexible in usage.

10. Agent and Doer in Sentence

The agent is the performer of an action, especially in passive voice. The doer is the subject who
performs the action, mostly in active voice.
Examples of Agent (Passive voice):
1. The book was written by Shakespeare.
2. The cake was baked by Sarah.
Examples of Doer (Active voice):
1. Shakespeare wrote the book.
2. Sarah baked the cake.
In active voice, the doer is the subject. In passive voice, the agent may appear in a prepositional phrase
(by + agent) or be omitted.

11. Compound and Complex Sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). A complex sentence includes one independent clause and at
least one dependent clause.

Examples of Compound Sentences:

1. I wanted to go hiking, but it started to rain.
2. She reads novels, and he watches documentaries.
Examples of Complex Sentences:
1. Although she was tired, she finished the project.
2. He stayed home because he was sick.
Compound sentences show equal importance between ideas. Complex sentences show a main idea
(independent clause) and a supporting idea (dependent clause). Both enhance writing by adding depth
and structure.

12. Dependent and Independent Clauses

An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence; it expresses a complete thought. A dependent
clause (subordinate clause) cannot stand alone and relies on an independent clause.
Examples of Independent Clauses:
1. She enjoys painting.
2. The sun set behind the hills.
Examples of Dependent Clauses:
1. Because it was raining (incomplete thought)
2. When the show ended
To complete the sentence, dependent clauses need an independent clause:
Because it was raining, we stayed inside.
Dependent clauses often begin with subordinating conjunctions like because, although, since, if, or
when.

13. What are Infinitives?

An infinitive is the base form of a verb preceded by to (e.g., to eat, to run, to write ). It can function as a
noun, adjective, or adverb. Infinitives do not act as main verbs on their own.

Examples of Infinitives:
1. To travel is my dream. (noun)
2. She has a plan to succeed. (adjective modifying “plan”)
3. He studies hard to win. (adverb modifying “studies”)
Infinitives often express purpose, intention, or desired action. They differ from gerunds in function and
usage—infinitives tend to be more flexible across sentence structures. They can also form infinitive
phrases when combined with objects and modifiers.
14. Why grammar is necessary in technical and business writing ?
Grammar is crucial in technical and business writing because it ensures clarity, precision, and
professionalism. In technical writing, where complex information must be conveyed accurately, proper
grammar helps prevent ambiguity and misinterpretation, which can lead to costly errors or safety issues.
Business writing, such as emails, reports, proposals, and memos, demands clear and concise language to
maintain credibility and foster effective communication. Grammatical correctness builds trust with
clients, colleagues, and stakeholders by reflecting attention to detail and competence. Errors in grammar
can damage the company’s image, confuse the message, or cause delays in decision -making.
Furthermore, strong grammar skills enhance readability and comprehension, ensuring the message is
received as intended. In both fields, good grammar supports professionalism, efficiency, and successful
communication.
15. Define briefly 5 main parts of a sentence ?
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. It usually contains a subject and a
predicate (which includes a verb), and it starts with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation
mark (such as a period, question mark, or exclamation point).
Example:
"The dog barked loudly."
Here are 5 main parts of a sentence, briefly defined:
1. Subject – The person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about.
Example: "The cat sleeps."
2. Predicate – The part of the sentence that tells what the subject does or is. It contains the
verb.
Example: "The cat sleeps on the sofa."
3. Verb – The action or state of being in the sentence.
Example: "She runs every morning."
4. Object – The noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb.
Example: "He kicked the ball."
5. Complement – A word or phrase that completes the meaning of the subject or verb.
Example: "She is a doctor."