Steam Generator

Analysis

Lecture 7

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Steam market - Israel
 More than 3000 available systems.
 Many older than 15 years.
 Few advanced monitoring and control systems - no fuel consumption
information versus steam output.
 There is a tendency to convert the burners only, to natural gas.
 Few detailed information on existing working regime and working hour
breakdown.
 There are no investments in comprehensive energy surveys

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Plant Requirements

 A steam system suitable for the needs of the plant.

 Energy saving.
 Controllable boiler contributes to life-saving capabilities and is more
efficient. Smart control also optimizes other plant processes.
 High boiler availability and minimum malfunction.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Equivalent Evaporation
 A parameter used for comparing the capacity of boilers working at
different pressures, temperatures, different final steam conditions etc.
 Indicates the amount of heat added in the boiler for steam generation.
 The quantity of dry saturated steam generated per unit time from feed
water at 100°C to steam at 100°C at the saturation pressure
corresponding to 100°C.
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
=
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 100℃ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 100℃

 May be expressed in terms of: kg steam/hr; kg of steam/kg of fuel; kg

of steam/hr/m² of heating surface.
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Equivalent Evaporation
 Accordingly, 1 kg of water at 100 °C necessitates (2257) kJ to get
converted to dry saturated steam at 100 °C.
 The heat supplied for generating a steam is:
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 ℎ − ℎ𝑤𝑤
 Where hw is the enthalpy of the feed water and h is the final
enthalpy of the water given
ℎ𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
ℎ = � ℎ𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
ℎ𝑔𝑔 + 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
 Thus, the Equivalent Evaporation (kg steam/kg fuel) is given as:

𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 ℎ − ℎ𝑤𝑤
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 =
Dr. Sharon Gat
2257
 Boiler Efficiency
 The ratio of heat actually used for steam generation and total heat available
due to combustion of fuel in boiler.
 The boiler efficiency is expressed as:

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 ℎ − ℎ𝑤𝑤
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 =
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 × ℎ𝑣𝑣

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Factors effecting boiler efficiency
Fixed factors Variable factors
 Boiler Design  Actual firing rate
 Heat recovery equipment  Fuel condition as it fires
 Built in losses  The condition of heat absorbing surfaces
 Rated rate of firing  Excess air fluctuations
 Properties and characteristics  In complete combustion and combustible in
of the fuel the refuse
 Change in draught from the rated due to
atmospheric conditions
 Humidity and temperature of the
combustion air
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Heat Balance on Boiler
 Accounting for total heat released inside boiler and its distribution.
 Total heat available inside boiler is due to burning of fuel and can be
quantified by the product of mass of fuel and heating value of fuel.
 Heat distribution can be given comprising of the following, based on unit
mass of fuel burnt:
 Heat used for generation of steam:
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 ℎ − ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 × 2257
 Heat losses due to dry flue gases: The flue gases contain dry products
of combustion as well as steam generated due to combustion of
hydrogen. Thus Heat loss with dry flue gases can be given by,

𝑄𝑄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎

Dr. Sharon Gat
 Heat Balance on Boiler
 Heat losses due to steam in flue gases: The heat loss carried away by
the steam in flue gases can be expressed by,

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × ℎ𝑠𝑠1 − ℎ𝑓𝑓1

Where, hs1 and hf1 are enthalpy values of steam at gas temperature Tg
and partial pressure of vapor in flue gas and enthalpy of water at mean
boiler temperature, respectively.
 Heat losses due to moisture in fuel: This heat lost is attributed to the
evaporation and superheating of the moisture content found in fuel. The
heat available in boiler due to burning of fuel will also account for the
latent and sensible heat requirement of the moisture, as given by:

𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × ℎ𝑠𝑠2 − ℎ𝑓𝑓2

Where, hs2 is enthalpy of final steam produced and hf2 is enthalpy of
Dr. Sharon Gat water at boiler furnace temperature.
 Heat Balance on Boiler
 Heat losses due to incomplete combustion: Complete combustion can be
obtained by supplying excess air and devising its improved mixing with the
fuel inside the combustion chamber. Based on the additional heat required
for complete combustion , this heat loss can be expressed as:
Heat loss due to incomplete combustion =Heat released when carbon burns into
C𝑂𝑂2 – Heat released when carbon burns into CO = 3.38 � 104 − 1.012 � 104
= 2.368 � 104 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Thus, expressing the mass of carbon burnt to CO instead of CO2 yields,
𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
× 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2
Where fCO and fCO2 are percentage by volume of CO and CO2 present in flue
gases and fC is fraction of carbon present in per kg of fuel. This leads to,

𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = × 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 × 2.368 � 104 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Dr. Sharon Gat 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2
 Heat Balance on Boiler
 Heat losses due to unburnt fuel: Some portion of heat may get lost in
unburnt fuel, which could be given by the product of mass of unburnt fuel
per kg of fuel and its calorific value, as:
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
 Heat losses due to convection, radiation and other unaccountable losses:
In a boiler heat also gets lost due to convection, radiation from the boiler’s
surface exposed to atmosphere. Exact quantification of these losses is not
possible, therefore these can be estimated by the difference of total heat
available and cumulative heat loss described previously and expressed as:

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 × 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 − � 𝑄𝑄𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙,𝑖𝑖

The total heat balance on boiler account for heat released and its distribution
Dr. Sharon Gat for unit mass of fuel burnt or unit time.
 Heat Balance on Boiler – Exercise 1
 Determine the actual evaporation per kg of coal and the equivalent
evaporation if during boiler trial of one hour duration the following
observations are made:
 Feed water supply temperature: 27°C
 Mean steam generation pressure: 10 bar
 Dryness fraction of steam generated: 0.95
 Feed water supplied: 2500 kg/hr
 Coal burnt: 275 kg/hr
 Mass of water in boiler after trial = 300 kg less than that at
commencement of trial

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Heat Balance on Boiler – Exercise 1
Solution
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From steam table at 10bar: ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 762.81 ,ℎ = 2778.1 ,ℎ = 2015.29
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑔𝑔 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Having 𝑥𝑥 = 0.95 the enthalpy of the steam generated is:

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
ℎ = ℎ𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥 � ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 2677.4
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From steam table at 27°C: ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 113.24
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
The mass of water evaporated per hour is 2500 + 300 = 2800
ℎ

2800 kg steam
Thus, water evaporated per kg coal is = 10.18
275 kg coal

kg steam
Therefore the actual evaporation is 10.18
kg coal

10.18×(2677.34−113.4) kg steam
Where the Equivalent evaporation is = 11.56
Dr. Sharon Gat 2257 kg coal
 Heat Balance on Boiler – Exercise 2
 Steam is generated in a boiler at 30 bar 300°C at the rate of 11 kg/s
with feed water entering from economizer at 100°C. During one hour
test 5000 kg fuel is used in boiler. Calorific value of fuel is 35000
kJ/kg. For the feed water being supplied to boiler to be at 27°C
determine;
 The equivalent evaporation per kg of fuel
 The boiler efficiency
 The percentage of fuel energy utilized in economizer

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Heat Balance on Boiler – Exercise 2
Solution
The water evaporated per kg coal is
11×3600
= 7.92
kg steam
5000 kg coal

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From steam table at 30bar and 300°C: ℎ = 2993.5
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From steam table at 27°C: ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 113.24 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 4.18 × 27 = 112.86
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Therefore the heat added is: 𝑞𝑞 = ℎ − ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 2880.64
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

7.92×2880.64 kg steam
the Equivalent evaporation is: 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 = = 10.11
2257 kg coal

10.11×2257
The boiler efficiency is : η𝑏𝑏 = = 0.6519 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 65.19%
35000

kJ
Heat utilized in economizer per kg fuel : 7.92 × 4.18 × 100 − 27 = 2416.71
kg coal

2416.71
Dr. Sharon Gat
The percentage of energy utilized in economizer: = 0.069 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 6.9%
35000
 Heat Balance on Boiler – Exercise 3
 A boiler unit generates steam at 20 bar, 300°C from feed water
supplied to boiler at 50°C. Coal used in boiler has calorific value of
30,000 kJ/kg and is used at rate of 600 kg/hr for steam generation
rate of 5000 kg/hr.
 Determine the overall efficiency of boiler and the equivalent
evaporation of boiler unit at 100°C in kg/hr.
 Determine the saving of coal in kg/hr if an economizer fitted to
boiler to raise feed water temperature up to 75°C increases the
overall efficiency of boiler unit by 5% for all other things
remaining same.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Heat Balance on Boiler – Exercise 3
Solution
The water evaporated per kg coal is
5000
= 8.33
kg steam
600 kg coal

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From steam table at 20bar and 300°C: ℎ = 3023.5
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From steam table at 50°C: ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 209.33
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Therefore the heat added is: 𝑞𝑞 = ℎ − ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 2814.17
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

8.33×2814.17 kg steam
The Equivalent evaporation is: 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 = = 10.386
2257 kg coal

The equivalent evaporation of boiler unit at 100°C in kg/hr: 10.386 × 600 =

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
6231.6
ℎ

10.386×2257
The boiler efficiency is : η𝑏𝑏 = = 0.7814 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 78.14%
30000
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Heat Balance on Boiler – Exercise 3
Solution
After installing an economizer:
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From steam table at 75°C: ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 313.94
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

The new boiler efficiency is : η𝑏𝑏 = 78.14 + 5 = 83.14%

Modified coal consumption in kg per hour:

2814.17 × 5000 k𝑔𝑔

0.8314 = → 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 = 564.14
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 × 30000 h
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Coal saving : 600 − 564.14 = 35.86 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 6%
ℎ

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Practical Approach
Boiler efficiency is practically described as:

𝜂𝜂 = 100% − 𝑞𝑞𝐴𝐴 − 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿

η- Boiler efficiency [%]
qA- Energy losses in chimney\stack [%]
qL-Convection and radiation losses [%]

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Energy losses of flue gasses

Energy losses in chimney\stack are calculated by the Siegert formula:

𝑓𝑓 21
𝑞𝑞𝐴𝐴 = � � 𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴 − 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 21 − 𝑂𝑂2
f- fuel specific parameter
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 - the maximum concentration of carbon dioxide in the combustion gas,
a quantity specific for a given type of fuel [%]
𝑂𝑂2 -the measured concentration of O2 in combustion gases [%]
𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴 - flue gas temperature
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 - the temperature of the boiler inlet air

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Energy efficiency - qA
Flue gas temperature
 Stand alone economizer
 Built in Economizer
 Pipes with ribs for increased heat transfer
 Assembled on the boiler gas chamber
 5-7% fuel savings
 Insulated and ready to operate (factory
assembler only make piping connections)
 Requires small floor space
 No additional foundation is needed
 No mounting on the ground
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Energy efficiency - qA
Flue gas temperature
 Condensing economizer

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Energy efficiency - qA
Flue gas temperature
 Condensing economizer utilizes the latent heat from flue gas.
 Cooling the flue gas below dew point.
 Material requirements: Stainless steel.
 Chimney designed for "wet" conditions.
 Neutrality is required for fuel (sulfuric acid).

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Energy efficiency - qA
Inlet air temperature
 Pre heating
 Some of the feed water
flows from the combustion
air heat exchange.
 Burning air heats up and
water stream cools.
 The exhaust gases are
cooled.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Energy efficiency - qA
Combustion efficiency – Blower
 Blower velocity control
 low velocity requires lower power input according to:

3
𝑣𝑣1
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑃2
𝑣𝑣2

 Lower power consumption.

 Reduced noise levels.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Energy efficiency - qA
Combustion efficiency - Burner
 Oxygen (O2) and Carbon mono oxide (CO) control
 Allows continuous control of air / fuel ratio.
 Distribution of variables in the combustion mixture:
 fuel:
 Temperature change
 Change in caloric value, density or viscosity
 Change in gas pressure
 air:
 Change in temperature / density / humidity percentage
 Facility changes:
 Burner / boiler dirt
 Chimney changes
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Energy efficiency - qA
Combustion efficiency - Burner

 Reduce losses by reducing the number of operations and shutdowns:

 Requires burner with large modulation ratio.
 Extends burner life.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Energy efficiency - qL
Insulation technology

 No spacers in the cylindrical area (the thermal bridges).

 High quality insulation materials, 100/120/150 mm.
 The boiler should be compact.
 Insulation on all openings for cleaning and inspection:
 In the boiler body
 Connecting the gas vents
 In the economizer's body
 Using an integrated economizer reduces the heat transfer zone to the area.
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Saving potential

Energy Saving Measure Saving Potential

Economizer Up to 7% in fuel
Condense heat exchanger Up to 7% in fuel
Inlet air preheating Up to 2% in fuel
O2 and CO control Up to 1% in fuel
Variable speed blower Up to 75% in electricity
High pressure condensate system Up to 12% in fuel
Continuous control Up to 0.5% in fuel, saving in chemicals and labor

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Saving potential

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Boiler Draught
 Draught refers to the pressure difference created for the flow of gases
inside the boiler.
 A chimney (usually refers to brick or concrete structure) or stack (metallic
structure) is generally used for carrying these combustion products from
inside of boiler to outside, i.e. draught is created by use of chimney.
 Draught is important in a case of a boiler for the following reasons:
 Providing and maintaining the supply of sufficient air for combustion
 Expulsion of combustion products from furnace region
 Discharge of burnt gases to atmosphere

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Boiler Draught
 The amount of draught required shall depend upon:
 type of boiler
 rate of fuel burning
 rate at which combustion products are produced
 the air requirement rate
 As the pressure difference is very small so draught is measured in ‘mm’ of
water having pressure due to 1 mm of water column is equivalent to 1
kgf/m2 (~9.8 Pa).

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Generic losses
 Frictional losses due to resistance offered by passage surface
roughness, different equipment's as grate, super heater, air preheater,
economizer etc. through which gas passes.
 Pressure losses in bends, baffles, supports etc.
 Kinetic energy required with gases for moving at certain velocity
throughout.
 These losses constitute about 20% of the static draught produced.
 Due to draught losses the actual requirements may vary significantly
than theoretical ones when taking into consideration also the boiler
rearrangements.
 Therefore while designing the chimney considerations should be made
for overcoming above losses.
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Dispersion of flue gases
 Defined as the movement of the flue gases both horizontally and vertically
and their atmospheric dilution.
 Existing wind causes the horizontal motion of the flue gases.
 Vertical motion caused by the warm flue gases flowing upward in high
velocity.
 Therefore exit velocity of the flue gases at stack exit results in a plume rise
of ∆H above the actual stack.
 The gases bend in the direction of wind flow.
 The plume height is the height of a virtual
point source above the stack obtained by
extending the lines of dispersion backward.
 Effective stack height is therefore: 𝐻𝐻𝑒𝑒 = 𝐻𝐻 + ∆𝐻𝐻
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Dispersion of flue gases
 Higher the velocity of the flue gases the higher the plume is as well as the
dilution in the atmosphere.
 Several known correlation for the estimation of the plume height most
common are:
Carson and Moses Briggs
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐0.5 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 114𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 1⁄3
∆𝐻𝐻 = 2.64 + 0.35 (𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) ∆𝐻𝐻 =
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 m/s 𝐶𝐶 − 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐷𝐷 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 ∆𝜃𝜃
𝐶𝐶 = 1.58 − 41.4
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 − 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑍𝑍
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 − ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐽𝐽/𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 ∆𝜃𝜃
− 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝐾𝐾/𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚 − 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑍𝑍
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 1005 𝐽𝐽/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝐾𝐾
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐾𝐾 𝐹𝐹 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐾𝐾 𝑔𝑔𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 2 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
𝐹𝐹 =
4𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Boiler Draught - Classification

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Natural Draught

 The natural draught is produced by a chimney due to the density difference

of hot gases inside chimney and cold atmospheric air.
 The amount of draught produced by a chimney depends upon flue-gas
temperature.
 Intensity of draught produced by chimney also depends upon height of
chimney.
 Generally draught is less than 12 kgf/m2 (~ 118Pa) in chimneys.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Natural Draught

 Grate is the platform upon which the solid fuel is burnt.

 Grate surface is the surface area over which the fire takes place.
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Natural Draught - Calculations
 During no working of boiler the pressure inside boiler is atmospheric
pressure. The pressure at grate level is given as:
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
Where Pa and ρa are atmospheric pressure and density accordingly.
 During boiler operation the chimney shall be filled with hot gases and
the pressure at the grate level is expressed as:
𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
where ρg is density of hot gases.
 The net pressure difference at the grate level of chimney causes flow of
gases also known as “stack effect” or “chimney effect” is expressed as:

∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 − 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Natural Draught - Calculations
 This pressure can also be expressed in measurable parameters using
the ideal gas equation of state while assuming that the volume of the
combustion products equals the volume of air supplied at the same
temperature resulting in:
𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾
𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 101325 1 1 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 1

𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 = = � = 353 � ; 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 = = 353 � �
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 287 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Natural Draught - Calculations
 Substituting this relations into the pressure difference equation yields:

1 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 1
∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 − 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 353 � 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − �
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔

 This pressure can be expressed in terms of water head (also known as

static draught) as:

∆𝑃𝑃 ∆𝑃𝑃 ∆𝑃𝑃 1 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 1

ℎ𝑤𝑤 = = = [𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚] → ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 353 � 𝐻𝐻 − � 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 1000𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔

 Height of hot gas column equivalent to draught produced:

1 𝑚𝑚 + 1 1
353 � 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑎𝑎 �
∆𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
ℎ𝑔𝑔 = = = 𝐻𝐻 � − 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚 + 1 1 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
353 � 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑔𝑔
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Natural Draught - Calculations
 Assuming the chimney to be frictionless the hot gas velocity in chimney is:

𝐶𝐶 = 2𝑔𝑔ℎ𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

 Accounting for friction losses, the hot gas velocity shall be lesser. The head
loss is given in terms of flue gas column as hf thus the velocity of hot gases:
ℎ𝑓𝑓 𝐾𝐾 = 0.825 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐶𝐶 = 2𝑔𝑔 ℎ𝑔𝑔 − ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 2𝑔𝑔ℎ𝑔𝑔 1− = 𝐾𝐾 ℎ𝑔𝑔 �
ℎ𝑔𝑔 𝐾𝐾 = 1.1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

 Chimney diameter could be estimated from the mass flow rate of hot gases
through chimney and its velocity:
4 𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔
𝐷𝐷 = ×
𝜋𝜋 𝐶𝐶𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Natural Draught - Calculations
 Discharge through chimney (flue gas flowrate):

𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔 = 𝐴𝐴 × 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 × 𝐾𝐾 ℎ𝑔𝑔

Assuming ideal gas, the hot gas flowrate becomes:

𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 1 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔 = 𝐴𝐴 × 353 � � × 𝐾𝐾 𝐻𝐻 � −1
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎

𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝐻𝐻 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔

= 353𝐴𝐴 � 𝐾𝐾 � −1
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔2 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎

𝐻𝐻 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 � −1
𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Natural Draught - Calculations
 The maximal discharge obtained by differentiating discharge with respect
to hot gases temperature which gives:

𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 2 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1
=
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎
 Substituting this yields:
353 � 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
∆𝑃𝑃max 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
2𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
353 � 𝐻𝐻
ℎ𝑤𝑤,max 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ; ℎ𝑔𝑔,max 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐻𝐻
2𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎

𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻
𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 2𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1
For smooth chimney:
353𝐴𝐴
𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
2𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Chimney Efficiency
 Efficient chimney should have such a design so that flue gases leave at
lowest possible temperature.
 Efficiency of chimney is quantification of the cost of natural draught in
terms of energy, i.e. the large amount of usable energy going along waste
hot gases. This can be expressed as:
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 s in 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑡𝑡
𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
𝑔𝑔𝐻𝐻 � −1
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 − 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔,𝑎𝑎
 Where Tg.a is the temperature of flue gases in artificial draught which will
be less than Tg in natural draught.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Artificial Draught
 Normally this efficiency of chimney is very small even for tall chimney.
 It is seen that about more than 20% of total heat released gets lost along
with hot flue gases in case of natural draught.
 Therefore the artificial draught becomes more economical in the situation
where cost of harnessing the extra heat carried with flue gases is less than
the cost of energy lost in natural draught.
 Artificial draught refers to the externally created draught employing some
equipment for it.
 In general it is seen that for draught requirements being more than 40 mm
of water, the natural draught isn't sufficient and uneconomical.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Artificial Draught
 In case of natural draught the fuel rate up to 100 kg/hr per m2 of grate
area could be handled while with artificial draught it goes up to 300 kg/hr
per m2 of grate area.
 Additional benefits are shown in same steam generation the fuel
consumption gets reduced by up to 15% with use of artificial draught in a
boiler.
 Artificial draught systems do not require tall chimney/stack, but small
stack is always required for discharge of flue gases to certain height in
atmosphere for minimizing pollution.
 Thus artificial draught can be classified as,
 Mechanical draught

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Steam jet draught
 Mechanical Draught
Advantages of mechanical draught over natural draught:
 Fuel economy- flue gases could be cooled to lowest possible
temperature before exhaust.
 Combustion rate - better distribution and mixing of air and fuel.
 Inferior quality fuel may also be used in mechanical draught.
 Height of chimney/stack used in mechanical draught is much smaller.
 Boiler plant efficiency gets improved with mechanical draught.
 Efficiency of mechanical draught is improved.
 Fuel burning per unit grate area per unit time is up to 300 kg/m2·hr in
mechanical draught as compared to up to 100 kg/m2·hr in natural
draught.
 Higher mass of flue gases is to be handled.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Mechanical Draught
 Mechanical draught produced using fans, blowers etc.
 Can be classified to:
 Forced draught
 Induced draught
 Balanced draught

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Mechanical Draught
 Forced draught is an arrangement in which high pressure air is delivered
to the furnace so as to force flue gases out through stack. Air under
pressure may be fed to stokers or grate for which a fan/blower is put at the
bottom of furnace. Due to pressurized air the pressure inside furnace
becomes more than atmospheric pressure so it should be properly sealed,
to avoid leakage. Obviously the fan in case of forced draught shall handle
fresh atmospheric air.
 Induced Draught is the one in which the suction created on furnace side
draws flue gases and throws them out through small chimney/stack. Fan is
located at base of chimney in induced draught so as to reduce pressure at
fuel bed below atmospheric pressure. The fan in induced draught shall
handle hot flue gases. Higher power required to drive the fan/blower
compared to forced draught fan.
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Mechanical Draught
 Power required for forced and induced draught is:
̇
𝑃𝑃 � 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃 � 𝑉𝑉̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = ; 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Where
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 � 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 � 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
𝑉𝑉̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 + 1 1 353
353 � 𝑎𝑎 �
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔

𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 � 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 � 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔

𝑃𝑃 � 𝑃𝑃 � 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 � 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 � 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 353 =
𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 353 � 𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
While similarly,
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 �𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 �𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
𝑃𝑃� 𝑃𝑃�𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 �𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 �𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 353
=
𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 353�𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Comparing both gives:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
= >1
Dr. Sharon Gat 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
 Mechanical Draught
 Balanced Draught when a combination of forced draught and induced
draught is being used.
 Forced draught fan ensures complete supply of air for proper
combustion after overcoming all resistances while induced draught
fan takes care of post combustion resistances, thus ensuring
complete removal of flue gases.
 Pressure variation in balanced draught shows the pressure values
through out boiler unit:

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Mechanical Draught

Advantages of forced over induced draught:

 Fan size and power requirements for the same draught are 20-50%
lower than those of induced since it handles cold cleaner air.
 Forced draft doesn't require water cooled bearings.
 Forced draught has reduced tendency of atmospheric air leakage.
 Combustion rate is better due to better air dispersion.
 Maintenance is easier in forced draught due to their location.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Steam Jet Draught
 Artificial draught may also be produced by steam jets.
 Draught produced using steam jets may also be of induced or forced.
 In case of forced steam jet draught, the steam jet is located before
the grate.
 In case of induced draught the steam jet is placed near stack with
direction to smoke box so as to induce air across the grate and throw
it out from stack.
 Steam jet draught is simple, cheap and requires minimum attention.
 Steam jet draught is disadvantageous because of the fact that steam
is not available initially when boiler unit just starts since the steam for
draught is taken from boiler unit itself. Initially high pressure steam
may be supplied externally.
 Steam jet draught is used in locomotive boilers.
Dr. Sharon Gat
 Steam Jet Draught

 Advantages:
 For operation of steam jet draught steam is required, which is available
without much investment.
 Low grade fuels can also be used in furnace with steam jet draught.
 Steam jet draught is simple, economical, requires least attention and
minimum space.
 Use of steam and its mixing with ash/burnt residuals prevent formation
Dr. Sharon Gat of clinkers.
 Draught – example 1
A boiler may have waste gases leaving the installation when artificial
draught is used at 150°C. The natural draught chimney is of 60 m height.
The hot gases within chimney are at temperature of 300°C and air
requirement is 19 kg per kg of fuel burnt. The atmospheric air is at 17°C
temperature and mean specific heat of hot gases is 1.0032 kJ/kg K.
Determine:
1. The draught produced in mm of water.
2. The efficiency of chimney.
3. The extra heat carried away by flue gases per kg of fuel.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Draught – example 1
Solution
1 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 1 1 19 + 1 1
ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 353 � 𝐻𝐻 − � = 353 � 60 � − �
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 290 19 573
= 34.13 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 19 573
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 � −1 9.81 � 60 � −1
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 19 + 1 290
𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = = 0.3431%
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 − 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔,𝑎𝑎 1.0032 573 − 423

𝑄𝑄𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 − 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔,𝑎𝑎 = 3009.6kJ

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Draught – example 2
In a boiler installation coal is burnt at the rate of 2.5 x 103 kg/hr and hot
gases are generated at the rate of 20 kg per kg of coal burnt. Hot gases
are at the temperature of 327°C and ambient air temperature is 27°C.
Different pressure losses in furnace grate, flues, bends and chimney are
measured to be 7 mm, 6 mm, 3 mm, and 2 mm of water respectively.
Considering the actual natural draught to be 90% of theoretical draught
determine the height and diameter of chimney.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Draught – example 2
Solution
Pressure head required to overcome different losses and velocity head shall
be sum of all losses, given h = 7 + 6 + 3 + 2 = 18 mm of water.
Hence the actual head loss is:
18
ℎ𝑤𝑤 = = 20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
0.9
The chimney height is: 1 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 1
ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 353 � 𝐻𝐻 − �
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
1 19 + 1 1
20 = 353 � 𝐻𝐻 − � → 𝐻𝐻 = 35.88𝑚𝑚
300 19 600
Density of hot gases
19 + 1 1
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 = 353 � � = 0.619𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
19 600

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Draught – example 2
Solution
Height of hot gases column

𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 19 600

ℎ𝑔𝑔 = 𝐻𝐻 � − 1 = 35.88 � − 1 = 32.29 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 + 1 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 19 + 1 300
2.5 � 103 � 20
𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔 = = 13.89 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑠𝑠
3600

𝐶𝐶 = 2𝑔𝑔ℎ𝑔𝑔 = 2 � 9.81 � 32.29 = 25.17 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

𝜋𝜋 2
𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔 = 𝐷𝐷 × 𝐶𝐶 × 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 → 𝐷𝐷 = 1.06𝑚𝑚
4

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Draught – example 3
Determine the capacity of motor required for running induced draught
fan and forced draught fan required for maintaining draught of 50 mm of
water column. Consider hot gases to leave boiler at 300°C, coal being
burnt per hour at the rate of 2000 kg/hr, air supplied at the rate of 19
kg/kg of coal, ambient air temperature of 27°C and mechanical efficiency
as 90%.

Dr. Sharon Gat

 Draught – example 3
Solution

ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 𝑃𝑃 = 490.5 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

𝑃𝑃�𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 �𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 �𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 490.5×19×0.556×300

̇
𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = = = 4.89 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
353�𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 353×0.9
𝑃𝑃 � 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 � 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 � 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 490.5 × 19 × 0.556 × 573
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = = = 9.35 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
353 � 𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 353 × 0.9

Dr. Sharon Gat