Chapter 2- Biological classification

Biological classification is the scientific procedure of arranging organisms in a hierarchical

series of groups and sub-groups on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities.

Need for Classification:

Living organisms need to be classified because of the following reasons
(i) The study of one or two organisms is not sufficient to know the essential features of the
group.
(ii) All kinds of organisms do not occur in one locality.
(iii) Classification helps in knowing the relationship amongst different groups of organisms.
(iv) It helps in knowing the evolutionary relationship between organisms.

Types of Classification System

A. Old System of Classification

Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a scientific basis of classification. (Artificial System)
 He used simple morphological characters to classify plants as trees, shrubs and herbs.
 He also classified animals into two groups,
i.e„ Enaima (with red blood) and Anaima (without red blood).
A need for proper system of classification was always felt.

B. Modern System of Classification

1. Two Kingdom Classification System (Natural System) -Given by Carolous
Linneaeus
Carlous Linnaeus is known as the father of classification. He classified the living organisms in
a systematic way. He put forth the two kingdom classification system in 1758 based on their
anatomical characteristics
These are Plantae and Animalia.
Features of Kingdom-Plantae
The characteristic features of this kingdom are
(a) Cell wall is present.
(b) A big central vacuole is present.
(c) Absorb inorganic nutrients from outside.
(d) Unlimited growth and well defined growing points.
(e) Autotrophic mode of nutrition, reserve food is starch.
(f) No locomotion (except in some lower algae).
(g) Absence of excretory organs, nervous system, sense organs and muscular system.
(h) Slow response to external stimuli.

Features of Kingdom-Animalia
The characteristic features of this kingdom are
(a) Absence of cell wall.
(b) Inorganic crystals are not present in their cells.
(c) Central vacuole is not present.
(d) Heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
(e) Growth is limited and well defined growing points are not present.
(f) Reserve food as glycogen.
(g) Excretory organs, nervous system and sense organs are present.
(h) Locomotion is present.
(i) Muscular system is present.
(j) Show quick response to external stimuli.

Merits:
• Organisms were classified into plant kingdoms and animal kingdom based on their
specific characters.
• This system initiated systematic methods to classify living organisms.

Limitations/ Drawbacks of Two Kingdom Classification System

(a) The first formed organisms were neither plants nor animals.
(b) Unable to distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organism
(c) It is not easy to recognise the lower organisms as plants or animals. For example, Euglena
has mixotrophic (dual) mode of nutrition, while sponges are fixed, branched and irregular
creatures like plants.
(d) Modes of nutrition considered in this system are assimilation and ingestion, absorption type
of nutrition is not recognized.
(e) In the system both photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organism are placed together in
the kingdom plantae. For example the fungi lack chlorophyll and are saprophytic in nature,
they are placed in the plant kingdom.
(f) Fungi also do not show similarity with structure, physiology and reproductive system of
plants.
(g) Slime moulds, a group of fungi, are wall-less in vegetative phase. They develop cell wall in
the reproductive phase. Slime moulds can neither be placed in fungi, nor plants.
(h) Lichens are formed by the symbiotic association of an alga and a fungus. They neither
resemble plants nor animals.
(i) There is no proper distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Like in the case of
bacteria without a nuclear envelope and cellular organelles are placed in the plant kingdom.
(j) Prokaryotes do not have an organised nucleus. They have single envelope organisation,
absence of spindle apparatus, meiosis and sexual reproduction.
Eukaryotes have a well-defined nucleus, a double envelope organisation, spindle apparatus,
meiosis and sexual reproduction.
On the other hand, viruses have no protoplasm and metabolic machinery of their own.
Therefore, all of these cannot be kept in a single group.
(k) Unicellular algae like diatoms, euglenoids, dinoflagellates and Protozoa resemble each
other.
(l) Organisms like the lichens do not fall either in the animal or plant kingdom.
(m) Organisms like the diatoms are place under the plant kingdom while the protozoans are
placed under the animal kingdom, these organisms are of the same level of organization
and they reproduce by fission yet they are placed in different kingdoms.
(n) Some organisms possess characters of both plants and animals like Euglena and
Chlamydomonas, so they can belong to any kingdom.

2. Three Kingdom Classification System

Ernst Haeckel in 1866, classified living organisms into three kingdoms-
 Plantae, Protista and Animalia.
 The new kingdom-Protista included all those organisms (protozoan, bacteria, algae and
fungi), which lack the capability of tissue differentiation. These are algae, fungi and
Protozoa.
 Later, kingdom-Protista was reserved only for unicellular organism.

Limitations of Three Kingdom Classification System

Limitations of three kingdom classification are
(a) Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are not separated.
(b) Both unicellular and multicellular organisms are kept in Protista.

3. Four Kingdom Classification System

In 1938, Herbert F. Copeland proposed a four-kingdom classification.
 The four kingdoms included Monera, Protista, Plantae and Animalia.
Studies with electron microscope made it clear that bacteria and related organisms have a
different nuclear structure as compared to others. They are prokaryotes, thus kingdom-Monera
was created by Copeland (1956). Fungi continued to remain with Plantae in this system.

4. Five Kingdom Classification System

This classification was proposed by RH Whittaker, in 1969. Before 1969, the classification
systems for the living organisms have undergone several changes overtime.
He created fungi, as separate kingdom.

The main criteria for classification used by Whittaker

(i) Cell structure
(ii) Modes of nutrition
(iii) Thallus organisation
(iv) Reproduction
(v) Phylogenetic relationships.

Merits of Five Kingdom Classification System

(a) Euglena and other transition types which had been included both amongst plants and
animals are given proper place under kingdom—Protista.
(Transition Types -Euglena is a unicellular protozoan. It possesses characteristics of both
animals and plants. The animal−like characteristics include the ingestion of other small
protozoans and presence of flagella for movement. The plant−like characteristics include the
presence of chlorophyll that helps it to perform photosynthesis during scarcity of food. Hence,
it is said to belong to both animal and plant kingdom.)
(b) Fungi have their own biochemical, physiological and structural organisation. They have
never been related to plants. In this system of classification fungi are separately placed.
(c) A separate kingdom of prokaryotes include Monera has been created. Monerans differ from
all other organisms in their cellular, reproductive and physiological organisations.
(d) The five kingdom classification system is based on cellular organisation, the mode of
nutrition and complexity of structure. These were the basic factors used in earliest two
kingdom system of classification.
(e) The system shows the gradual evolution of early organisms into plants and animals.
(f) The plant and animal kingdoms are more homogenous than, they were in the two kingdom
system of classification.

Demerits of Five Kingdom Classification System

(a) Animal protozoans have been included in kingdom—Protista, which also includes
unicellular plants. They show different modes of nutrition.
(b) Yeasts are though, unicellular eukaryotes, do not belong to kingdom—Protista.
(c) Chlorella and Chlamydomonas, though unicellular included under the kingdom-Plantae.
They should be kept in Protista.
(d) Euglena like organisms and slime moulds with flexible life style may need the creation of
an intermediate kingdom of Protista.
(e) Viruses and viroids are not kept in proper place in this system.

5. Six Kingdom Classification System

It was introduced by Carl Woese a Professor in the
Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois in
1990.
This system is also named as three domain system as in it
organisms are classified into three domains, i.e.,
i. Archaea, - Archebacteria
ii. Bacteria – Eubacteria
iii. Eukarya - Eukaryotes

It mainly used basic principles of five kingdom system

but divides the Monera into two domains Archaebacteria,
Eubacteria and other eukaryotes in third kingdom.

FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION. - R.H. WHITTAKER (1969)

The most widely accepted five kingdom classification given by Whittaker includes
 Kingdoms Monera,
 Kingdom Protista
 Kingdom Fungi
 Kingdom Plantae and
 Kingdom Animalia

I. KINGDOM MONERA
The kingdom-Monera includes all prokaryotes such as bacteria, mycoplasma,
Actinomycetes and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).

The characteristic features

(i) They are simplest or most primitive, unicellular prokaryotes.
(ii) The cell wall contains peptidoglycan or murein (no cellulose) and the membrane
bound cell organelles are not present.
(iii) They have various types of nutrition like saprophytic, parasitic, chemoautotrophic,
photoautotrophic and symbiotic.
(iv) DNA is naked. It lies inside the cytoplasm in coiled form. This is called nucleoid.
(v) The flagella, if present are single-stranded instead of being 11 stranded as in
eukaryotes. These contain a protein called flagellin.
(vi) Reproduction is by asexual method. Gametes are not present.
(vii) Mitotic spindle is absent.
 (viii) Some of the monerans have the ability to fix-nitrogen into useful nitrates.

I. Bacteria
The term Bacteria was proposed by Ehrenberg in 1829. They have widespread distribution be it
air, water or soil. They can survive in extreme range of temperatures like up to 78°C and -
190°C.

Important characteristics of bacteria are

(i) Bacteria are found in all kinds of habitats.
(ii) They are prokaryotic microorganisms.
(iii) They are unicellular.
(iv) Cell wall contains peptidoglycan.
(v) An organised nucleus in absent.
(vi) Extrachromosomal self replicating DNA segments called plasmids occur in most of the
bacteria.
(vii) Mitochondria, plastids, Golgi apparatus,endoplasmic reticulum and other membrane
covered cell organelles are absent.

Size: The size of bacterial cell ranges from 1-10 Jim in length and from 0.7-1.5 flm in width.

Shape
The bacteria possess the following forms
(i) Coccus (PI. cocci) bacteria are oval or spherical cells without flagella. The spheres occur
 as single cells (Monococcus),
 a pair of cells (Diplococcus),
 in groups of four cells (Tetracoccus),
 as chain of cells (Streptococcus) or
 in sheets (Staphylococcus)
 A few cocci may also occur in cube-like arrangements of 8 or more cells (Sarcina).
(ii) Bacillus (PI. bacilli) bacteria are rod-shaped cells which many occur
 singly (Monobacillus),
 in pairs (Diplobacillus),
 in chains (Streptobacillus) or
 as a layer (suck) with many cells called Palisade bacillus.

(iii) Spirillum (PI. spirilla) bacteria are cells, which are twisted, like a screw. They occur as
free single cells, e.g., Spirillum, Spirochaete, etc.

(iv) Vibrio are cells which are curved, C-shaped or comma-shaped, e.g., Vibrio cholerae.
Apart from these some other shapes of bacteria are also found
NOTE:
 Bacteria were discovered by Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). He observed
bacteria in 1675.
 Louis Pasteur laid the foundation of Bacteriology by developing culture techniques.

Structure
A bacterial cell is covered by mucilage. It is differentiated into cell wall, plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleoid, plasmids, inclusion bodies, flagella, pilli and fimbriae. Membrane bound
organelles are absent.

NUTRITION
Bacteria show both autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of nutrition, i.e., mixotrophic.
On the basis ofmode ofnutrition, bacteria are of two types
i. Autotrophic Bacteria
These are of following two types
(a) Photosynthetic
These bacteria have green – sunlight trapping pigment called bacteriochlorophyil.
These are found at the bottom of ponds and lotus. Bacterial photosynthesis does not release
oxygen.
(b) Chemosynthetic
These bacteria are able to synthesise organic food from inorganic raw materials with the help
of energy derived from exergonic chemical reactions.
Examples
 Nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas),
 iron bacteria (Ferrobacillus ferroxidants),
 sulphur oxidising bacteria (Beggiatoa).

ii. Heterotrophic Bacteria

These bacteria obtain food from different sources. These may be of folbwing types
(a) Saprophytes
These are called decomposers, detrivores or transformers.
They obtain food by decomposing dead-bodies, excreta of animals, dead plants and their parts.
(b) Parasites
These are disease causing bacteria called as pathogens, e.g.,
 Salmonella typhimurium, which causes typhoid in human.
(c) Symbionts
These bacteria live in mutually beneficial association with other organisms,
 e.g., Rhizobium and Bacillus, species form nodules in root of leguminous plants.

REPRODUCTION
Bacteria reproduce by asexual and sexual (parasexual) processes.

i. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction occur by binary fission and endospore formation.
(а) Binary Fission
It is a simple cell division in which bacterial cell divides in two parts. A constriction appears at
the centre of the cell, deepens further and grows from margin to centre and finally two cells are
produced.
(b) Endospore Formation
Endospores are perennial structures which help in survival even during harsh environmental
conditions,
 e.g., in Clostridium and Bacillus. The endospore has many wall layers. It has heat
resistant chemicals called sialic acid and dipicolinic acid.

ii. Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction occurs by a parasexual process called genetic recombination.
(The parasexual cycle, a process restricted to fungi and single-celled organisms like bacteria, is
a nonsexual mechanism of transferring genetic material without meiosis or the development of
sexual structures.)
The three methods involved are as follows
(a) Conjugation
The male cell (donor cells) has fertility plasmid or F-factor, which connect itself to cell wall of
female cells (receipient cells).
(b) Transformation
The process was discovered by Griffith in 1928. It is a process where segments of DNA are
transferred from one bacterial cell to another via the liquid medium.
(c) Transduction
During this process, the segment of DNA are transferred from one bacterium to another by the
viruses (bacteriophages).

Uses of Bacteria
Bacteria is useful in the following ways
(i) Bacteria are natural scavangers. They obtain their nutrition by decomposing dead bodies,
dead plants and animal excreta.
(ii) These are used in fermentation process for vinegar manufacturing, yogurt making, etc.
(iii) Some bacteria help in retting of jute and coconut plant fibres. The separated fibres are used
in making ropes or gunny bags.
(iv) The genus Streptomyces has many species used to produce different antibiotics.
Some important antibiotics using various bacteria are neomycin, … omycetin, streptomycin,
gramicidin, bacitracin.
(v) Bacteria play important role in different steps of nitrogen cycle. Some important bacteria in
nitrogen cycle, e.g, Clostridium, Azotobacter (soil bacteria), Rhizobium leguminosarum,
Bacillus radicicola (in nodules), Nitrosomonas, Nitrosobacter, Pseudomonas etc.

Harmful Effects of Bacteria

Bacteria is harmful in the following ways
(i) Some saprophytic bacteria like Lactobacillus spoil milk and milk products.
(ii) Food poisoning occurs due to the production of toxins by some bacteria like Clostridium
botulinum. They cause botulism, which can kill humans by respiratory paralysis.
(iii) Bacteria are responsible for various plant diseases like citrus canker in lemon leaves and
fruits, soft rot in carrot plants, blight disease in rice plants, crown gall disease in apple trees and
rose plants.
(iv) In humans, bacteria cause diseases like cholera (Vibrio cholerae), gastric ulcer
(Heliobacter pylori), tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), sexually transmitted diseases
like gonorrhoea(Neisseriagonorfhoeae), syphilis (Treponema pallidum), etc.
(v) In animals like horse, cattle and sheep, anthrax disease is caused by Anthracis.

Bacteria are divides in two parts:

(i) Archaebacteria (ii) Eubacteria

(i) Archaebacteria
 They are most primitive prokaryotes.
 These bacteria live in some of the most harsh habitats such as
 extreme salty areas (halophiles),
 hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and
 marshy areas (methanogens).
 Archaebacteria cell walls lack peptidoglycan
 In most cases, the wall composed of non-cellulosic polysaccharides and some proteins.
 In some members, there is no cell wall. This feature of having different cell walls is
responsible for their survival in extreme condition.
 Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes
and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these
animals
 Most of the archaebacteria are chemoautotrophs.

Types of Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria are of following three types
i. Methanogens
 These are strictly anaerobes.
 They live anaerobically in gut of several ruminants such as cows, buffaloes, goat, etc.
 These bacteria help in fermentation of cellulose.
 They produce almost 65% of atmospheric methane.
 Example Methanobacterium, Methanobacillus, Methanosarcina and Methanococcus.
ii. Halophiles
 These are found in extreme saline environments like salt lakes, • salt marshes, salt pans,
salt solutions, etc.
 They are mostly anaerobes.
 Examples Halobacterium and Halococcus.
iii. Thermoacidophile
 These archaebacteria can live in both extreme heat and acidic pH (around 2)
environment. Under anaerobic conditions, these organisms oxidise sulphur to sulphuric
acid.
 Thermoacidophiles can survive in high temperature and low pH conditions
 Examples Sulfobolus, Thermoplasma and Thermoproteus.

Importance of Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria can live in extreme environments, so they are useful in
(i) Modern biotechnology
(ii) Generation of biogas
(iii) Thermophilic enzymes
(iv) Biosensors
(v) Restriction enzymes, etc.

Differences between Eubacteria and Archaebacteria

(ii) Eubacteria
A. These are also known as true bacteria.
B. They have a rigid cell wall.
C. They posses flagellum, if motile.

Eubacteria may be Autotrophic or Heterotrophic on the basis of Nutrition

 Autotrophic
o Photosynthetic Autotrophs
o Chemosynthetic Autotrophic
 Heterotrophic
Cyanobacteria
 Cyanobacteria are Eubacteria that are mostly photoautotrophs.
They contain chlorophyll-a and other photosynthetic pigments
similar to green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs
 The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae.
 The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
They often form blooms in polluted water bodies.
  Some of the eubacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen by specialized cells,
e.g. Anabaena and Nostoc. These special cells are called heterocyst. Heterocysts
are the sites of nitrogen fixation.
 The examples of cyanobacteria are Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Spirulina, Rivularia,
Anabaena, etc.

Chemosynthetic autotrophic
 Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances such as
nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP production.
 They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and
sulphur.

Heterotrophic bacteria
 Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant in nature.
 The majority are important decomposers. Many of them have a significant impact on
human affairs.
 They are helpful in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in
legume roots, etc.
 Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets.
 Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases caused by different
bacteria
Reproduction
Bacteria multiply vegetatively, asexually and sometimes Sexual reproduction too is observed.

The types of multiplication are

i. Binary fission occurs in unicellular forms.
ii. Fragmentation occurs in colonial and filamentous
forms.
iii. Conidia are asexually produced spores of fungi.
iv. Endospores and exospores are non-reproductive
structures.
v. Sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type
of DNA transfer from one bacterium to the other

Differences between Bacteria and Cyanobacter

 Uses of Cyanobacteria
Some uses of cyanobacteria are
(i) Some cyanobacteria have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The green manuring by
farmers is done on this basis to enrich the soil with nitrogenous fertilisers.
(ii) Cyanobacteria like Anabaena, Tolypothrix, etc., help in prevention of soil erosion and its
conservation.
(iii) Spirulina is a protein rich supplement for humans. It is a fast growing cyanobacteria. It is
also known as Single Cell Protein (SCP).
(iv) Cyanobacteria like Anabaena and Aulosira prevent mosquito larvae to grow in
surroundings.

Harmful Effects of Cyanobacteria

i. Cyanobacteria discolour the walls and roofs of buildings, movements and statues.
ii. Growth of Oscillatoria in water bodies shows pollution by organic matter.
iii. Oscillatoria causes asthma and gastrointestinal problems by releasing its toxins
iv. Excessive growth of cyanobacteria form water blooms, which decreases oxygen level in
water causing death of aquatic animals.
v. Algae bloom is rich growth of blue green algae over the surface of polluted water bodies.
vi. Algae bloom releases neurotoxins, deplete oxygen and water unfit for use.

Mycoplasma
 Mycoplasma belong to genus bacteria.
 The organisms are often called MLOs (Mycoplasma Like Organisms) or PPLOs
(Pleuropneumonia Like Organisms).
 They are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen
 Their size ranges from 0.1-0.5 (µm)
 Mycoplasma lack a cell wall. (As they lack cell walls, they are naturally resistant to
antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis)
 Mycoplasma do not have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
 Mycoplasma are pleomorphic organisms and pleomorphic organism are those that can
change their shape.
 They're the most basic self-replicating bacterium on the planet. Mycoplasmas replicate by
binary fission,
 They were discovered by Roux (1898) in pleural fluid of cattle suffering from
pleuropneumonia.
 Mycoplasma possess heterotrophic nutrition. Examples Mycoplasma gallisepticum, M.
laidlawii. They cause pleuropneumonia in domestic animals, mycoplasmal urethritis in
humans.

II. KINGDOM PROTISTA

The general characteristic features of kingdom-Protista

 Kingdom—Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes
 It was first proposed by Ernst Haeckel (1866).
 Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. Some protists also live in the bodies of
animals as parasites.
 Most of the protists are aerobic. However, some protists that live at the bottom of
aquatic habitats can respire anaerobically.
 Physiologically kingdom-Protista acts as a connecting link between the kingdom-
Monera and the complex multicellular kingdom-Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
 Kingdom-protista includes the following categories such as dinoflagellates,
chrysophytes, euglenoids, slime moulds and protozoans.
 Protistans are eukaryotes, hence the protistan cell body contains a well defined nucleus
and other membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, Golgi complex, endoplasmic
reticulum, 80S ribosomes, etc.
 Locomotion may either occur by
 Pseudopodia (Amoeba),
 Cilia (Paramecium),
 Wriggling (sporozoans, non-flagellates) and
 Mucilage propulsion (some protists like diatoms). As Diatoms do not have any
organelles for locomotion.
 Protists shows various modes of nutrition such as
 Photosynthetic - (holophytic) Dinoflagellates, diatoms and euglenoids.
 Halozoic - (zootrophic) Protozoans like Amoeba and Paramecium.
 Saprobic - (saprotrophic) In slime moulds.
 Parasitic - Trypanosoma, Giardia, Plasmodium, Entamoeba.
 Mixotrophic - InEuglena.
 Symbiotic - In zooflagellates like Trichonympha and Lophomonas.
 Pinocytosis - In Amoeba to absorb soluble organic substances.
 Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote
formation.
Protista Kingdom and its Phylum

The Major Groups of Protista are-

(А) Protistan Algae (Photosynthetic Protists)
(B) Slime Moulds (Consumer-Decomposer Protists).
(C) Protozoan Protists.

A. PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROTISTS. These include Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates and

Euglenoids.

1. CHRYSOPHYTES – Includes Diatoms and Golden Algae (Desmids)

 They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments.

 They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton). (Passive
floatation is when aquatic organisms don’t possess swimming organs and float
passively in water current )
 Most of them are photosynthetic.
 This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).

i. Diatoms
(a) They are microscopic unicellular organisms of different shapes, such as circles,
semicircles, triangular, spindle-shaped, boat-shaped, etc
(b) Diatoms occur in all aquatic and moist terrestrial habitats and are also known as
chief producer in the ocean.
(c) Diatoms do not passess flagella except in the reproductive state.
(d) In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, which fit together as in a
soap box. The walls are embedded with silica and thus the walls are indestructible.
Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat;
this accumulation over billions of years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous earth’
 (e) Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms are
the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
(f) Chloroplast are yellowish brown to greenish brown. They contain chlorophyll-and
c. They contain fucoxanthin that provides brownish ting.
(h) Food is reserved in the form of oils and leucosin (polysaccharide).
(i) The diatoms mostly reproduce asexually by binary fission. Sexual reproduction
varies from isogamy to oogamy.

Economic Importance of Diatoms

 Diatoms are very important photosynthesizers.
 Diatomite deposits are often accompanied by petroleum fields.
 These are used as a cleaning agent in tooth pastes and metal polishes and are used in
filtration of oil and syrups.
 Diatoms are used as insulation material in refrigerators boilers and furnaces. These are
also used to make sound-proof rooms.
 Diatoms are also very good pollution indicators.

ii. Golden Algae (Desmids)

 These are unicellular green algae.
 Their cell walls have distinct halves.
 Sexual reproduction occurs by ‘conjugation’ (similar to Spirogyra).
 They are usually found in freshwater and acts as an indicators of polluted water.

2. DINOFLAGELLATES
 These are mainly marine and photosynthetic organism.
 These are important phytoplanktons. Most of them are marine but some occur in
freshwater.
 They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments present
in their cells.
 The cell wall in dinoflagellates, if present is composed of number of plates made up of
cellulose.
 Most of them have two of different types of flagella; one lies longitudinally arising
from the anterior part and the other transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.
(heterokont).One flagellum is transverse. The other flagellum arises in the vertical
furrow. Both these flagella beat in different directions.
 Red Tide-
o Some dinoflagellates like Gonyautax and Gymnodinium grow in large number
in sea and make the water look red and form ‘red tide’.
o Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other aquatic animals.

3. EUGLENOIDS
 Euglenoids live in fresh aquatic habitats found in stagnant water and damp soils.
 They are unicellular flagellate protists.
 Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their
body flexible
 Euglenoids have two flagella, usually one long and one short.
  They perform creeping movements by expansion and contraction of their body. This
phenomenon is called metaboly.
 Nutrition is holophytic, saprobic or holozoic. This mode of nutrition is called
mixotrophic.
(They are holophytic because they have chloroplasts, which are used for
photosynthesis. Saprobic organisms feed on dead and decaying wood, leaves, litter,
and other organic matter)
 The photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll a and b like those present in higher
plants.

(Euglena is a claimed to be a plant by botanists because it contains chloroplats and obtains

its food through photosynthesis. On the other hand, zoologists consider it to be an animal
as its body is covered by pellicle, it bears myonemes and reproduces by binary fission.)

4. Slime Moulds
 Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.
 They are found in moist terrestrial places rich in decaying organic food.
 They do not have chlorophyll. The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves
engulfing organic material.
 The body of slime moulds is covered with mucilage having gelatinous consistency,.
 Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may
grow and spread over several feet. During favourable conditions, Plasmodium can
spread over several feet.
 During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting
bodies bearing spores at their tips. The spores possess true walls. They are extremely
resistant and survive for many years, even under adverse conditions. The spores are
dispersed by air currents.

Uses of Slime Moulds

 Slime moulds are beneficial as they cause the decomposition of organic matter in the
soil.
 Slime moulds are acellular and cellular types, about 600 species of slime moulds are
reported by biologists out of which 27 species are known from India.
 Anton De Bary (1887) related them to animals and called them as Mycetozoa.
 These are also named as fungus animals because they share the common characters of
both animals and are known as protistian fungi.

5. Protozoan
  They were first studied by Leeuwenhoek (1677).
 They are microscopic small unicellular and colourless organism with different shapes.
 Protozoan may be aquatic or terrestrial.
 Some are free-living and some are parasitic in plants and animals.
 Mostly they are aerobic but some are anaerobic and present in the rumen or human
intestine causing diseases in humans and animals.
 They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
 There are four major groups of protozoans.
o Amoeboid protozoans:
 These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil.
 They move and capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet)
as in Amoeba.
 Marine forms have silica shells on their surface.
 Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites.
o Flagellated protozoans:
 The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic. They have
flagella.
 The parasitic forms cause diaseases such as sleeping sickness. Example:
 Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness)
 Leishmania (kala-azar, dum-dum fever)
 Giardia (giardiasis)
 Trichomonas (leucorrhoea).
o Ciliated protozoans:
 These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of
thousands of cilia.
 They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface.
 The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with
food to be steered into the gullet.
 Example: Paramoecium
o Sporozoans:
 All sporozoans are endoparasites and pathogenic.
 Locomotory organs are absent.
 Nutrition is parasitic (absorptive).
 This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like stage
in their life cycle. Life cycle may include two different hosts, e.g.,
Plasmodium requires two hosts (digenetic), female Anopheles mosquito
and human beings. It is responsible for causing malaria, in humans.

III. KINGDOM FUNGI

 Definition:
Alexopoulos (1952) defined fungi as nucleated, achlorophyllous organisms, which typically
reproduce sexually and asexually and whose usually filamentous, branched somatic structures
are surrounded by walls containing cellulose or chitin or both.
 Distribution : There are more than 100,000 species of fungi, which are cosmopolitan in
distribution.

 Habitat : Fungi are ubiquitous i.e., found in almost every habitat. They flourish well in
moist, dark and warm conditions. The most usual habitat of fungi is wet soil rich in humus.
A few forms are aquatic (e.g., Saprolegnia, Allomyces, Achlya).

 Cell structure
 With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous.

 Fungi are eukaryotic and possess true nuclei. Nuclei are smaller as compared to those
higher plants.

 Fungal cells are bounded by definite cell wall. The cell walls of fungi are composed of
polysaccharides (fungal cellulose) and chitin (nitrogen containing polysaccharide or
heteropolymer of acetyl glucosamine which are also found in insects).

 The cell wall encloses protoplast, which is differentiated into plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleus and vacuoles.

 Cytoplasm has all the eukaryotic cell organelles, except plastids.

 Vacuoles are many but small.

 Food reserve is glycogen (animal starch) and oils.

 Nutrition
Fungi lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesize their own food by the process of
photosynthesis. Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead
substrates and hence are called saprophytes. Those that depend on living plants and animals are
called parasites.
According to their mode of nutrition, fungi are of two types: parasites and saprophytes.

 Parasites: They obtain their food from a living host.

 Saprophytes: They derive their food from dead and decaying organic matter.
 Symbionts – They can also live as in association with algae as lichens and with roots of
higher plants (e.g., Pinus) as mycorrhiza.

 Thallus Organization
 The plant body of fungi is thallus which may be acellular or multicellular.

o Acellular thallus may be motile (e.g., Synchytrium) or non-motile (e.g.,

Saccharomyces).

o Multicellular thallus is tubular, filamentous, branched and is called mycelium.

The unit of mycelium is hypha.

 The mycelium may be aseptate and septate.

o Aseptate mycelium lacks septa. It is multinucleate and is called coenocytic, e.g.,

members of Phycomycetes.
 o Septate mycelium is partitioned into separate
compartments by means of cross walls (septa). Individual cells may be
uninucleate, binuclate or multinucleate.

o Each septum is perforated by a central pore. The pore may be either simple or
dolipore.

 Mycelium may be eucarpic (only a part forms the reproductive body) or holocarpic (the
whole mycelium is transformed into reproductive body).

 Reproduction
Reproduction can be vegetative, asexual and sexual.

A. Vegetative reproduction
a. Fragmentation : Mycelium may break accidentally or due to decay into two or more
parts. Each segment develops into complete mycelium.

b. Fission : It occurs in unicellular forms where cell division produces two daughter cells
e.g., yeasts.

c. Budding : The protrusion grows out into a bud. The bud constricts at the base and
separates into a new individuals e.g., yeasts. Sometime a number of buds may be seed
attached to the parent cell (torula stage).

d. Vegetative spores
(i) Chlamydospores : Chlamydospores are thick-walled spores produced vegetatively
from mycelial cells, that resist the unfavorable conditions and germinate under the
onset of favorable conditions e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor, Ustilago, etc.

(ii) Oidia (Arthrospores): Oidia are thin walled structures produced in chain. They
are formed by the segmentation of hypha in the presence of excess water, sugar and
salts. They germinate immediately after liberation and produce new mycelia, e.g.,
Mucor. The oidia formation in Mucor represents the Torula stage.

B. Asexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction is accomplished by means of asexual spores formed by mitosis
 These Spores may be
 Endogenous spores: The endogenous spores are produced within the special spore
producing cell the sporangium.

 Exogenous spores: The spores producing externally or exogenously are either called
the exogenous spores or conidia. They are produced externally on the branched or
unbranched conidiophores.

 Asexual Spores-
(i) Sporangiospores: These are thin-walled, non-motile spores formed in a sporangium.
They may be uni-or multinucleate. On account of their structure, they are also called as
aplanospores.

(ii) Zoospores: They are thin-walled, motile spores formed in a zoosporangium.

(iii) Conidia: In some fungi, the spores are not formed inside a sporangium.. They are
born freely on the tips of special branches called conidiophores. Thus, these spores are
conidia.

C. Sexual reproduction:

 The sexual cycle involves the following three steps:

(i) Plasmogamy Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes
called plasmogamy.

(ii) Karyogamy Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.

(iii) Meiosis: Once karyogamy has occurred, meiosis (The reduction division) generally
follows and restores the haploid phase. The haploid nuclei that result from meiosis
are generally incorporated in spores called meiospores.
 When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types
come together and fuse.
o In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells
(2n).
o However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening
dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is
called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.
o Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi form
fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of
haploid spores
Sexual reproduction is by ascospores basidiospores. oospores, and Zygospore:
i. Ascospore:
 It is usually single celled produced in a sac called ascus (plural-asci) and usually there
are 4-8 ascospore in an ascus but the number may vary from species to species
ii. Basidiospore:
 It is a reproductive spore produced by basidiomycetes.
 This single celled spores are born in a club shaped structure called basidium
iii. Zygospore:
 Zygospores are thick walled spores formed when two sexually compatible hyphae or
gametangia of certain fungi fuse together.
 In suitable condition, zygospore germinates to produce a single vertical hyphae
iv. Oospore:
 These are formed within a special female structure called Oogonium.
 Fertilization of egg by male gamete in female sex organ give rise to oospoes.
 There are one or more oospores in each oogonium.
Classification of Fungi
The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies form the basis
for the division of the kingdom into various classes.
Kingdom Plantae
 It encompasses all multicellular, photosynthetic, eukaryotic plants.
 The following traits apply to members of the Plantae family:
 Their nature is eukaryotic for the most part.
 Its primary pigment is chlorophyll.
 Cellulose makes up its cell wall.
 Food synthesis is aided by photosynthesis.
 Reproduction can occur through sexual or asexual means.
 They stand for the phenomenon of haploid gametophytes and diploid sporophytes,
which alternate between generations.

Kingdom Animalia
 They are different-sized multicellular creatures.
 The skeletal system, circulatory system, respiratory system, and other organ systems are
all fully developed.
 It is discovered that they have bilateral symmetry.
 They have well-developed locomotor organs as well.
 Breathing occurs through the skin, lungs, book gills, gills, etc.
 membrane-bound cell organelles and a nuclear membrane are enclosing the nucleus.
 The heart, blood arteries, and blood itself are the three main conduits for circulation.
 Haploid gametes are formed during the process of reproduction. A diploid zygote
created by the union of the gametes splits to create a new diploid creature.
 The most significant excretory organ is the kidney.

Viruses
→ They did not find a place in classification.
→ Not truly living.
→ non-cellular organisms which take over the machinery of host cell on entering it and
become living but as such they have inert crystalline structure appear non-living. So, difficult
to call them living or non-living.
→ Virus means venom of poisonous fluid. Pastuer gave the term virus.
→ D.J. Ivanowsky found out that certain microbes caused Tobacco Mosaic Disease in tobacco
plant.
→ M.W. Beijerinek called fluid as ‘Contagium vivum fluidum’ as extracts of infected plants of
tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants.
→ W.M. Stanely showed viruses could be crystallized to form crystatls of protein which are
inert outside their specific host.
→ Viruses are obligate parasites.

Structure of Virus:

→ It is a nucleoprotein made up of protein coat called Capsid. Capsid is made up of

capsomeres arranged in helical or polyhedral-geometric forms. Have either DNA or RNA as
genetic material which may be single or double stranded.
→ Usually plant viruses have single stranded RNA; bacteriophages have double stranded DNA
and animal viruses have single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.

Diseases caused in humans:

→ Mumps, Small pox, herpes, influenza and AIDS etc. In plants, symptoms can be mosaic
formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
Viroids:
They are made entirely of nucleic acid without a protein shell, making them the tiniest known
infectious structures.
→ Infectious agent, free RNA (lack protein coat)

→ RNA has low molecular weight.

→ Causes potato spindle tuber disease.
→ Discovered by T.O. Diener.

Lichens
→ Symbiotic association between algal component (Phycobiont) and fungal component
(mycobiont). Algae provides food. Fungi provides shelter and absorb nutrients and water for
alga.
→ Good pollution indicators as they do not grow in polluted areas.