FORGING
DR. RATNAKAR DAS
NIAMT
Sequence of
forming
processes
leading to
final products
Rolling:
Forging: Extrusion: In this, the workpiece
In this process, the workpiece in the
The workpiece is is compressed or pushed into the
form of slab or plate is compressed
compressed between two die opening to take the shape of
between two rotating rolls in the
dies containing shaped the die hole as its cross section.
thickness direction, so that the
thickness is reduced. The rotating rolls contours. The die shapes are Wire or rod drawing: Similar to
draw the slab into the gap and imparted into the final part. extrusion, except that the
compresses it. The final product is in workpiece is pulled through the
the form of sheet. die opening to take the cross-
section.
Classification of basic sheet forming processes
Cold working, warm working, hot working
Cold working: Generally done at room temperature or slightly above RT
Advantages of cold working:
(1) closer tolerances can be achieved;
(2) good surface finish;
(3) because of strain hardening, higher strength and hardness is seen in part;
(4) grain flow during deformation provides the opportunity for desirable directional properties;
(5) since no heating of the work is involved, furnace, fuel, electricity costs are minimized,
(6) Machining requirements are minimum resulting in possibility of near net shaped forming.
Disadvantages:
(1) higher forces and power are required;
(2) strain hardening of the work metal limit the amount of forming that can be done,
(3) sometimes cold forming-annealing-cold forming cycle should be followed,
(4) the work piece is not ductile enough to be cold worked.
Hot working: Involves deformation above recrystallization temperature, between 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm.
Advantages:
(1) significant plastic deformation can be given to the sample,
(2) significant change in workpiece shape,
(3) lower forces are required,
(4) materials with premature failure can be hot formed,
(5) absence of strengthening due to work hardening.
Disadvantages:
(1) shorter tool life,
(2) poor surface finish,
(3) lower dimensional accuracy,
(4) sample surface oxidation
Warm working: In this case, forming is performed at temperatures just above room temperature but below the
recrystallization temperature. The working temperature is taken to be 0.3 Tm where Tm is the melting point of the
workpiece.
Advantages:
(1) enhanced plastic deformation properties,
(2) lower forces required,
(3) intricate work geometries possible,
(4) annealing stages can be reduced.
Forging Process
• It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed between two dies, using either impact
load or hydraulic load (or gradual load) to deform it.
• It is used to make a variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and other applications.
• The components include engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet
engine turbine parts etc.
• Category based on temperature : cold, warm, hot forging
• Category based on presses: impact load => forging hammer; gradual pressure => forging press
• Category based on type of forming: Open die forging, impression die forging, flashless forging
Open die forging Impression die forging Flashless forging
Open die forging
A simplest example of open die forging is compression of billet between two flat die halves which is like
compression test. This also known as upsetting or upset forging. Basically height decreases and diameter
increases.
Under ideal conditions, where there is no friction between the billet and die surfaces, homogeneous deformation
occurs. In this, the diameter increases uniformly throughout its height.
In ideal condition, ε = ln (ho/h). h will be equal to hf at the end of compression, ε will be maximum for the whole
forming. Also F = σf A is used to find the force required for forging, where σf is the flow stress corresponding to ε at
that stage of forming.
Start of compression Partial compression End of compression
In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be homogeneous as bulging occurs because of the
presence of friction at the die-billet interface. This friction opposes the movement of billet at the surface. This is
called barreling effect.
The barreling effect will be significant as the diameter-to-height (D/h) ratio of the work part increases, due to the
greater contact area at the billet–die interface. Temperature will also affect the barreling phenomenon.
Effect of h/D ratio on barreling:
Long cylinder: h/D >2 Cylinder having h/D <2 Frictionless compression
with friction
In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using, F = Kf σf A by considering the effect of friction and
D/h ratio.
where Kf = forging shape factor, μ = coefficient of friction, D = work piece diameter, h = work
piece height
Typical load-stroke curve in open die forging Effect of D/h ratio on load:
Closed die forging
• Closed die forging called as impression die
forging is performed in dies which has the
impression that will be imparted to the work
piece through forming.
• In the intermediate stage, the initial billet
deforms partially giving a bulged shape.
• During the die full closure, impression is fully
filled with deformed billet and further moves
out of the impression to form flash.
• In multi-stage operation, separate die cavities
are required for shape change.
• In the initial stages, uniform distribution of
properties and microstructure are seen.
• In the final stage, actual shape modification is
observed.
• When drop forging is used, several blows of
the hammer may be required for each step.
The formula used for open die forging earlier can be used for closed die forging, i.e.,
F = Kf σf A
Where F is maximum force in the operation; A is projected area of the part including flash, σf is flow
stress of the material, Kf is forging shape factor.
Now selecting the proper value of flow stress is difficult because the strain varies throughout the work piece for
complex shapes and hence the strength varies. Sometimes an average strength is used. Kf is used for taking
care of different shapes of parts. Table shows the typical values of Kf used for force calculation. In hot working,
appropriate flow stress at that temperature is used.
The above equation is applied to find the maximum force during the operation, since this is the load that will
determine the required capacity of the press used in the forging operation.
➢ Impression die forging is not capable of making close tolerance objects.
➢ Machining is generally required to achieve the accuracies needed.
➢ The basic geometry of the part is obtained from the forging process, with subsequent machining done on
those portions of the part that require precision finishing like holes, threads etc.
➢ In order to improve the efficiency of closed die forging, precision forging was developed that can produce
forgings with thin sections, more complex geometries, closer tolerances, and elimination of machining
allowances.
➢ In precision forging operations, sometimes machining is fully eliminated which is called near-net shape
forging.
Flashless forging
➢ In flashless forging, most important is that the
work piece volume must equal the space in the
die cavity within a very close tolerance.
➢ If the starting billet size is too large, excessive
pressures will cause damage to the die and
press. If the billet size is too small, the cavity
The three stages of flashless forging
will not be filled.
➢ Because of the demands, this process is
suitable to make simple and symmetrical part
geometries, and to work materials such as Al,
Mg and their alloys.
Coining
• Coining is a simple application of
closed die forging in which fine details
in the die impression are impressed
into the top or/and bottom surfaces
of the work piece.
• Though there is little flow of metal
in coining, the pressures required to
reproduce the surface details in the
die cavity are at par with other
impression forging operations.
Other forging operations
Upset forging:
It is a deformation operation in which a cylindrical work piece is increased in diameter with reduction in length.
In industry practice, it is done as closed die forging.
Upset forging is widely used in the fastener industries to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar products.
Heading:
The following figure
shows variety of
heading operations
with different die
profiles. Long bar stock (work piece) is fed into the machines by
horizontal slides, the end of the stock is upset forged, and
the piece is cut to appropriate length to make the desired
product.
The maximum length that can be upset in a single blow is
three times the diameter of the initial wire stock.
Swaging:
Swaging is used to reduce the diameter of a tube
or a rod at the end of the work piece to create a
tapered section.
In general, this process is conducted by means of
rotating dies that hammer a workpiece in radial
direction inward to taper it as the piece is fed into
the dies.
A mandrel is required to control the shape and size
of the internal diameter of tubular parts during
swaging.
Swaging the edge of a cylinder
Roll forging:
It is a forming process used to reduce the cross section of
a cylindrical or rectangular rod by passing it through a set
of opposing rolls that have matching grooves w.r.t. the
desired shape of the final part. It combines both rolling
and forging but classified as forging operation.
Depending on the amount of deformation, the rolls rotate
partially. Roll-forged parts are generally stronger and
possess desired grain structure compared to machining
that might be used to produce the same part.
Orbital forging:
In this process, forming is imparted to the workpiece by
means of a cone-shaped upper die that is simultaneously
rolled and pressed into the work. The work is supported
on a lower die.
Because of the inclined axis of cone, only a small area of
the work surface is compressed at any stage of forming.
As the upper die revolves, the area under compression
also revolves. Because of partial deformation contact at
any stage of forming, there is a substantial reduction in
press load requirement.
Isothermal forging:
It is a hot-forging operation in which the work is maintained at some elevated temperature during forming. The
forging dies are also maintained at the same elevated temperature. By avoiding chill of the work in contact with
the cold die surfaces, the metal flows more readily and the force requirement is reduced.
The process is expensive than conventional forging and is usually meant for difficult-to-forge metals, like Ti,
superalloys, and for complex part shapes.
The process is done in vacuum or inert atmosphere to avoid rapid oxidation of the die material.
Forging hammers, presses and dies
Hammers:
Hammers operate by applying an impact loading on the work
piece. This is also called as drop hammer, owing to the means
of delivering impact energy.
When the upper die strikes the work piece, the impact energy
applied causes the part to take the form of the die cavity.
Sometimes, several blows of the hammer are required to achieve
the desired change in shape.
Drop hammers are classified as:
Gravity drop hammers, power drop hammers.
Gravity drop hammers - achieve their energy by the falling weight
of a heavy ram. The force of the blow is dependent on the height
of the drop and the weight of the ram.
Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air or
steam.
Presses:
The force is given to the forging billet gradually, and not
like impact force. Mechanical Press
Mechanical presses: In these presses, the rotating motion
of a drive motor is converted into the translation motion of
the ram. They operate by means of eccentrics, cranks, or
knuckle joints. Mechanical presses typically achieve very
high forces at the bottom of the forging stroke.
Hydraulic presses : hydraulically driven piston is used to
actuate the ram.
Screw presses : apply force by a screw mechanism that
drives the vertical ram. Both screw drive and hydraulic
drive operate at relatively low ram speeds.
Hydraulic Press Screw Press
Forging dies
Parting line: The parting line divides the upper die from
the lower die. In other words, it is the plane where the two
die halves meet. The selection of parting line affects grain
flow in the part, required load, and flash formation.
Draft: It is the amount of taper given on the sides of the
part required to remove it from the die.
Draft angles: It is meant for easy removal of part after
operation is completed. 3° for Al and Mg parts; 5° to 7° for
steel parts.
Webs and ribs: They are thin portions of the forging that is
parallel and perpendicular to the parting line. More
Fillet and corner radii: Small radii limits the metal flow
difficulty is witnessed in forming the part as they become
and increase stresses on die surfaces during forging.
thinner.
Flash: The pressure build up because of flash
formation is controlled proper design of gutter and
flash land.
Forging Defects
Forging Defects:
The general forging defects are:
•Unfilled sections
•Cold shut
•Scale pits
•Die shift
•Flakes
•Improper grain flow
•Surface cracking
•Residual stresses
•Incomplete forging Penetration
Unfilled sections:
The unfilled section defects can be because of the improper design of the Die or the Improver heat treatment
of metals.
Imagine there are two dies: one is upper (Moveable) and the second is lower (fixed), In between we place the
heated metal to form another require shape but due to the above line listed reason the defects can occur.
Cold shut:
Cold shut defects occur in the forging operation when unable to fill the workpiece at the corner of
the complete die.
Scale pits:
The scale fit defects cause low strength of the forging operation because in this defects the slag
or some dust particles available in the die and we not cleaned before the forging operation so it
sticks to the forged metal.
Die shift:
The unfilled section defects can be because of the improper design of Die or Improper
adjustment of Die. To overcome this defect, we must have a good design of the die.
Flakes:
The flakes defects can cause because of the fast cooled of the upper die which unable to makes
proper forged operation.
Improper grain flow:
You must have to design proper die to not to perform such defects.
Surface cracking:
The reason for the defect is improper temperature provided. To overcome these defects you must
provide the required temperature for the working metals.
Residual stresses:
The reason for this defect is the fast cooling of improper parts. To overcome these defects you
must do proper and slow cooling of forged parts.
Incomplete forging Penetration:
While hammering on the workpiece by hand due to improper hammering this defect generates. To
overcome, you must do proper hammering on it.
Forging Advantages:
The main advantages of forging are:
•The process gives higher strength products as compared to casting.
•A good number of shapes can be made through this process.
•The process does not require a skilled operator, anyone can do it. The only thing is to have to
teach once.
•Low-cost operation.
•The Mechanical Properties like (Hardness, Strength and other) having good.
•It refines the structure of the metal.
•The forged parts can be easily welded.
•A reasonable degree of accuracy can be obtained in this process.
Forging Disadvantages:
The main disadvantages of forging are:
•The secondary finishing process requires.
•The size might be limited because of the press size.
•The maintenance cost is high.
•The metal gets distorted if works below the required temperature.
•The initial cost is high. In advantage, operation cost is low.
•Some material can not be forged in the forging process.
•The close tolerance is might not achieve in this process or difficult to maintain.
•Rapid oxidization in forging of a metal surface at high-temperature results in scaling which wears the
dies.
•While performing Forging operation by Hand you must have good energy to strike on the workpiece by
the hammer.
•A huge safety requires because you are working near 2000 degrees centigrade.
Applications of Forging operation:
There are various applications of forging, and those are:
•This is used in the ship-building process.
•This process gives higher fatigue strength so like camshaft, the crankshaft is made by the forging
operation.
•Cold forging is used for making Knife, Chisel, bolts and many more.
•Forging operation maybe use in defense equipment.
•Automobile Industry
•Hand tools and Hardware
•Machinery equipment.
•Industrial tools.
