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INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES

INTRODUCTION:
Induction motors, particularly squirrel cage IM, have many advantages when compared to DC
motors. They are,

 Ruggedness
 Lower maintenance requirements
 Better reliability
 Low cost, less weight and volume
 Higher efficiency
 Also induction motors are able to operate in dirty and explosive environments.

Because of the above said advantages, induction motors are predominantly used in many
industrial applications. But induction motors were used only for applications requiring constant
speed.

DC motors were used for variable speed applications as their speed control is cheap and
efficient when compared to induction motors.

After the advent of power electronic converters, it was able to design variable speed drives
for induction motors. Because speed control of IM using power electronic converters have become
cheap and less costly when compared to dc drives.

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS:

Three Phase Induction Motors are of two types: squirrel-case and wound-rotor. In squirrel-
cage, the rotor consists of longitudinal conductor-bars shorted by circular connectors at the two
ends while in wound-rotor motor, the rotor also has a balanced three-phase distributed winding
having same poles as stator winding. However, in both, stator carries a three-phase balanced
distributed winding.

ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE:

Per-phase equivalent circuit of a Three Phase Induction Motors is shown. R′r and X′r are
the stator referred values of rotor resistance Rr and rotor reactance Xr.

Slip is defined by

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where ωm and ωms are rotor and synchronous speeds, respectively. Further

and

where f and p are supply frequency and number of poles, respectively.

Also from equivalent circuit, we have

Power transferred to rotor (or air-gap power)

Rotor copper loss is

Electrical power converted into mechanical power

Torque developed by motor

Substituting Pm and ωm yields

Substituting Ir1 gives

Motor output torque at the shaft is obtained by deducting friction windage and core-loss torques from
the developed torque.

The developed torque is a function of slip only. Differentiating T with respect to s and equating to zero
gives the slip for maximum torque

Substituting Sm in T yields an expression for maximum torque

Maximum torque is also known as breakdown torque. While it is independent of rotor resistance, Sm is
directly proportional to rotor resistance.

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The natures of speed-torque and speed-rotor current characteristics are shown. Both rotor-current and
torque are zero at synchronous speed. With decrease in speed, both increase. While torque reduces after
reaching breakdown value, the rotor-current continues to increase, reaching a maximum value at zero
speed. Drop in speed from no load to full load depends on the rotor resistance. When rotor resistance is
low, the drop is quite small, and therefore, motor operates essentially at a constant speed. The
breakdown torque is a measure of short-time torque overload capability of the motor.

Motor runs in the direction of the rotating field. Direction of rotating field, and therefore, motor speed
can be reversed by reversing the phase sequence. Phase sequence can be reversed by interchanging any
two terminals of the motor.
Sometime, torque is expressed in terms of sm and Tmax, which not only facilitates calculations, but also
enables a quick appreciation of nature of speed-torque characteristics. It is given by

Term (Rs Sm/R′r) is small compared to 1, neglecting and simplifying yields

INDUCTION MOTORS WITH SPECIAL DESIGNS:

A general purpose induction motor is designed to operate at low slip at full load in order to have good
running performance. Depending on the rating, full load slip varies from 2 to 7%. Such a motor has high
starting current (5-8 times) and low starting torque (full load torque to twice Bill load torque). Certain
applications require motor to be designed differently. Some of these are:

High Slip Induction Motors:

For intermittent load applications, involving frequent start and stop and/or running at low speeds for
prolonged periods, induction motors are designed with high rotor resistance. Such motors have low
starting current and high starting torque, but low full load efficiency due to high rotor copper loss.
Because these motors operate at a large slip (between 10 and 40% at full load) they are called high slip
motors. High slip motors are also suitable for fan drives where speed is controlled by stator voltage
control and are found among both—squirrel-cage and wound rotor. The nature of speed-torque
characteristics of such motors is shown in Fig. 6.3(c).
In squirrel-case induction motors, good starting performance (low starting current and high starting
torque) is realized without appreciably affecting full load performance by the use of deep-bar rotor or
double-cage rotor motors.

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Rotor frequency changes from 50 Hz to 1-3 Hz as the speed changes from standstill to full load:
Variation of rotor frequency is utilized in these motors to vary rotor resistance from a large value at
standstill to a very small value at full speed. Thus, while starting and low speed performance is
improved, full load performance is not appreciably effected.

Deep-Bar Squirrel-cage Rotor Induction Motor:

Stator of the machine is identical to a general purpose induction motor. Rotor has deep and narrow
conductor bars as shown in Fig below.

Slot leakage fluxes produced by the current in bar are also shown in the figure. More leakage flux links
with bottom layer than the top layer. Consequently, bottom layer has a much higher leakage inductance
than the top layer. As rotor frequency is high at low speeds, the reactance and impedance of bottom
layer are much higher than the top layer. Therefore, at low speeds highest amount of current is carried
by topmost layer and lowest by the bottom most. Because of unequal distribution of current across cross
section of the bar, effective resistance of rotor is high and starting and low speed performance is
improved. At near full load speed both—frequency of rotor current and leakage reactance are low.
Therefore, current gets equally distributed across cross section of the bar and effective rotor resistance
has a low value. Thus, full load performance is not appreciably affected. The nature of motor speed-
torque curve is shown in (c).

Double Squirrel-cage Rotor Induction Motor:

Rotor consists of two layers of conductor bars in each slot (Fig. b)) short circuited by end rings. Top bar
has smaller cross section than the bottom. Therefore, it has higher resistance. Bottom bar links to
higher amount of leakage flux than the top bar and therefore has higher inductance. At low speeds, for
which rotor frequency is high, bottom bar has higher impedance. Consequently, more current flows
through the top bar. As the resistance of the top bar is high good starting performance is obtained. At
high speeds, for which rotor frequency is low, bottom bar has much smaller impedance than the top one.
Hence, rotor current is carried mainly by bottom bar and full load performance remains good as it has a
low resistance. The nature of speed-torque characteristics is shown in Fig (c).

UNBALANCED SOURCE VOLTAGES OPERATIONS:

Supply voltage may become sometimes unbalanced, it is useful to know the effect of Unbalanced Source
Voltages Operations on motor performance. Further, motor terminal voltage may be unbalanced
intentionally for speed control or starting purposes.
A three-phase set of Unbalanced Source Voltages Operations (Va,Vb and Vc) can be resolved into three-
phase balanced positive sequence (Vp), negative sequence (Vn) and zero sequence (V0) voltages, using
symmetrical component relations

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Where

Positive sequence voltages have the same phase sequence as original system, and negative sequence
voltages have opposite phase sequence. It will be assumed here that machine does not have a neutral
connection. In the absence of a neutral connection, zero sequence line voltage becomes zero.
Motor performance can be calculated for positive and negative sequence voltages separately. Resultant
performance is obtained by the principle of superposition by assuming motor to be a linear system.
Positive sequence voltages produce an air-gap flux wave which rotates at synchronous speed in the
forward direction. The positive sequence rotor current and torque are given by (replacing V by Vp in
equation of Ir1 and T in analysis and performance of 3ph IM section)

Negative sequence voltages produce an air-gap flux wave which rotates at synchronous speed in the
reverse direction. The slip is

i.e.,
The negative sequence rotor current and torque are given by (replacing V by Vn in equation of Ir1 and T
in analysis and performance of 3ph IM section)

Torque has a negative sign because for negative sequence voltages the synchronous speed is (-ωms).
The rms rotor current and torque are given by

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Positive sequence, negative sequence and the resultant speed-torque characteristics are shown below.

Single phasing (when supply to any one phase fails) is the extreme case of unbalancing, when Vp = Vn.
At zero speed, s is also equal to sn, consequently starting torque is zero. Speed-troque curves for single
phasing are shown in Fig.(b).
Interaction between positive sequence air-gap flux wave and positive sequence rotor currents produce
positive sequence torque Tp. Negative sequence torque Tn is produced due to interaction between
negative sequence flux wave and negative sequence rotor currents. Interactions between positive
sequence flux wave and negative sequence rotor currents, and negative sequence flux wave and positive
sequence rotor currents, also produce torques. However, these torques are pulsating in nature with zero
average values. The pulsating torques cause vibrations which reduce the life of motor and produce hum.
Equations for rms rotor current and torque suggest that while the torque is reduced, copper losses (and
also core losses) are increased. Thus, the Unbalanced Source Voltages Operations substantially reduces
the motor torque capability and efficiency. To prevent burning of the motor, it is not allowed to run for a
prolonged period when the unbalance in voltages is more than 5%. For the same reason, motor is
disconnected from the source whenever single phasing occurs, unless the single phasing is always
accompanied by a light load.

UNBALANCED ROTOR IMPEDANCE OPERATION:

Unbalanced Rotor Impedance Operation causes unbalance in rotor currents. The unbalanced rotor
currents can be resolved into positive and negative sequence components. Positive sequence rotor
currents produce driving torque in the same way as in a motor with balanced rotor resistances.
The negative sequence, components produce a rotating field which moves with respect to rotor at a
speed (-sωms) and in space at a speed of ωms(1 – 2s). This field induces currents in the stator.
Interaction between these currents and the negative sequence rotor field, produces a torque. For (0 ≤ s ≤
0.5), the speed of negative sequence rotor field is positive, therefore, interaction between this field and
stator currents induced by it, produces a positive torque on the stator and consequently a negative
torque on the rotor. Thus for (0 ≤ s ≤ 0.5), torque acting on rotor is the difference between positive and
negative sequence torques. Similarly, it can be explained that for (0.5 ≤ s ≤ 1), the two torques add.
Figure shows the nature of the motor speed-torque characteristics. A large dip in torque occurs at half
of synchronous speed. The extreme case of rotor unbalance arises when single phasing occurs in rotor.
In this torque developed by the machine at s = 0.5 will be zero, and the motor may not accelerate beyond
this point in starting.

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Interaction between positive and negative sequence components produces pulsating torques with zero
average values. Presence of negative sequence components while reduces the motor torque, copper and
core losses are substantially increased. Consequently, efficiency and motor torque capability are
substantially reduced. When single phasing occurs in the rotor, peak value of steady-state voltage
appearing in open rotor phase may reach values in excess of twice normal.

ANALYSIS OF INDUCTION MOTOR FED FROM NON-SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE SUPPLY:

A non-sinusoidal waveform can be resolved into fundamental and harmonic components using Fourier
analysis. Because of half-wave symmetry only odd harmonics will be present. The Harmonic Equivalent
Circuit of Induction Motor can be divided into positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence.
The harmonics, which have the same phase sequence as that of fundamental are called positive
sequence harmonics. The Harmonic Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor having phase sequence
opposite to fundamental are called negative sequence harmonics. The harmonics, which have all three-
phase voltages in phase are called zero sequence harmonics.
Consider the fundamental phase voltage components VAN = V1 sin ωt, VBN =V1 sin (ωt-2π/3) and VCN =
V1 sin (ωt–4π/3) with the phase sequence ABC. The corresponding 5th and 7th harmonic phase voltages
are

7th harmonic is a positive sequence harmonic. The 5th harmonic is a negative sequence harmonic. A
positive sequence harmonic m will produce a rotating field, which moves in the same direction as the
fundamental at a speed m times that of the fundamental field. Similarly rotating field produced by a
negative sequence harmonic m will move in the direction opposite to the fundamental at m times its
speed. Zero sequence components do not produce a rotating field.
Slip sm for the mth harmonic is given by

Negative sign is applicable to harmonics which produce forward rotating fields and the positive sign to
those which produce backward rotating fields. Since sm is close to unity, resistance ((R′rn/Sm)) has a

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small value. As reactances are very large compared to resistors, equivalent circuit of Fig. (a) can be
replaced by the simplified circuit of Fig. (b).

Generally, supply will have odd harmonics. When stator is star-connected triple n harmonics (third
harmonic and its multiples) will not flow. The rms motor current Irms will then be

When motor is delta-connected, triple n harmonics will circulate in delta, but will not flow in the source.
The rms motor phase current will be obtained by

For a given motor torque and power, rms current flowing through the motor has a higher value. Further
due to skin effect harmonic rotor resistance has higher value. Therefore presence of harmonics increase
the copper loss substantially. Core losses are also increased by harmonics. Because of increase in losses,
motor has to be derated in the sense that the power output that can be obtained from machine for the
same temperature rise has to be smaller. The efficiency is also reduced due to increase in losses.
Another important effect of non-sinusoidal supply is the production of pulsating torques due to
interaction between the rotating field produced by one harmonic and rotor current of another harmonic.
Harmonic 5, 7, 11 and 13 are major contributors of torque pulsations.

STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES:

Starting of Induction Motor Drives arrangement is chosen based on the load requirements and nature of
supply (weak or stiff). It may be required to have following features:
1. Motor should develop enough starting torque to overcome friction, load torque and inertia of
motor-load system, and thus, complete the starting process within a prescribed time limit.
2. Starting current magnitude should be such that it does not cause the overheating of the machine
and does not cause a dip in the source voltage beyond a permissible value.

Motor-Load system with small inertia will draw 5 to 7 times of rated current and can be equipped with
Direct On Line(DOL) starter provided voltage dip not beyond a permissible value.

In a squirrel-cage motor some measures for improvement of starting performance may be taken at
design stage, as in case of high slip, deep-bar and double cage squirrel-cage motors. When needed,
methods employed for starting squirrel-cage motors are:
1. Star-delta starter
2. Auto-transformer starter
3. Reactor starter
4. Saturable reactor starter
5. Part winding starter
6. AC voltage controller starter
7. Rotor resistance starter is used for starting of wound-rotor motor

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Star-Delta Starter:

In this method, an induction motor designed to operate normally with delta connection is connected in
star during starting. This allows reduction in stator voltage and current by 1/√3. Since motor torque is
proportional to the square of stator terminal voltage, starting torque is reduced to one-third. A circuit
for star-delta starting is shown below. Circuit breakers CBm and CDs are closed to start the machine
with star connection. When steady-state speed is reached CBs is opened and CBr is closed to connect
machine in delta.

Auto-transformer Starter:

Reduced voltage for starting can also be obtained from an auto-transformer. For a secondary to primary
turns ratio of aT, motor terminal voltage and stator current are reduced by a T. This reduces the current
drawn from supply by a2T. Since torque is proportional to the square of motor terminal voltage, it is also
reduced by a2T. After the motor has accelerated, it is connected to full supply voltage. An auto-
transformer starter circuit is shown below. First, CBs1 is closed followed by CBs2. When motor has
accelerated to full speed, CBs2 is opened and CBm closed. Now CBs1 is opened to disconnect auto-
transformer from the supply.

In both, star-delta and auto-transformer starting methods, changeover from low voltage to full voltage
connection disrupts the flow of stator current and stator field collapses. To avoid this a closed-circuit
transition scheme for an auto-transformer starter is shown in Fig. (b). It employs three circuit breakers:
CBs1, CBs2 and CBm. First CBs2 is closed to close the star point connection of the auto-transformer.
CBs1 is closed next. This completes low voltage connection of auto-transformer and the motor starts.
After steady-state speed is reached, circuit breaker CBs2 is opened. Motor now runs with the upper part
of auto-transformer phase windings in series with the stator. Windings simply function as series
reactors. Now circuit breaker CBm is closed, which bypasses series reactors and connects motor directly
to the supply.

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Reactor Starter:
Starting current can also be reduced by connecting a three-phase reactor in series with stator. When
motor reaches full speed, the reactor is bypassed. Figure below shows such a scheme. CBm is closed to
start the machine. After full speed is reached CBs is closed to short the reactor. It is advantageous to
connect reactor at the neutral end of stator winding. This minimizes its voltage rating and also
maintains its voltage and the voltage of breaker CBs at neutral potential during normal motor
operation.

Soft Start Using Saturable Reactor:

In some applications starting torque must be controlled steplessly. For example in textile machines, it
must be varied smoothly, otherwise fibre threads will break during starting. Such a starting
arrangement is termed Soft Start.
Thyristor voltage controller scheme is now widely used for soft start. A number of existing drives also
employ saturable reactor starter in which a three-phase saturable reactor is connected in series with
the stator. Saturable reactor has dc control winding. Reactance of saturable reactor can be varied
steplessly by changing the control winding current. For starting, reactance is initially set at the highest
value. Starting torque is close to zero. Reactance is now reduced smoothly by increasing the control
winding current. This gives stepless variation of starting torque. Consequently, motor starts without
any jerk and accelerates smoothly.

Part Winding Starting:

Some squirrel-cage motors have two or more stator windings which are connected in parallel during
normal operation. During starting, only one winding is connected. This increase stator impedance and
reduces starting current. Such a starting scheme is called Part Winding Starting. Its implementation
for a machine with two stator windings is shown below. Machine starts with winding 1 when CBm is
closed. After full speed is reached, CBs is closed to connect winding 2.

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Rotor Resistance Starter:
Wound-rotor motors are generally started by connecting external resistors in the rotor circuit as shown
in fig(a). The highest value of resistance is chosen to limit current at zero speed within the safe value.
As the motor accelerates, sections in the external resistor are cut out one-by-one by closing contacts C1,
C2 and C3 so as to limit the rotor current between specified maximum and minimum values (b).

Since most of the rotor copper loss occurs in external resistors, rotor temperature rise during starting is
substantially lower compared to starting methods described earlier. Important feature of this Starting
of Induction Motor Drives method is that the starting torque and torque-to-current ratio are high. It is,
therefore, suitable for applications requiring fast acceleration, frequent starts and stops, starting with
heavy load, and starting with high inertia load.

BRAKING OF INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE:

Following methods are employed for Braking of Induction Motor Drive

 Regenerative braking
 Plugging or reverse voltage braking
 Dynamic (or rheostatic) braking further categorised as:
 ac dynamic braking
 self-excited braking using capacitors
 dc dynamic braking
 zero sequence braking

Regenerative Braking:
The power input to an induction motor is given by

where Φs is the phase angle between stator phase voltage V and the stator phase current Is. For
motoring operation Φs < 90°. If the rotor speed becomes greater than synchronous speed, relative speed
between the rotor conductors and air-gap rotating field reverses. This reverses the rotor induced emf,
rotor current and component of stator current which balances the rotor ampere turns. Consequently,
angle Φs becomes greater than 90° and power flow reverses, giving regenerative braking. Magnetizing
current required to produce air-gap flux is obtained from the source. The nature of speed-torque
characteristic is shown below.

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When fed from a source of fixed frequency, regenerative braking is possible only for speeds greater than
synchronous speed. With a variable frequency source it can also be obtained for speeds below
synchronous speed. Main advantage of regenerative braking is that generated power is usefully
employed and main drawback being that when fed from a constant frequency source, it cannot be
employed below synchronous speed.

Plugging or Reverse Voltage Braking:

When phase sequence of supply of the motor running at a speed is reversed, by interchanging
connections of any two phases of stator with respect to supply terminals, operation shifts from motoring
to plugging as shown below. Plugging characteristics are actually extension of motoring characteristics
for negative phase sequence from quadrant III to II. Reversal of phase sequence reverses the direction of
rotating field. If the slip for plugging is denoted by sn, then

Motor performance can be calculated with the usual equations with s is replaced by sn or (2 — s).

As shown in Fig. (a), torque is not zero at zero speed. When used for stopping motor, it is necessary that
the motor should be disconnected from supply at or near zero speed. This makes it necessary to use an
additional device for detecting zero speed and disconnecting motor from supply. This Braking of
Induction Motor Drive is suitable for reversing the motor. As motor is already-connected for operation in
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reverse direction and torque is not zero at zero or any other speed, motor smoothly decelerates and then
accelerates in the reverse direction. A large rotor resistance is employed so that the characteristics have
a negative slope, and thus, drive is steady-state stable as shown in fig (b).

In this method, mechanical energy supplied to the rotor, either by active load or from kinetic energy
stored in motor and load inertia, is converted into electrical energy and wasted in rotor resistance.

Dynamic Braking of Induction Motor(or Rheostatic Braking):

(a)AC Dynamic Braking – AC Dynamic Braking of Induction Motor is obtained when the motor is run
on a single phase supply by disconnecting one phase from the source and either leaving it open (Fig. (b))

or connecting it with another machine phase (Fig. (c)). The two connections of Figs. (b) and (c) are,
respectively, known as two and three lead connections. When connected to a 1-phase supply, the motor
can be considered to be fed by positive and negative sequence three-phase set of voltages. Net torque
produced by the machine is sum of torques due to positive and negative sequence voltages. When rotor
has a high resistance, the net torque is negative and braking operation is obtained. The motor analysis
for two and three lead connections is done as follows:

Two Lead Connection: Assume that phase A of a Y-connected motor is open circuited. Then IA = 0 and
IC = -IB. Hence positive and negative sequence components Ip and In, respectively, are given by

Although the values of positive and negative sequence components of current are equal, the
corresponding torques are not. The nature of speed-torque curves for positive and negative sequence
currents, and net torque are shown in Fig. (b). By suitable choice of rotor resistance, braking torque can
be obtained in the entire speed range. As the rotor resistance required is large, ac Dynamic Braking of
Induction Motor can only be used in wound-rotor motors.

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In this connection at high speeds (or at low values of slip), the impedance of positive sequence
component part becomes very high. As positive and negative sequence components of current have to be
equal, net braking torque is small, and therefore, braking is not very effective.

Three Lead Connection: Here two phases of Y-connected motor winding are connected in parallel in
series with the third phase (Fig. 6.15(c)). Let phases A and B be connected together, then

In contrast to two lead connection, here magnitude of positive and negative sequence components of
voltage are equal and not the positive and negative sequence components of currents. Positive and
negative sequence parts of the circuit are independent, and therefore, there is no restriction imposed on
negative sequence component of current by positive sequence part of equivalent circuit. Thus higher
braking torques are obtained (compared to two lead connection) at high speeds. The nature of speed-
torque characteristic with this connection is same as shown in Fig. (b).

Any inequality between the contact resistances in connections of two paralleled phases reduces the
braking torque and can even lead to motoring torque, as the condition tends more towards two lead
connection with increasing resistance in one of the two phases (as rotor resistance employed is less than
the two lead connection). Therefore, two lead connection is generally preferred in spite of its low torque.
Main application of single-phase ac braking is in crane hoist.

(b) Self-Excited Braking Using Capacitors : In this method three capacitors are kept permanently
connected across the motor terminals. Values of capacitors is so chosen that when disconnected from the
line, motor works as a self-excited induction generator. Braking connection is shown in Fig.(a) and self-
excitation process is explained in Fig.(b) for no load condition. Curve A is no load magnetization curve of
the machine at a given speed, and line B represents the current through capacitors, given by

Capacitors supply the necessary reactive current for excitation. Operation occurs at point C which is the
inter-section of two characteristics. When speed falls, value of E for the same magnetization current
falls and the new magnetization characteristic a is obtained. On the other hand slope of E
vs Ic characteristic increases giving new characteristic b . Intersection of two curves now occurs at c.
Thus, reduction in speed while shifts the magnetization curves downward, slope of capacitor voltage vs
current curve increases. At certain critical speed, which is usually high, two curves fail to intersect and

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the machine therefore does not self-excite and braking torque falls to zero. Speed-torque characteristic
under self-excited braking is shown in Fig. (c).

Sometimes external resistors are connected across stator terminals to increase braking torque and to
dissipate some generated energy outside the machine. Construction of Fig.(b) is valid only for no load
operation. For more accurate analysis, motor impedance drops should be considered. This scheme is
rarely used, as braking torque drops to zero at a speed which is usually high.

(c) DC Dynamic Braking : It is obtained when the stator of an induction motor running at a speed is
connected to a dc supply. Two commonly used connections, two and three lead, for star and delta
connected stators are shown in Fig below.

A method of getting dc supply with the help of a diode bridge for two lead connection is shown in Fig.

DC current flowing through the stator produces a stationary magnetic field. Motion of rotor in this field
induces voltage in the rotor winding. Machine, therefore, works as a generator. Generated energy is
dissipated in the rotor circuit resistance, thus giving Dynamic Braking of Induction Motor.

(d) Zero Sequence Braking : In this braking, three stator phases are connected in series across either a
single phase ac or a dc source as shown in Fig. (a). Such a connection is known as a Zero Sequence
Connection, because currents in all the stator windings are co-phasal. The mmf caused by co-phasal (or
zero-sequence) currents produces a magnetic field having three times the number of poles for which the
machine is actually wound. With an ac supply, resultant field is stationary in space and pulsates at the
frequency of supply. With dc supply, resultant field is stationary in space and is of constant magnitude.
An important advantage of this connection is the uniform loading of all stator phases. The nature of
speed-torque curves for ac and dc supply is shown in Fig. (b). With ac supply, braking could be used only
up to one-third of synchronous speed. However, braking torques produced by this connection are
considerably larger than motoring. Motor essentially works in regenerative braking. For motors with
low rotor resistance, a significant part of generated energy is recovered. Unlike ac Dynamic Braking of
Induction Motor, it does not require large rotor resistance, and therefore, can be used both—with
squirrel-cage and would-rotor motors.

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With dc supply, braking is available in the entire speed range. It is essentially a dynamic braking as all
the generated energy is wasted in rotor resistances. Switching arrangement, from normal three-phase
to zero sequence operation, is extremely simple when motor has a delta-connected stator.

SPEED CONTROL:

The conventional methods of speed control of induction motors are,

Stator Side
 Stator voltage control
 Variable frequency control
 Stator current control
 V/f control
 Changing the number of poles on stator
Rotor Side
 Rotor resistance control
 Injecting emf in the rotor

STATOR VOLTAGE CONTROL

Speed of induction motor can be varied in a narrow range by varying the voltage applied to the
stator [Link] developed by 3 phase induction motor is directly proportional to the square
of the stator voltage as given by the equation,

Or

In low slip region (S.X2)2 is very small as compared to R2. So, it can be neglected. Soequation 1 becomes,

Since rotor resistance R2 is constant, the torque equation becomes,

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Here E2 is proportional to the supply voltage V1. Hence,

From equation 2, it is clear that any reduction in supply voltage will reduce the motor speed. But
from equation 3, it is seen that any reduction in supply voltage will reduce the torque [Link] in this
method of speed control, torque reduces when supply voltage reduces. Hence this method is used in
applications where torque demand reduces with reduction in [Link] general, this method can be
used for small range of speed [Link] this method of speed control, the slip increases at low
speeds. Hence the efficiency of the drive reduces.
 Examples: Fans and pump drives.

Stator voltage control using AC voltage controllers

The variation of motor voltage is obtained by ac voltage controllers. AC voltage controllers convert
fixed ac to variable ac with same [Link] this method produces harmonics in the output and
the power factor is [Link] harmonic content increases and power factor decreases with decrease
in output voltage. Hence the torque produced by the motor reduces.

 This method is used in applications like fans, pumps and crane drives.
 The circuit for star connected ac voltage controller feeding a 3 phase induction motor is
shown in Fig. 4.1

Star connected controller Delta connected controller

 By controlling the firing angle of the thyristors connected in each phase, the rms value of
stator voltage can be varied.
 As a result of this, the motor torque and the speed of the motor are varied.
 In star connected controller, all the thyristors carry line currents. But in delta controller
shown in Fig. 4.2, all the thyristors carry phase current only. Hence low rating thyristors
may be employed in delta controller.
 But delta controller produces circulating currents due to third harmonic voltages. This may
increase power loss across each device.
 The speed range is limited in this method of speed control.

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 This method is used for applications where load torque requirement reduces with reduction
in speed as shown in Fig. 4.3. When a voltage of V 1 is applied, the load load torque required
is high and when a voltage V3 is applied. The load torque is low.

Speed – Torque characteristics with stator voltage control

 These ac voltage controllers are also used as starters for soft start of motors.
 The power factor of ac voltage circuit is low.
 It can be used for fans and pump drives.

STATOR FREQUENCY CONTROL (OR) FIELD WEAKENING METHOD OFSPEED CONTROL:

 In an induction motor, we know that,

 From the above equation 4, it is clear that changing the supply frequency will change the
synchronous speed and hence the rotor speed.
 Emf equation in ac machines is given by,

 The above equation 5 states that the flux φ will be constant if V1 and f are kept constant.
 If frequency is reduced with constant V1, then the flux φ increases. Hence the core gets
saturated. This will increase the magnetizing current of the motor. Hence power
losses increased and efficiency decreases. It also produces noise.

Speed – Torque characteristics with stator frequency control

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 If the frequency is increased by keeping the V1 constant, then flux decreases. This will
reduce the maximum torque produced by the motor as shown in Fig. 4.4.
 So this method is rarely used in practice.
 With constant voltage, if the frequency is increased, the air-gap flux reduced. This control is
also called as field weakening mode of speed control.

VOLTAGE / FREQUENCY CONTROL (OR) VOLTS / HERTZ CONTROL:

 Varying the voltage alone or frequency alone has some disadvantages with regards to the
operation of induction motor.
 The maximum torque in an induction motor is given by,

Here K is a constant and Ls & Lr’ are the stator and stator referred rotor inductances.At high
frequencies, the value of (Rs / f) will be very much less than 2π (Ls+ Lr’). So (Rs / f) can be neglected and
hence the torque equation becomes,

From equation 7, it is clear that if the ratio (V / f) is kept constant, the motor can produce a constant
maximum torque, Tmax. i.e constant torque operation.

At low frequencies (when speed is reduced), the term (Rs / f) will be high and it cannot be
neglected in equation 6. Hence the motor torque [Link] is because of the fact that the flux
reduces as the frequency is decreased as per equation 5.Hence if maximum torque needs to be
maintained constant at low speeds, then (V / f) ratio must be [Link] to base speed (or
rated speed), the supply voltage will be maximum and it cannot be increased further. Therefore,
above base speed, the frequency is changed by keeping supply voltage [Link] this will
decrease the maximum torque produced by the motor as per the equation 7.

Fig. (a). V – f relationship Fig. (b) Speed – Torque characteristics

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 From the graph of Fig. (a) it is clear that
 (V/f) ratio is increased at low frequency to keep maximum torque constant.
 (V/f) ratio is kept constant at high frequencies up to base frequency
 V is kept constant and frequency is varied above base frequency.
 From Fig. (b) it is clear that the maximum torque is same at all different speeds.
 This volts / Hertz control offers speed control from standstill up to rated speed of IM.
 This (V/f) control is achieved by using VSI and CSI fed induction motor drives.
 If a six step inverter is used, the frequency alone can be varied at the inverter output and
the output voltage is controlled by varying the input dc voltage.
 If a PWM inverter is used, both voltage and frequency can be varied inside the inverter
itself by changing the turn on and off periods of the devices.

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