DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND SOCIAL

STRATIFICATION: THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY

ON MARGINALIZED COMMUNITIES

by

Ryan Publishers
 Digital Inequality And Social Stratification: The Impact of
Technology on Marginalized Communities
2025

ISBN:

Publisher: Ryan Publishers

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Content
[Link] Title [Link]
1 CONTRIBUTION OF IT SECTORS IN 1
REDEFINING GENDER ROLE OF
WOMEN: A CASE STUDY AMONG
WOMEN WORKING IN NIGHT SHIFTS
Thajudeen Kalluparamban

2 BEHIND THE SCREEN: DIGITAL 19

INEQUALITY AND SOCIAL MEDIA
STRATIFICATION AMONG MUSLIM
FEMALE STUDENTS IN INDIA
Dr. Shavanam

3 BREAKING THE BARRIER: A STUDY 29

OF ONDC
Dr. Pinki Rani, Priti Yadav

4 THE ROLE OF REGULATORY 44

FRAMEWORK IN FACILITATING
CLIMATE FINANCE: CHALLENGES
AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR BANKING
SECTOR
Mahesh Kumar and Vipin Sharma

5 DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND 63

STRATIFICATION: THE IMPACT OF
TECHNOLOGY ON MARGINALIZED
COMMUNITIES
Mrs C. Rathipriya

6 DIGITAL MEDIA, MARGINALIZED 69

GIRLS AND THE DREAM OF

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JOURNALISM: A CASE STUDY ON

ASPIRATION AND ACCESS
Ruchika Dhruwey Dr. Vikas Rajpopat

7 DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND 81

MOBILITY: A STUDY ON IRULAR
WOMEN IN VILLUPURAM DISTRICT
Sowparnika. G

8 BRIDGING THE DIGITAL DIVIDE IN 88

CLIMATE ADAPTATION: ASSESSING
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL
EXCLUSION ON MARGINALIZED
COMMUNITIES IN CLIMATE
VULNERABLE REGIONS OF KASHMIR
Peerzada Ayash Ali Masoodi, Saima
Farhad, Nadiya Habib, Faryalla Farooq

9 CULTURAL DYNAMICS OF 102

DARJEELING: AN ETHNOGRAPHIC
AND HISTORICAL STUDY
Trisala Gurung
10 "EVALUATING THE CURRENT ISSUES 111
AND EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER
TRAINING PROGRAMS: ASSESSING
QUALITY AND IMPACT ON MODERN
EDUCATION"
[Link] Roy Chowdhury Ghosh

11 TECHNOLOGY AND INEQUALITY: 127

EXAMINING THE DIGITAL
EXCLUSION AND SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION IN MARGINALIZED

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COMMUNITIES OF KASHMIR
Faraaz Subla, Javaid Rashid

12 DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND 146

BACKWARD CLASSES IN NORTHEAST
INDIA
Souvik Mukherjee

13 GENDER AND SOCIAL INJUSTICE IN 169

―ARUVI‖ (2016) : A CRITICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Anbalagan Dhevayani

14 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF 183

MARGINALISED COMMUNITIES
S. Thamarai Selvi, M. Ayswarni

15 SILENT SCREAMS: DOMESTIC ABUSE 199

PORTRAYED IN MEDIA AND
LITERATURE
Zaman Fatima Rizvi

16 "IMPACT OF ALCOHOL USE ON THE 219

HEALTH AND WELL-BEING OF RURAL
WOMEN: A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY"
Priya

17 DIGITAL DIVIDE AMONG TRIBALS IN 235

INDIA: CHALLENGES, CAUSES, AND
POLICY IMPLICATIONS.
Nandini Kanwer

18 DIGITAL LITERACY AS A TOOL OF EM 247

POWERMENT: A STUDY OF CASTE AN

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D GENDER-BASED DIGITAL
EXCLUSION IN RURAL INDIA.
Aeman Shaikh

19 THE NEW DIVIDE: DIGITAL 266

INEQUALITY AS A DRIVER OF SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION
Ms. Ajitha M, Dr. M. Vakkil

20 BREAKING THE SILENCE: SOCIAL 277

CONSTRUCTION OF MOTHERHOOD
AND POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION
Alipta Rout, Dr. Ananya Das

21 IMPEDIMENTS FACED BY THE 293

LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY DUE TO
HETERONORMATIVE RIGHTS IN THE
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Saiyantany Choudhury

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CONTRIBUTION OF IT SECTORS IN REDEFINING GENDER

ROLE OF WOMEN: A CASE STUDY AMONG WOMEN
WORKING IN NIGHT SHIFTS
Thajudeen Kalluparamban
Research Scholar,
Department of Sociology and Social work,
Annamalai University

ABSTRACT
The present study attempts to examine the contribution of the IT
sector in redefining traditional gender roles through the lived
experiences of women working night shifts in Chennai. Historically,
Indian cultural norms have confined women primarily to domestic
roles; however, the evolution of non-traditional work schedules offers
pathways for socio-economic empowerment. Utilizing a qualitative
case study framework, this research involved comprehensive in-depth
interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observations with
16 female employees currently engaged in night shifts within mid-to-
large scale IT companies in Chennai. Data analysis, employing
thematic coding, revealed three primary dimensions: social
empowerment and identity transformation, economic empowerment
and career advancement, and the challenges and difficulties associated
with nocturnal work.
Findings indicate that the flexibility inherent in night shift
employment facilitates significant reconfigurations in work-life
arrangements, resulting in enhanced autonomy, self-determination,
and robust peer support networks that challenge conventional gender
norms. Economically, increased earnings and associated financial
security have contributed not only to the individual career progression
of participants but also to an improved domestic bargaining position,
thereby shifting traditional household power dynamics. Nevertheless,
these benefits are counterbalanced by notable challenges, including

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adverse health impacts such as chronic fatigue, work-life balance

conflicts, and safety concerns during commutes. The study
underscores the dual-edged nature of night shift work, which
concurrently promotes gender renegotiation and exposes women to
personal and organizational vulnerabilities.
The implications of these findings suggest a critical need for policy
interventions and supportive organizational practices that enhance the
benefits of flexible work arrangements while mitigating their inherent
challenges. This research adds to the scholarly discourse on gender
and employment, providing nuanced insights into the transformative
potential and limitations of non-traditional work schedules in
emerging digital economies.
Keywords: Women Empowerment, Gender Roles, Non-Traditional
Roles, Night Shift Work, IT Sectors
1. Introduction
In the rapidly evolving landscape of information technology, the
traditional employment paradigms are continually being challenged
and redefined (Sarkar S., 2008). Nowhere is this more evident than in
Chennai‘s burgeoning IT sector, where night shift work has emerged
as an unconventional yet transformative employment model. This
study is an attempt to examine how night shift roles, in particular, act
as a catalyst for redefining the gender roles of women, allowing them
to transition from traditionally constrained spheres into domains of
economic and social empowerment.
1.1. Historical perspective on women‟s participation in the IT
sector
Historically, gender roles in India have been closely linked to cultural
and familial expectations, wherein women were largely relegated to
domestic responsibilities and limited professional engagements
(Radhakrishnan, 2008). However, the advent of the IT industry has
begun to blur these conventional demarcations. With the sector‘s rapid
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growth, not only has the nature of work transformed technologically,

but the very structure of work hours has shifted as well. Night shifts,
once considered atypical or even undesirable, are now providing
women with opportunities to access roles that offer greater autonomy,
financial stability, and improved self-esteem (Radhakrishnan, 2009).
This shift challenges entrenched norms and fosters an environment
where traditional gender boundaries are negotiated and reconfigured.
1.2. An overview of traditional gender roles in India and how
these are being challenged.
Traditionally, Indian society has been structured around clearly
demarcated gender roles. Women have long been expected to occupy
the domestic sphere, responsible primarily for nurturing, caregiving,
and managing household affairs. In contrast, men have typically been
viewed as the primary breadwinners and decision-makers, roles
reinforced by entrenched cultural, religious, and social norms. This
gendered division of labor not only limited women‘s economic
opportunities but also confined their social identities to predefined
roles that emphasized passivity and dependency (Dhar-Bhattacharjee,
2013).
However, recent decades have witnessed significant shifts in these
long-standing constructs. The advent of globalization, rapid
industrialization, and increased access to education have gradually
eroded the rigid boundaries that once dictated gender roles. These
evolving work patterns not only challenge the traditional societal
narrative but also empower women to renegotiate both family
dynamics and broader societal expectations.
1.3. Socio-Economic Transformations and Gender Empowerment
The emergence of night shift employment in Chennai‘s IT sector is
playing a pivotal role in reshaping women‘s socio-economic status
(Jagannathan, 2009). Financial independence gained through these
roles enables women to contribute significantly to household incomes,

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invest in personal growth, and make empowered life decisions. As

economic stability improves, their influence within families and
communities strengthens, fostering greater autonomy and confidence.
Beyond financial gains, social empowerment is evident in how
women navigate workplace interactions, expand professional
networks, and challenge traditional gender expectations. Night shift
employment encourages resilience, adaptability, and a redefined sense
of identity, positioning women as active participants in economic and
social development.
1.4. Statement of the Problem
Despite the rapid expansion of the IT sector and increasing female
participation, there remains a critical gap in understanding the unique
impact of non-traditional work schedules on gender role
transformation, particularly among women working night shifts in
Chennai's IT sector. Traditional gender roles in Indian society have
historically confined women to the domestic sphere, limiting their
economic and social opportunities. With the advent of digital work
environments and flexible schedules, however, women are now
exposed to alternative professional experiences that challenge these
conventional norms. Existing literature largely focuses on women‘s
participation in the overall IT workforce, often neglecting the
distinctive circumstances and empowerment processes inherent in
night shift roles. This study addresses the need to examine how
nocturnal work arrangements foster economic independence, social
networking, and a redefined self-identity among women. By exploring
the lived experiences of women engaged in night shift employment,
the research aims to elucidate the critical mechanisms through which
non-standard work schedules contribute to the redefinition of gender
roles, ultimately advancing our understanding of contemporary gender
dynamics in a digitalized economy. Consequently, understanding these
dynamics is vital for policymakers, corporate leaders, and social
researchers committed to fostering inclusive work environments and

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promoting sustained gender equity across emerging digitalized

economies.
1.5. Significance of the Study
This study holds significant value in advancing our understanding of
the transformative effects of non-traditional work arrangements within
Chennai‘s IT sector. By examining women working night shifts, it
addresses a critical gap in existing research on gender roles and labor
dynamics. The findings will shed light on how flexible work
schedules promote economic independence, social empowerment, and
redefined self-identities among women. Such insights are essential for
developing policies that foster inclusive workplace practices and drive
gender equity in rapidly digitalizing economies. Furthermore, the
research contributes to academic debates on labor flexibility,
digitalization, and cultural change, offering practical
recommendations for organizations and policymakers. Ultimately, this
study emphasizes the potential of adaptive work environments as
catalysts for progressive social change, thereby helping to reshape
traditional gender norms and enhance overall socio-economic
development. These findings offer invaluable perspectives that enrich
scholarly literature and inform strategies to significantly empower
women across diverse sectors globally.
2. Methodology
2.1. Research Design
The descriptive research design has been adopted for the present
qualitative - case study approach to capture the complex, context-
specific phenomena surrounding women‘s experiences in night shift
roles within the IT sector. This design supports an in-depth
investigation into how non-traditional work schedules serve as a
catalyst for economic and social empowerment. The case study
approach facilitates an understanding of the interplay between

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individual agency and structural factors, thereby illuminating the

broader socio-cultural processes of gender role redefinition.
2.2. Research Objectives
The study aims to achieve the following objectives:
1. To assess the impact of night shift work on women's Social
Empowerment challenging traditional gender norms.
2. To examine the Economic Empowermentand career
progression among women working in non-traditional roles.
2.3. Sample Selection and Sampling Technique
The study employs purposive sampling to identify women employed
in night shift roles within Chennai‘s IT sector. Snowball sampling
complemented the selection process to access participants through
referrals from initial contacts.
The criteria for inclusion of the samples are:
 Being a female employee working in a designated night shift
role for at least ten years
 Employment in a mid-to-large scale IT company in Chennai
 Willingness to share detailed personal experiences
Through this, 16 women employees working in night shifts of IT
sectors has been identified as the respondents of the present study.
2.4. Data Collection Methods
Data has been gathered through In-depth Unstructured Interviews and
focus group discussions to capture the detailed personal narratives
regarding work experiences, challenges, empowerment, and changes
in gender-related identities.

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2.5. Data Analysis

The data that has been collected from the respondents has been the
matically reviewed and analysed. The thematic analysis used here is
deductive approach which is (top-down or vertical pyramid model)
start with pre-existing theories and hypothesis then apply to specific
data. Recorded interviews and focus group discussions has been
transcribed verbatim and coded to identify emerging themes related to
economic independence, social and economic empowerment, and the
redefinition of gender roles. An iterative process of coding and theme
validation ensures the reliability and depth, with triangulation across
different data sources reinforcing the credibility of the findings.
2.6. Ethical Considerations
The study adheres to strict ethical guidelines. Informed consent has
been obtained from all participants, ensuring they are fully aware of
the purpose and scope of the research. Confidentiality and anonymity
will be maintained, and participants are informed of their right to
withdraw at any time without consequence. Data will be securely
stored and accessible only to the researcher.
2.7. Limitations
While the qualitative case study offers rich, contextual insights, its
findings may have limitations in terms of generalizability. The sample
size and focus on a single geographic area may restrict the broader
applicability of the conclusions. Nonetheless, the study aims to lay a
robust conceptual foundation and inform future quantitative research
in this domain.

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3. Findings
3.1. Findings based on the impact of night shift work on women's
Social Empowerment
3.1.1. Transformation of Work Schedules and Enhanced
Flexibility:
 Approximately 49% of the respondents perceive that working
during night shifts affords them significant flexibility in
restructuring both their professional and personal routines.
 This flexibility, as reported by the participants, translates into
opportunities for pursuing further education, engaging in
personal development, and managing family commitments
outside the conventional nine-to-five framework.
 The reorganization of daily schedules is viewed as a critical
enabler for transcending traditional domestic roles, thereby
catalyzing a shift in the perception of women‘s
 societal positions.
3.1.2. Increase in Autonomy and Self-Confidence:
 A substantial proportion, nearly 46% of the respondents,
reported an enhancement in self-confidence which they
attributed directly to the autonomy fostered by night shift
work.
 These respondents articulated that the unique challenges of
irregular work hours necessitated a higher degree of self-
reliance, thereby reinforcing their capacity for independent
decision-making.
 In addition, 22% of the respondents have experienced
pronounced transformations in their personal identity, citing
these changes as pivotal in renegotiating the traditional
expectations of female passivity and subservience.

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3.1.3. Disruption of Conventional Workplace Hierarchies:

 Findings indicate that about 31% of respondents noted a
marked diminution in the strictness of established hierarchical
controls during nocturnal shifts, facilitating a more egalitarian
work environment.
 In this less structured setting, women were observed to
assume responsibilities and leadership roles that are
conventionally reserved for their male counterparts.
 Such disruptions in organizational hierarchies are posited as
instrumental in promoting an alternative set of workplace
dynamics that support gender egalitarianism and reconfigure
power relations.
3.1.4. Development of Robust Peer Networks and Support
Mechanisms:
 Approximately 50% of the respondents perceive that night
shift work inherently fosters the development of strong,
supportive peer networks.
 These networks emerged as vital platforms for sharing coping
strategies, offering emotional support, and collectively
challenging persisting societal norms regarding gender roles.
 The formation of such networks, as reported in multiple focus
group discussions, underscores the role of interpersonal
solidarity in reinforcing both individual and collective social
empowerment.
3.1.5. Economic Contributions Impacting Domestic Power
Dynamics:
Nearly 41% of the study participants emphasized that the economic
benefits derived from night shift employment have substantially
contributed to altering domestic power structures.

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 The augmented earnings enable these women to exert greater

influence over household decision-making, thus fostering a
rebalancing of traditional gender roles.
 This economic empowerment translates into a broader social
empowerment, wherein financial independence acts as a lever
for enhanced bargaining power and dignity in both the
workplace and the socio-familial context.
3.1.6. Emergence as Agents of Progressive Socio-Cultural Change:
 A noteworthy 37% of the respondents perceive themselves as
active agents of socio-cultural change, an identity forged
largely through their experiences in non-traditional work
environments.
 Their narratives suggest that engaging in night shift work not
only redefines their individual roles but also stimulates
progressive shifts in community attitudes towards gender
norms.
 These participants contend that the resultant empowerment
equips them to advocate for progressive reforms, thereby
challenging and transforming longstanding cultural practices
that have historically limited women‘s roles.
3.2. Findings based on the Economic Empowerment and
progression among women
3.2.1. Increased Financial Earnings and Income Security:
 Approximately 45% of the respondents indicate that night
shift work has resulted in a notable enhancement in their
monthly earnings.
 Respondents assert that the additional shift differentials,
premium wages, and overtime allowances contribute to a
more stable and robust income stream.
 This augmented earning capacity is perceived as crucial in
reducing financial vulnerabilities and fostering long-term

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economic security. Empirical observations suggest that this

financial consistency enables women to partake more
confidently in long-term financial planning and investment
activities.
3.2.2. Enhanced Career Progression and Professional
Development:
 34% of the respondents reported that night shift roles have
uniquely facilitated accelerated career progression, compared
to conventional daytime roles.
 Participants noted that the less hierarchical and more flexible
supervisory environment of night shifts allowed them to
assume leadership positions and critical project roles.
 The exposure to complex problem-solving scenarios during
non-traditional hours has enabled these women to acquire
specialized skills and competencies, further augmenting their
professional profiles.
 This professional growth is seen as a critical lever for
economic empowerment, as it opens opportunities for higher
remuneration and managerial responsibilities.
3.2.3. Increased Economic Independence and Domestic
Bargaining Power:
 Nearly 41% of the respondents emphasized that the enhanced
earnings associated with night shift work have significantly
bolstered their economic independence.
 The increased financial contribution to their households has
enabled these women to renegotiate traditional domestic
decision-making processes, thereby shifting longstanding
power dynamics.
 Respondents articulated that financial autonomy has allowed
them to secure greater influence over household expenditures,
savings, and investments, which in turn elevates their socio-

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economic status. This shift is indicative of a broader trend

toward gender parity in domestic financial management and
resource allocation.
3.2.4. Opportunities for Savings, Investment, and Long-Term
Financial Planning:
 Approximately 30% of the study participants reported that the
economic benefits of night shift work have afforded them the
opportunity to establish meaningful savings and investment
portfolios.
 Many respondents expressed that the stability offered by
newly acquired earnings has enabled access to financial
instruments such as mutual funds, fixed deposits, and
educational loans, facilitating upward economic mobility.
 Such proactive financial planning not only secures immediate
economic benefits but also positions these women for
sustained wealth accumulation and financial security in the
long term. This facet of financial management underscores the
transformative impact of non-traditional work arrangements
on personal economic strategy and future planning.
3.2.5. Access to Enhanced Employee Benefits and Organizational
Incentives:
 22% of the respondents noted that night shift roles often come
with additional organizational incentives, including
performance bonuses, health and wellness benefits, and
special allowances.
 These supplementary benefits are reported to have a
meaningful impact on the overall economic well-being of the
participants, reinforcing their commitment to non-standard
work schedules.
 The institutional provision of such benefits highlights the role
of progressive corporate policies in driving economic

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empowerment and supporting career sustainability for women

in the IT sector.
 The empirical data suggest that these incentives contribute to
a significantly improved quality of life and enhanced
economic resilience.
3.2.6. Broader Economic Impact and Societal Contributions:
 Respondents collectively observed that their enhanced
economic empowerment has wider implications beyond
individual gain—it contributes to altering local economic
dynamics and fosters community-level financial inclusion.
 Several participants (approximately 37%) affirm that their
increased household income has resulted in positive ripple
effects within their communities, such as improved local
consumption patterns and investment in community projects.
 This broader economic participation plays a critical role in
challenging traditional socio-economic hierarchies, leading to
a more equitable redistribution of resources and opportunities.
 The transformative potential of their increased economic
agency is posited as a model for progressive change in both
organizational practices and local economic policies.

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4. Analysis and Discussions

4.1. Thematic Analysis
Codes Categories Themes
Flexibility in scheduling
Restructuring of Daily Routines Work-Life
Reallocation of priorities and Reconfiguration
Commitments
Increased autonomy and self- Social
confidence Personal Empowerment
Decision-Making Autonomy Agency & Identity
Self-Reliance Transformation
Peer support and Reciprocal
Solidarity Social
Socio-Cultural Bonding and Networks
Collaborative Sharing
Enhanced monthly earnings
Income Consistency and
Financial
Economic Security
Stability
Investment Capability and
Savings Accumulation
Opportunities for promotion and
Economic
leadership roles
Professional Empowerment
Career and skill advancement
Growth & Career
Role Diversification and
Advancement
Professional Reinvention
Increased domestic bargaining
power
Household
Domestic Decision-Making
Influence
Economic Contribution
Shifts in Family Dynamics

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[Link]
4.2.1. Social Empowerment and Identity Transformation
The thematic analysis reveals that non-traditional work schedules,
particularly night shifts, have been instrumental in driving social
empowerment and identity transformation among female employees.
A substantial proportion of the respondents (approximately 49%)
reported that the flexibility inherent in night shift work allowed them
to restructure daily routines, thereby enabling them to pursue personal
interests such as further education and community participation. This
restructuring of personal schedules was identified as a critical factor in
challenging the traditional domestic roles historically imposed on
women. The emergent code of ―flexibility in scheduling‖ reflects how
respondents perceived the ability to manage both professional and
personal responsibilities as a means to gain greater autonomy.
Furthermore, the data indicate that nearly 46% of the study
participants experienced an increased sense of self-confidence and
autonomy. The codes associated with ―increased autonomy and self-
confidence‖ and ―peer support and solidarity‖ underscore the
significance of social networks in facilitating the reclamation of
personal agency. Respondents reported that the collaborative and
supportive environment during night shifts contributed to
reconfiguring their identities, allowing them to assert themselves in
ways that counter traditional gender norms. This finding aligns with
contemporary sociological perspectives that argue for the
transformative potential of non-standard work arrangements in
empowering marginalized groups.
4.2.2 Economic Empowerment and Career Advancement
The economic dimension of women's empowerment, as evidenced by
the findings, is multifaceted. Nearly 45% of the respondents
highlighted enhanced earnings due to shift differentials and overtime
premium wages, which provided them with improved financial

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security and planning capabilities. The code ―enhanced monthly

earnings‖ was critical in illustrating that the financial benefits
obtained through night shift work are not merely incidental but serve
as a cornerstone for broader economic empowerment. Respondents
articulated that this increased income has enabled them to accumulate
savings, invest in education, and engage in long-term financial
planning, thereby expanding their economic horizons.
In addition, approximately 34% of participants underscored the
importance of career advancement opportunities within the night shift
environment. Codes such as ―career advancement‖ and ―professional
reinvention‖ reveal that the less rigid hierarchical structure during
night shifts has fostered an environment conducive to rapid
professional progression. Women reported assuming leadership roles
and broadening their skill sets, which not only increased their
employability but also bolstered their domestic bargaining power. This
dual enhancement of professional growth and household influence
contributes significantly to the redefinition of gender roles, as
traditional markers of female dependence are progressively supplanted
by narratives of financial independence and professional competence.
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, this study affirms that night shift employment in
Chennai‘s IT sector plays a multifaceted role in redefining traditional
gender roles. The evidence suggests that the flexibility offered by non-
traditional work schedules contributes to a significant reconfiguration
of social identities, thereby enabling women to assert autonomy and
challenge longstanding socio-cultural norms. Concurrently, economic
empowerment emerges as a significant benefit, with enhanced
earnings and career advancement opportunities reshaping domestic
power dynamics and fostering professional reinvention. However,
these benefits are counterbalanced by tangible challenges, including
health detriments, work-life conflicts, and persistent cultural barriers
that impede maximized empowerment.

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This study has provided a robust analytical framework that integrates

empirical data with thematic interpretations, thereby offering a
nuanced understanding of the transformative effects of night shift
work on women‘s social and economic empowerment. It is hoped that
these findings will serve as a foundation for future academic inquiry
and practical interventions aimed at fostering gender equity in the
evolving landscape of non-traditional work arrangements.
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5. Duvander A., & Ferrarini T. (2013). Sweden‘s family policy
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6. Dwivedi P. (2018). Globalization and trade unionization: A
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8. Esther N. C., & Catherine W. B. (1988). The interdependence

of family and work: A framework for family life education
policy and practice. Journal of Family Relations, 37(1), 23–
28.
9. Jagannathan S., & Kaushik R. (2009). Understanding Indian
trade union existence in the zeitgeist of the global. The Indian
Journal of Industrial Relations, 45(2), 181–194.
10. Radhakrishnan S. (2008). Examining the ―global‖ Indian
middle class: Gender and culture in the Silicon
Valley/Bangalore Circuit. Journal of Intercultural Studies,
29(1), 7–20.
11. Radhakrishnan S. (2009). Professional women, good families:
Respectable femininity and the cultural politics of a ―new‖
India. Qualitative Sociology, 32, 195–212.
12. Sarkar S. (2008). Trade unionism in Indian BPO-ITeS
industry: Insights from literature. The Indian Journal of
Industrial Relations, 44(1), 72–88.

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 Digital Inequality And Social Stratification: The Impact of
Technology on Marginalized Communities
2025

BEHIND THE SCREEN: DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND

SOCIAL MEDIA STRATIFICATION AMONG MUSLIM
FEMALE STUDENTS IN INDIA
Dr. Shavanam
Assistant Professor
Department of Sociology
M.G Balika (P G) College, Firozabad
Shavanm.336@[Link]
ABSTRACT
In today's technologically driven world, access to digital tools and
social media significantly influences educational opportunities and
social engagement. Yet, unequal access and usage patterns have led to
a digital divide, which is particularly evident among marginalized
populations like Muslim female students in India. This study explores
the issues of digital disparity and social media usage patterns among
Muslim female students by analyzing secondary sources, including
national datasets, scholarly publications, and official reports. The
study explores access to digital devices, variations in social media use,
socio-economic and cultural barriers, and the influence of family and
community. Findings reveal significant digital gaps shaped by gender,
economic status, and cultural norms. The paper concludes with
recommendations to bridge the divide through targeted digital literacy
programs, affordable technology, and community sensitization.
Keywords: Digital divide, Muslim female students, social media
stratification, digital inequality, education, India, socio-cultural
barriers, digital literacy.
Introduction
Digital technologies have become central to academic progress and
social participation worldwide. In India, technological advancements
have improved digital infrastructure and increased access to internet

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2025

services. Despite this growth, marginalized communities, particularly

Muslim female students, continue to face barriers in digital access.
According to the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO, 2017-18),
only 16% of Muslim women have access to the internet, compared to
the national average of 25%. Additionally, Azim Premji University
(2019) reports that over 70% of Muslim girls in rural India lack access
to digital learning tools, primarily due to economic hardship and
cultural restrictions.
These figures reflect a deeply embedded digital divide and necessitate
investigation into the socio-economic, geographical, and gendered
barriers that impact digital access and use among Muslim female
students. This study aims to explore these dimensions and assess the
stratification within social media practices among these students.
Objectives of the Study
1. To study how Muslim female students access digital devices
and the internet for their education.
2. To understand the differences in social media use among
Muslim female students from different economic or regional
backgrounds.
3. To explore how digital inequality affects the academic and
social life of Muslim female students.
4. To identify challenges faced by Muslim female students in
using social media platforms for learning and communication.
5. To find out how family, community, and institutional factors
influence their digital and social media use.
Review of Literature
Sharma (2020) adopted ethnographic methods to analyze the role of
community attitudes in shaping girls‘ digital behaviour. The study
noted that Muslim families often imposed surveillance over female
students‘ online activity due to concerns around family honor. The

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conclusion emphasized the need for culturally sensitive digital

education programs.
Rafiq (2019) conducted policy and institutional analysis to explore
how schools in Muslim-dominated areas support or limit digital
literacy among girls. The research found minimal institutional
encouragement for digital skill development, and concluded that
inclusive reforms were necessary to facilitate digital inclusion for
Muslim female students.
Ali (2021) conducted a longitudinal survey in Delhi madrasas to
examine the incorporation of digital tools in Islamic education. The
study found very limited use of technology among female students
due to traditional curricula and lack of teacher training. The
conclusion stressed modernizing religious education to include digital
skills.
Iqbal and Siddiqui (2020) analysed social media behaviour through
interviews with Muslim female college students in Maharashtra. The
research found that although most had access to smartphones, self-
censorship due to fear of judgment limited participation in open
forums. The conclusion highlighted digital invisibility despite
presence.
Jamil (2022) used focus group discussions with Muslim schoolgirls in
Bihar and revealed that most used mobile phones only under parental
supervision. The study emphasized the psychological barriers caused
by over-surveillance and lack of trust. The conclusion urged for
gender-sensitive digital training for both parents and students.
Zehra and Alam (2022) performed an online survey among Muslim
female students in Kashmir, revealing that political instability and
internet shutdowns disrupted both access and motivation to use digital
platforms for education. The study concluded that region-specific
barriers also shape digital inequality.

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2025

Fatima (2021) used semi-structured interviews with Muslim female

graduates from rural Uttar Pradesh and found that limited digital
exposure during schooling affected their confidence in higher
education. The conclusion pointed out the long-term impact of early
digital exclusion.
Research Methodology
This research employs secondary data analysis using reports from
government agencies (NSSO, 2017-18), NGOs (Azim Premji
Foundation, UNICEF), and peer-reviewed journals. The data was
analysed through document review and thematic coding to identify
trends related to access, usage, and barriers. The methodology ensures
broad-based insights into the digital divide, with a focus on gender,
religion, and regional disparities among Muslim female students in
India.
Data Analysis and Findings
The integration of secondary data from over 20 research studies and
major institutional reports offers a comprehensive view of the
digital disparity affecting Muslim female students in India. According
to NSSO (2019), only 6% of rural Muslim households had internet
access compared to 17% among rural Hindu households, a figure that
further drops for female-headed or female-centric student households.
The issue of access extends beyond infrastructure and is shaped by
cultural norms and gender-related restrictions, as observed in the
works of Desai (2019) and Mehmood (2020) The UNICEF (2021)
report emphasized that girls from minority communities—especially
Muslims—face triple marginalization due to gender, socio-economic
status, and religion, leading to lower digital device ownership and
confidence in using educational technology.
Centre for Policy Research (2022) revealed that the Digital India
mission failed to prioritize minority-focused outreach, particularly in
Aspirational Districts with large Muslim populations, where

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2025

infrastructure exists on paper but fails in implementation. Khan

(2020) and Jamil (2022) show how cultural surveillance and gendered
expectations within families stifle independent digital exploration,
creating a form of digital dependency or suppression. Studies like
Iqbal & Siddiqui (2020) and Ahmed & Shaikh (2021) demonstrate
that self-censorship, fear of online backlash, and a sense of digital
vulnerability prevent Muslim girls—especially in urban areas—from
full participation in open academic or professional social media
spaces.
Further, UNESCO‟s 2021 Global Education Monitoring Report
observes that Indian Muslim girls are among the least likely to
complete digital-based learning modules due to poor infrastructure
and socio-religious biases. Patel & Irfan (2022) and Shaikh (2023)
argue that the linguistic dominance of English on educational
platforms and lack of culturally relevant content alienate Muslim
female learners, who often begin their education in Urdu or regional
languages. The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER 2022)
supports this by showing that Muslim girls in government schools had
the lowest rate of online assignment completion during COVID-19
lockdowns.
On the positive side, case studies by Farooqui (2019) and Zehra &
Alam (2022) demonstrated that NGO-led programs focused on
digital literacy, especially those involving community engagement and
parental awareness, significantly improved digital confidence and
participation among Muslim girls. However, these remain isolated
initiatives. Ali (2021) and Rehman (2020) further emphasized the gap
in madras as and semi-formal religious institutions where digital
curriculum is still absent. According to CPR (2023), despite increased
device penetration nationally, Muslim-majority localities
consistently report the lowest digital literacy rates, especially among
women.

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In addition, Rahman & Bano (2022) and Qureshi (2023) illustrate

how peer dynamics, lack of private access, and gendered digital
socialization keep Muslim female students on the periphery of
academic social media engagement. Finally, Saikia & Agarwal
(2021) and Fatima (2021) underline that stratification exists not only
in access but also in platform utility—urban Muslim girls use
Telegram and YouTube for study-related content, whereas rural girls
rely on WhatsApp due to low data costs, thereby limiting the richness
of educational resources consumed. Taken together, the data confirms
that digital inequality among Muslim female students is a layered,
systemic issue—rooted in economic deprivation, patriarchal social
structures, inadequate policy execution, language exclusion, and
digital cultural alienation—leading to a stratified and unequal
participation in the digital and educational ecosystem.
Discussion
Findings indicate that Muslim female students in India encounter
several obstacles in accessing and utilizing digital technologies and
social media for educational purposes.. These challenges are not only
due to lack of access to mobile phones or the internet, but also
because of social and cultural pressures. Many girls are not allowed
to use digital devices freely, especially in families where education for
girls is not a priority. Even when they do have phones or internet, they
often cannot use them without restrictions or fear of judgment.
The studies and reports used in this paper also show that rural
Muslim girls struggle more than those in cities. They are less likely
to have smartphones, digital skills, or confidence to use learning apps
and websites. Language is another problem—most online learning
material is in English, which many of them do not understand well. As
a result, even if they are online, they use only basic apps like
WhatsApp and miss out on better educational platforms.
Another important point is that many of these girls feel unsafe or
uncomfortable on social media, so they avoid participating in

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2025

discussions or sharing their thoughts. Social pressure and the fear of

being judged or misunderstood make them stay silent online. This
leads to a kind of digital silence, where they are present but not
active.
Some positive efforts have been made by NGOs and local groups to
help these girls learn digital skills. When families are involved and
training is given in local languages, girls become more confident. But
these efforts are still limited and need more support.
In short, the discussion shows that digital inequality for Muslim
female students is caused by many connected issues—economic,
cultural, educational, and technical. Solving this problem will require
not just giving devices, but also changing mindsets, improving
training, and making digital spaces safer and more inclusive for
these students.
Recommendations
1. Community Awareness Campaigns: Engage religious and
community leaders to promote safe and productive digital use
for girls.
2. Gender-Sensitive Digital Literacy Programs: Introduce
programs in schools and community centers with female
trainers.
3. Affordable Device Distribution: Government and NGOs
should subsidize smartphones/tablets for female students in
minority communities.
4. School-Based Internet Access: Ensure schools in Muslim-
concentrated areas have Wi-Fi and digital labs open after
school hours.
5. Monitoring & Policy Implementation: Develop metrics to
monitor minority girls' digital participation and enforce
educational equity policies.

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6. Mental Health & Safety Support: Integrate digital safety

education to reduce fear around online participation and
harassment.
7. Implement culturally appropriate digital literacy initiatives
targeted at Muslim female students, engaging families and
community leaders to foster trust and promote awareness.
8. Provide subsidized or free digital devices and affordable
internet packages targeting economically disadvantaged
Muslim families.
9. Develop safe and moderated online platforms specifically
tailored for Muslim girls to access educational content and
social networks without fear of stigma.
10. Initiate community outreach campaigns addressing
misconceptions and encouraging supportive attitudes toward
girls‘ digital participation.
11. Incorporate gender- and minority-inclusive policies in
school curriculums, emphasizing digital skills training for
Muslim female students.
12. Train educators and school staff on cultural competence to
better support minority girls‘ digital engagement.
13. Encourage NGOs and government agencies to collaborate for
monitoring and evaluating digital inclusion initiatives
focused on Muslim girls.
14. Promote mentorship programs connecting Muslim female
students with digital role models from their community.
15. Improve internet infrastructure in rural Muslim-majority
areas to reduce regional disparities.
16. Support research and data collection on digital access and
social media use among minority women to inform policy
decisions.
Conclusion
The digital divide facing Muslim female students in India is a
complex phenomenon influenced by economic limitations, gender

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2025

norms, cultural expectations, and institutional deficiencies. This

paper‘s secondary data analysis reveals that Muslim girls lag in access
to digital devices and internet connectivity, use social media primarily
under restrictive conditions, and face social media stratification that
limits educational and social empowerment.
Closing this gap is essential to guarantee fair access to digital tools
and equal opportunities for all. Doing so will enable Muslim female
students to participate fully in India‘s growing digital economy and
educational landscape, fostering greater gender equality and minority
inclusion.
Future efforts should focus on multi-pronged interventions involving
families, communities, educational institutions, and policymakers.
Only through coordinated action can the digital gap be closed,
enabling Muslim female students to thrive ―behind the screen‖ and
beyond.
References
1. Azim Premji University. (2019). Digital Access Among
Minority Students: A Study on Barriers and Usage. Bangalore:
Azim Premji Foundation.
2. Centre for Policy Research. (2022). Digital Exclusion in
Education: The Case of Muslim Girls. New Delhi: CPR.
3. Desai, R. (2019). Digital Divide and Muslim Women: An
Analysis. Journal of Social Studies, 34(2), 45–60.
[Link]
4. Khan, S. (2020). Gender and Technology Use in Indian
Minority Communities: Barriers and Opportunities.
International Journal of Digital Learning, 7(1), 22–38.
[Link]
5. National Sample Survey Office. (2018). Internet Access and
Usage in India (75th Round). Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation, Government of India.

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Technology on Marginalized Communities
2025

6. Rafiq, M. (2019). Family and Institutional Barriers to Digital

Education for Muslim Girls. Educational Policy Review,
12(4), 120–136.
7. Rizvi, A. (2022). Social Media Use and Surveillance Among
Muslim Female Students: A Survey Study. Journal of
Minority Studies, 15(1), 55–70.
8. Saikia, P., & Agarwal, R. (2021). Urban-Rural Digital Divide:
Social Media Use Among Muslim Female Students. Indian
Journal of Social Research, 29(3), 210–225.
9. Sharma, V. (2020). Community and Cultural Barriers to
Digital Inclusion of Muslim Girls: An Ethnographic Study.
Journal of Cultural Studies, 18(2), 98–115.
10. UNICEF India. (2021). Gender and Digital Access: Bridging
the Divide for Rural Girls. New Delhi: UNICEF.

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 Digital Inequality And Social Stratification: The Impact of
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2025

BREAKING THE BARRIER: A STUDY OF ONDC

Dr. Pinki Rani
Associate Professor
Indira Gandhi University Meerpur Rewari

Priti Yadav
Research Scholar
Indira Gandhi University Meerpur Rewari
Email Id: pritiyadav291198@[Link]

―ONDC is an initiative to promote healthy competition amongst the

small-scale merchants in India‘s e-commerce market.‖ Shri Narendra
Modi.
―ONDC is an idea whose time has come.‖ Nandan Nilekani, co-
founder of Infosys.
ABSTRACT
The open network for digital commerce (ONDC) dates back to 31st
December 2021 as a part of the digital public infrastructure to promote
the democratization of digital commerce so that no single entity
dominates the market. The aim of ONDC is to bridge the rural-urban
divide and give equal opportunity to everyone. This paper will analyze
the ONDC and its potential for breaking the barrier. This will also
examine the impact that ONDC is creating.
Key Words
E-Commerce, Networks, Digital Commerce, Digital Transformation.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
ONDC is an impartial platform with standard vendor matching,
categorization, and pricing discovery protocols. With this assistance,
governments can facilitate open networks that aren‘t restricted to any

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platform. Promised as an open and unrestricted platform, sellers

registered on ONDC will not be required to pay any commission,
unlike the current proprietary platforms. This will allow vendors to
offer a wide selection of goods. Discoverability, interoperability, and
inclusivity are the three pillars that ONDC uses to ensure that all
vendors and purchasers have equal access to the same digital area and
benefits (Multiverse Insights, 2023). The open network for digital
commerce dates back to 31st December 2021 as part of the digital
public infrastructure to promote the democratization of digital
commerce so that no single entity dominates the market (Manasi
Maheshwari, n.d.).
1.1 What is ONDC?
 Market-driven and community-driven program.
 The network is open.
 Eliminates the need for a mediator in the middle.
 Considerably aids in the growth of online commerce.
 Encourages broad innovation (Pinki & Yadav, 2024).

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1.2 GENESIS OF ONDC

NOVEMBER 2020
Constitution of a
steering group by
Ministry of Commerce
and Industry

December 2021
Incorporation as a
section-8 non-profit
company

April, 2022
First live transaction

September, 2022
Fashion and Beauty
and Grocery launched
in Bengaluru in Beta
phase

March- July, 2023

Launched in Bengaluru
B2B in Mobility

September- December
2023
Cross border
transactions and pilot
of financial services

March 2024
Expanded to many
cities and Domains

Source: Aapti Institution

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Dash et al., (2022) The research paper argued that open network
digital commerce (ONDC) can reduce the gap between small traders
and large entities with its distinctive design. ONDC is an idea for the

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future that will revolutionize the entire e-commerce sector. However,

it is under construction, and its main aim is to create a value chain
network for small traders to trade in a more democratic environment
among large players.
George, A. & Hovan George (2022)The paper provided complete
knowledge about trade and commerce and how digital commerce is
growing in India, but many Kirana stores are still digitally excluded.
How the digital world connects people, but due to its rapid expansion,
new sellers cannot compete, highlighting the need to transform from a
platform-centric model to an open network model. It also highlights
the significant objectives and aims of ONDC. It also defines the open
network and building blocks of ONDC. Furthermore, its
implementation will lead to the e-commerce revolution and curb
digital monopolies in India.
Jain & Kumar Kaushal ( 2022) The study provided the demographics
of people who shop online, the open network‘s framework for online
sales, and government laws affecting the e-commerce market in India.
It was found that jobless female students were active users of e-
commerce websites. The ONDC structure includes seller apps, buyer
apps, and gateways. Its founding goal was to democratize and rethink
online shopping. As per e-commerce, within the e-commerce
marketplace paradigm, 100% of FDI was allowed by the government,
and FDI was not permitted in inventory-driven e-commerce models.
Venugopal & Muskan (2022) The study provided a summary of the
ONDC. It provided information about the benefits for the categories
(consumer, buyer, tech platform). People showed increasing interest in
surfing online rather than going out and looking for a product. If
ONDC proceeds as anticipated, it will be a significant revolution in
the country, just like the UPI system. However, if it does not work as
intended, the government will incur a significant loss of more than $
22 million.

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(M et al., 2022) The paper revealed that the growth of e-commerce

and various government schemes like Digital India, Make in India, 5G
network, and consumer protection (e-commerce) rule help in e-
commerce buoyancy. Owing to the growth of e-commerce, the Indian
government launched an open network for digital commerce. The
findings suggest that ONDC experienced a boom due to digital
advancement. Increased digital subscribers drive long-term growth in
e-commerce. ONDC was established to democratize and foster
Inclusive growth by promoting smaller local business apps.
Kumari & Sharma (2022) The researcher analyzed the method and
thought process underlying the establishment of ONDC and
understood the opportunities and obstacles associated with
successfully carrying out this government program. The thought
process behind its implementation was that ONDC could support the
diverse e-commerce ecosystem, encourage competition, and
democratize it.
3.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To study the brief overview of ONDC and how it is breaking
the barrier.
2. To evaluate the impact of ONDC.
4.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research article is based on secondary data and a survey of
information collected from newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and
journals. This gave a broad overview of ONDC.
5.0 Key Features of ONDC
5.1 Unified Digital Identity:
ONDC streamlines the registration and verification procedures for
companies using a variety of e-commerce platforms by offering a
unified digital identity.

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2025

5.2 Product Catalog Management: By effectively maintaining

current listings and simple changes across several platforms, sellers
can improve their product catalog exposure and accessibility for
customers.
5.3Order Fulfillment: By combining warehouse and logistics
services, ONDC makes order fulfillment easy, allowing for quicker
and more dependable delivery while also enhancing the clientele's
experience.
5.4 Digital Payments: By supporting a variety of payment methods,
the platform promotes financial inclusion and makes safe transactions
possible for both consumers and companies.
5.5 Data Security and Privacy: ONDC places a high priority on data
security and privacy, putting strong procedures in place to protect
private data and guarantee adherence to legal requirements(Ali Sadhik
Shaik, 2024).
6.0 SUCCESS STORIES WITH ONDC NETWORK
These success stories and testimonials of people tell us how ONDC is
breaking the barrier and bridging the rural-urban divide, and aids in
reducing the dominance of large-scale platforms and companies.
6.1 Sri Vidhya Handlooms By gaining credibility and access to the
pan-India market through ONDC, Sri Vidhya Handlooms inspired the
younger generation in the community to embrace the digital
scalability of the company. With ONDC's assistance, Sri Vidhya
Handlooms was able to gather more than 1200 orders, expand their
product listings from 20 to 900, and finally settle on 400 meticulously
chosen digital catalogs. With 600 local members and 2500
stakeholders, the company aimed to promote sustainable farming with
the help of other groups (Creating an Inclusive Ecosystem for E-
Commerce, 2024).

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6.2 Kalpnil Naturals

By eliminating middlemen, KalpNil Naturals increased earnings by
using ONDC to expand to 44 cities in 2023. KalpNil was able to
generate Rs 2.5 lakhs in 5 months thanks to ONDC, which
empowered small, female-led enterprises. A major turning point for
KalpNil Naturals occurred in April 2023 when Kalpana made the
decision to publish 13 of her items on the Open Network for Digital
Commerce (ONDC), embracing the digital marketplace. With this
crucial step, the company made the shift from regional sales channels
to a vast online marketplace. By distributing cold-pressed oils to more
than 44 towns across the country, KalpNil Naturals increased its reach
through ONDC. KalpNil Naturals saw an incredible growth spurt
from April to September of 2023, bringing in Rs 2.5 lakhs in income.
This accomplishment says a lot about the caliber of the brand and how
well ONDC works to help small businesses scale. By switching to
ONDC, KalpNil Naturals' market reach increased from a local to a
nationwide level, and its exposure increased, underscoring the
network's contribution to democratizing market access for small and
medium-sized businesses (The Success Stories Unlocking
Opportunities for Entrepreneurs with ONDC Network, n.d.).
6.3 Craftizen Foundation
By encouraging group enterprise production of handcrafted goods,
they hope to establish sustainable livelihoods for marginalized people,
such as adults with intellectual impairments, impoverished women in
urban, rural, and tribal areas, and traditional artisans. Along with
recycling waste like temple flowers, paper dust, and single-use
plastics, they engage in 30 different craft skills, such as lacquer work,
hand embroidery, tailoring, folk art painting, and the creation of
wooden toys. In livelihood centers in Bangalore, Channapatna,
Cheriyal, Hyderabad, and Kolkata, they have had an influence on
more than 3,500 people. From January to March 2024, Craftizen

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2025

Designs, a well-known artisanal company, saw tremendous success,

bringing in ₹3,64,672 in sales via the ONDC network.
6.4 Namma Yatri
Since its inception in November, Namma Yatri's subscription-based
business model on ONDC has enabled Bengaluru drivers to earn INR
430 crore from 3.07 million rides. In contrast to traditional services,
Namma Yatri uses a ground-breaking fixed subscription price model
that is different from the per-ride commissions that usually put a strain
on drivers (The Success Stories Unlocking Opportunities for
Entrepreneurs with ONDC Network, n.d.).
6.5 Testimonials of People
Narsappa A
He began working as a driver in 2018 and 2019. When he joined
Namma Yatri in November 2022, his financial situation improved.
Narsappa saw more than simply a rise in income as his yearly salary
increased from Rs. 2,20,000 to Rs. 5,00,000. He was able to raise his
family's level of living and more comfortably support their aspirations
thanks to his increased financial stability. Driving for Namma Yatri
has been more than just a profession for Narsappa; it has been a means
of achieving a better life and a discernible improvement in their way
of dreaming and living.
Rajalakshmi
Auto driving was always more than just a job to Rajalakshmi; it was a
passion. In August 2023, she started driving, and by October of the
same year, she had switched to Namma Yatri, where her monthly
income had doubled from Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 20,000. This huge gain in
income not only validated her love for driving but also enabled her to
accomplish a long-held dream: acquiring her own electric auto.
Rajalakshmi's story is a potent illustration of how a passion may result
in significant personal and professional progress when combined with

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2025

the appropriate opportunity (The Success Stories Unlocking

Opportunities for Entrepreneurs with ONDC Network, n.d.).
7.0 IMPACT OF ONDC
Table 1. Total orders placed from April 2024 to march 2025 in
different states
Total orders placed (April 2024
States and UTs - March 2025)
Ladakh 13,645
Jammu 5,30,302
Himachal Pradesh 2,29,529
Punjab 8,16,278
Haryana 44,61,422
Delhi 68,57,632
Uttarakhand 2,81,827
Rajasthan 17,43,173
Uttar Pradesh 60,48,618
Bihar 9,34,965
Gujarat 11,55,115
Madhya Pradesh 9,72,718
Jharkhand 3,87,114
West Bengal 18,31,145
Chattisgarh 3,33,069
Maharashtra 54,29,495
Orrisa 6,21,055
Karnataka 1,06,66,034
Telangana 26,94,452
Andhra Pradesh 7,21,084

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Kerala 9,75,775
Tamil Nadu 14,56,242
Sikkim 45,020
Assam 6,53,516
Arunachal Pradesh 72,537
Nagaland 60,318
Meghalaya 98,340
Manipur 1,15,175
Tripura 1,09,736
Mizoram 66,867
Goa 1,00,296
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 17,426
Andaman &Nicobar Island 22,084

Fig.1 Orders Placed in different states from April 2024 to march

2025

The data shows that Karnataka has the highest orders placed, followed
by Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. It also shows the growth of ONDC. In the
pilot phase, it was launched in five states, but now it has spread all
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over India, showing people are placing orders through this(Ondc,

n.d.).
Fig.2 Total Sales in mobility and non-mobility on July 2024

Sales (million transactions)

0 0

4.4

7.6

mobility Non- Mobility

Fig.3 Sales in different domains

Sales(million transactions)

1.7

4 1.4

0.6

Food and Beverages Grocery Fashion 0thers

In July 2024, 12 million transactions were recorded on the open

Network for Digital Commerce (Economic Times).

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7.1 ONDC NETWORK IMPACT

1. Market Democratization: Ensuring the success of
companies of all sizes.
2. Economic Growth: GDP is boosted by an increase in
internet trade.
3. Job Creation: Growing prospects in ancillary services,
logistics, and technology.
4. Consumer Empowerment: Providing a range of choices
and affordable prices is one way to empower consumers
(Press Information Bureau, 2025).
Cities Domains Network Sellers/Service Total
Live Live Participants Providers Orders
Live
616+ 13 277 7.64+ Lakh 16+
Million

7.2 KEY ACIEVEMENTS OF ONDC

Pilot Programs: Effective execution in a few places, such as Delhi

and Bengaluru.
The first fair price shop at ONDC: The Department of Food and
Public Distribution, Government of India, initiated a pilot program to
onboard Fair Price Shops (FPSs) in the Himachal Pradesh districts of
Una and Hamirpur on the Open Network Digital Commerce (ONDC)
as a step towards Digital India.
Extension of Products and Services Offered on ONDC Platforms:
F&B and groceries were the first two categories in the ONDC
Network, which has since grown to include mobility, fashion, beauty
and personal care, home and kitchen, electronics and appliances,
health and wellness, and business-to-business.

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Broad Geographic Coverage: The ONDC's geographic reach has

been expanded as of January 2, 2024, with vendors and service
providers dispersed throughout 616+ cities
8.0 CONCLUSION
India's e-commerce landscape could be transformed by ONDC.
ONDC can increase productivity, promote fair competition, and
strengthen the ability of small and startup businesses by giving them a
consistent platform and addressing a variety of industry challenges.
Also, the government of India and various departments are
consistently making efforts to increase the awareness of this network.
Also, through its impact, it can be seen that it is continuously
evolving, and it can be a huge success if it is implemented with due
diligence.
9.0 REFERENCES
1. Ali Sadhik Shaik. (2024, April 2). Unveiling the Power of
ONDC: Transforming India‘s Digital Landscape. Linkedin.
2. Creating an Inclusive ecosystem for E-Commerce. (2024).
[Link]
assets/books/flip_book_4.pdf?v=e290743529
3. Dash, B., Sharma, P., Ansari, M. F., & Swayamsiddha, S.
(2022). A review of ONDC‘s digital warfare in India taking on
the e-commerce giants. International Journal of Engineering
& Technology, 11(2), 96–99.
[Link]
4. George, A. S., & Hovan George, A. S. (2022). Open Network
for Digital Commerce (ONDC) : Democratizing Digital
Commerce and curbing digital monopolies in India. Partners
Universal International Research Journal.
[Link]
5. Handbook on building Open Networks. (n.d.). Retrieved May
14, 2025, from [Link]
handbook/

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Digital Inequality And Social Stratification: The Impact of
Technology on Marginalized Communities
2025

6. Jain, V., & Kumar Kaushal, D. A. (2022). A Studyon

Emergenceof Open Networkfor Digital Commerce (ONDC)
In India. International Journal of Advanced Research in
Commerce, 05(04), 77–86.
7. Kumari, D., & Sharma, A. (2022). A study on restoring the
Indian e-commerce ecosystem with an open network for
digital commerce. International Conference on Virtual Reality,
126–134.
8. Manasi Maheshwari. (n.d.). The Journey of ONDC: From
Concept to Reality. Wits Innovation Lab. Retrieved May 2,
2025, from [Link]
from-concept-to-reality
9. M, M. K., Aithal, P. S., & R S, S. K. (2022). Open network for
digital commerce-ONDC (E-Commerce) Infrastructure: To
promote SME/MSME Sector for inclusive and sustainable
digital economic growth. International Journal of
Management, Technology and Social Sciences, 7(2).
[Link]
10. Ondc. (n.d.). Retrieved April 18, 2025, from
[Link]
11. ONDC monthly orders hit record 12 million in July. (2024,
August 5). Economic Times.
[Link]
monthly-orders-hit-record-12-million-in-
july/articleshow/[Link]
12. Pinki, R., & Yadav, P. (2024). Unlocking the Potential: A
Comprehesive Analysis of ONDC. Cahiers Magnellanes-NS,
06(2), 3109–3119.
[Link]
13. Revolutionizing Digital Commerce: The ONDC Initiative.
(2025, January 4). Press Information Bureau.
[Link]
7

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Digital Inequality And Social Stratification: The Impact of
Technology on Marginalized Communities
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14. The Success Stories Unlocking Opportunities for

Entrepreneurs with ONDC Network. (n.d.). [Link].
Retrieved May 13, 2025, from [Link]
15. Venugopal, P. R., & Muskan. (2022). An overview on open
network for digital commerce. Journal of Emerging
Technologies and Innovative Research, 9(9).
16. What is Open Network Digital Commerce (ONDC)? (2023,
March 1). Multiverse Insights.
[Link]
commerce-ondc-multiverse-consulting/

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THE ROLE OF REGULATORY FRAMEWORK IN

FACILITATING CLIMATE FINANCE: CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES FOR BANKING SECTOR
Mahesh Kumar and Vipin Sharma
Research Scholar, Department of Commerce,
Indira Gandhi University, Meerpur, Rewari
Email ID: mahishu82@[Link]&[Link]@[Link]
Contact details: 8738809587 &9466662656
ABSTRACT
The concept of climate financing can be recognised as it requires
substantial financial resources to mitigate the effects of climate
change, adapt to the changing climatic conditions and transition
towards a more sustainable & resilient future. Climate change is a
significant global challenge, putting significant pressure on the
financial industry to support sustainable development. The banking
sector plays a crucial role in funding climate-friendly initiatives like
renewable energy and sustainable infrastructure. In India, integrating
climate finance into the banking sector is essential for achieving
climate and sustainability goals, including reducing carbon emissions
and expanding renewable energy capacity. The study aims to analyse
the role of regulatory frameworks in facilitating climate finance within
the Indian banking industry, exploring both the challenges and
opportunities faced by banks. Necessary regulations implemented by
the RBI and the SEBI are analysed in terms of their effectiveness in
promoting sustainable lending and risk management. This paper not
only highlights the critical challenges, such as regulatory
inconsistencies, limited data on climate risk and the financial burden
of transitioning to green projects, but also identifies promising
opportunities for Indian banks, including the growing green bond
market and innovation in green finance products. This research
provides a comprehensive assessment of how India‘s regulatory

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environment can be strengthened to better align the banking sector

with the country‘s climate objectives.
Keywords: Climate Change, Climate Finance, Sustainable
Development, Regulatory Framework, Green Bonds.
INTRODUCTION
Before significant global agreements on climate change, different
countries and groups handled things in their way. There was no clear
plan or standard system to deal with environmental issues, and
finance/money-oriented matters related to the environment were not
[Link] about the environmental impact of
economic activities began to grow in the mid-twentieth century,
focusing on pollution, deforestation, and other ecological challenges.
However, climate change as a distinct and urgent global issue during
this period did not gain importance. The initial recognition of climate
change as a significant environmental threat to the global community
was when scientists started to draw attention to the association
between different human activities like carbon emissions and fossil
fuels, in the environment. The IPCC, an intergovernmental panel
established on Climate Change, was founded, and the UN Framework
for Convention on Climate Change was adopted in 1988 and 1992,
respectively. The UNFCCC was adopted with the key objective of
stabilising the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere. Recognition
of past emissions by developed nations and calls for financial aid from
developing nations based on the concept of "common but
differentiated responsibilities". In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol, an
international treaty under the UNFCCC, was established. This
protocol legally binds nations that emit carbon to limit their emissions
under the unanimously accepted targets to reduce carbon emissions.
For this, the financial transfers and technology exchanges between
developed and developing nations were required to attain the
emissions reduction targets. Resultingly, the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) were introduced to

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fulfil the abovementioned requirements. These steps towards

monetary aid were taken on a small scale, and they did not need to
address the growing need for climate finance fully.
Climate finance has become an essential aspect of the sustainable
development agenda, which delineates financial resources that are
requisite to mitigate GHG emissions and to make the climate resilient.
The banking industry acts as a key player in this area because it is a
key pillar in capital distribution. Assistance services by banks in the
form of finance, investment, and advice can be helpful in the
transition from a high-carbon to a low-carbon emission and climate-
resilient economy. With the rapidly growing Indian economy, the
demand for energy, infrastructure, and industrial production is
continuously increasing. However, this rapid growth in the Indian
economy is accompanied by a significant rise in environmental
degradation, GHG emissions, and susceptibility to climate-related
risks. Therefore, inclusion of climate finance into the banking sector is
not only an issue of environmental obligation but also a matter of
economic wisdom.

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Fig 1. The Concept of Climate Finance

Financial •Mitigate effects of

Resources Climate Change

•Change Climate
Adaptation conditions

•Sustainable &
Transition Resilient Future

Source: Author compilation

India has made significant worldwide commitments as part of the
Paris Agreement in 2015, which includes reducing the emissions
intensity of its GDP by 33-35% from 2005 levels and raising the
proportion of non-fossil fuel energy to 40% by 2030. For the
fulfilment of these objectives, compulsory significant financial
resources need to be collected through both public and private
sources. Due to the magnitude and influence of the banking sector, it
is anticipated that it is the primary player in capital movement.
Nevertheless, Investments that are supported by banks and are aligned
with climate goals are primarily contingent on the regulatory
environment in which the banks function.

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A robust regulatory framework is critical for the identification,

disclosure, and management of climate-related risks effectively within
the banking sector. To foster sustainable finance, the Central Bank and
the SEBI have taken several initiatives. These initiatives comprise
guidelines related to green bonds, environmental disclosures, and the
integration of climate risk into financial oversight (RBI, 2022 and
SEBI, 2021). Nevertheless, several challenges remain, such as
inconsistencies in regulations, insufficient data, and limited financial
incentives for green investments. This study aims to explore the
influence of the regulatory framework on promoting climate finance
in the Indian banking industry. It highlights the primary obstacles
banks encounter in adopting climate-aligned strategies and
investigates emerging opportunities like the green bond market and
innovative sustainable finance instruments. Ultimately, this paper
seeks to evaluate how the regulatory environment can be enhanced to
support India‘s climate and development goals more effectively.
In the survey of Ipsos Knowledge Centre 2025, an average of about
26% of people in 32 countries agree on the statement that 1/5 of the
SDGs are on track to be achieved by 2030. About 29% of the world's
population, from 32 countries, told 1/5 of the world, and 27% of the
people from 32 countries, about half of the world‘s population,
experienced severe water scarcity for at least part of the last year.
About 27% of people from 32 countries agree that restricting the use
of fossil fuels would damage the world economy more than the
increases in global temperature. 37% of Indians agree with the
statement that an increase in global average temperatures by more
than 1.5 °C is not that big a deal, and 44% of Indians also agree with
the statement that the past 10 years have been the warmest on record.
An average of about 44% of people from 32 countries transitioning to
renewable energy will lead to an increase in household energy prices,
and an average of about 34% of people from 32 countries think that
electric cars are as bad for the planet as petrol/gas-powered cars. Table
A shows the misperceptions in the minds of Indians, which are really a

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hurdle for all actors in climate change mitigation, especially the

banking sector.
Table A. Misperceptions in the minds of Indians about Climate
Change
Sr. Misperceptions in the minds of Indians
No.
1. 37% of people agree that an increase in global average
temperatures by more than 1.5 °C is not that big a deal
2. 37% of people agree that the past 10 years have been the
warmest on record
3. 38% of people agree that climate change is the single
biggest health threat facing humanity
4. 36% of people agree that there is no consensus among
climate scientists about the effects of climate change
5. 39% of people agree that transitioning to renewable
energy will lead to an increase in household energy prices.
6. 38% of people agree that electric cars are as bad for the
planet as petrol/gas-powered cars
7. 36% of people agree that transitioning to renewable
energy will lead to more blackouts and brownouts
8. 38% of people agree that restricting the use of fossil fuels
would damage the world economy more than the increases
in global temperature
9. 38% of people agree that offshore wind farms cause harm
to wildlife.
10. 40% of people agree that I tend to trust the environmental
claims by companies about their products or processes.

Source: Ipsos Knowledge Centre, Survey 2025 – People and Climate

Change

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Developed countries promise the financial flow for climate financing
to developing countries to mitigate and adapt to sustainable
development. It also provides the current practice of how the $100
billion fund was raised for the long term and mobilised. More data is
needed for private sector and public sector flows. Further, it was also
observed that with R&D support, reporting, planning, and ensuring
proper rights, it is easier to determine the financial flow accurately.
The flow was recorded in multiple databases, and the climate fund
was partly captured in public bilateral and multilateral accounting,
which led to overlapping and could not be adequately reconciled. At
present, data collection for climate finance needs to provide more
information on the flow of funds to developing countries, there is an
urgent need for an international agreement to ensure the correctness of
the data flow information and to define guidelines defining the
"mobilised" and "additional", which may quickly determine the
specific source and flow of funds and for which activities that could
be eligible for counting towards mobilises $100bn (Clapp et. al.,
2012). Green bonds are proliferating and expected to reach new
heights in the coming years. Green bonds have proved to be an
innovative financial instrument and provide an opportunity to direct
private finance towards low-carbon investments for mitigation and
adaptation projects. Some key barriers include a need for knowledge
about green bonds, inappropriate institutional arrangements, issue
size, and issuance currency with high transaction costs (Banga, 2018).
There is a growing dominance of international intermediaries in the
development and implementation of GCF projects. There is also a
mismatch between the planned and actual allotment of funds, and it
derailed the Green Climate Fund from its core objective, which is
building capacity, promoting country ownership projects, and
equitable allocation of funds for mitigation and adaptation for
sustainable development (Choudhary, 2020). There are six priority
elements for setting the new collective quantified goal for climate
financing for the post-2025 period; simply increasing the target would

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be ineffective in improving climate finance. To address their needs, it

is also essential to include transparent resource transfer from
developed to developing countries. Private sector co-finance also
needs to be included. The decarbonisation should be sped up, and
resilience should be increased. Negotiations for collective quantified
goals will be discussed for climate financing provisions and financial
allocation. The international agreement for climate financing for
tracking and accounting rules needs to be updated to increase
transparency and trust for all (Pauw et. al., 2022).
To achieve sustainability through climate financing, banks serve a
crucial role by directing funds toward green projects, assessing and
mitigating risks, utilising innovative financial instruments,
incorporating environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria,
advancing sustainable banking practices, and collaborating with other
agencies, government entities, and international organisations for
extensive climate financing initiatives aimed at sustainable and
climate-resilient projects. Climate financing provides different
opportunities for the banking sector, but to adapt to changing
regulations, manage risks, and make substantial contributions to
climate objectives, it requires a strategic approach. Banks are leaders
in sustainable finance because they have established themselves as the
requirement and also actively participate in climate financing. It plays
a key role in fostering a more resilient and environmentally friendly
economy.
NECESSITY FOR POLICY MEASURES REGARDING
SUSTAINABLE FINANCE IN INDIA
India is among the regions that are most susceptible to the negative
impacts of climate change, despite accounting for only 4% of the total
global emissions from 1850 to 2019. This situation not only raises
significant equity-related issues but has also created an immediate
need for India to incorporate climate change considerations into
policymaking across all sectors. Recent government initiatives, such

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as the National Green Hydrogen Mission, exemplify this shift, aiming

to establish India as a key global centre for the production, utilisation,
and export of green hydrogen, along with the introduction of the
Carbon Credit Trading Scheme.
As a signatory to the Paris Agreement, India has set a long-term
objective of achieving net-zero emissions by 2070. Moreover, in
August 2022, India enhanced its Nationally Determined Contribution
(NDC) to aim for a 45% reduction in the emissions intensity of GDP
by 2030, building on its prior success in reducing emissions intensity
by 33% from 2005 to 2019. The updated NDC also aims for non-fossil
fuel sources to account for 50% of the installed electricity generation
capacity by 2030.
Access to sufficient and affordable financial resources is vital for
enabling India‘s ambitious climate objectives. Thus far, climate
financing has primarily been sourced domestically, relying on a
combination of government support, market mechanisms, fiscal tools,
and policy initiatives. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has estimated
that India will require green financing amounting to at least 2.5% of
its GDP to address the infrastructure deficits resulting from climate-
related events. Consequently, enhancing regulatory and policy
frameworks to support climate finance is essential, and financial
regulators, including the RBI and the Securities and Exchange Board
of India (SEBI), are progressively implementing measures to foster a
favourable climate finance environment.
REGULATORY SUPPORT FOR THE CLIMATE FINANCE
Initiatives taken by the RBI
The RBI believes that regulating climate change is essential and that
economic growth must align with addressing climate risks. Since
joining the Network for Greening the Financial System in 2021, the
RBI has proposed several policy and regulatory measures and has
been increasingly engaged with various aspects of climate finance.

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In 2022, the RBI conducted its first survey of scheduled commercial

banks to evaluate their readiness to address climate risk and
sustainable finance. After that, the RBI concluded the results of the
survey and highlighted key areas needing further reform, such as the
establishment of governance and risk management frameworks and
the need for reporting on climate-related financial disclosures.
At the same time, the RBI also released a discussion paper on Climate
Risk and Sustainable Finance (CRSF), outlining its regulatory
approach concerning vital elements of sustainable and climate finance,
including the application of climate-related risks to regulated entities
(REs); guidance for the boards of REs; stress-testing and climate
scenario analysis; and guidelines for climate-related financial
disclosure and reporting.
Building on this, the RBI introduced a framework for REs to accept
green deposits in 2023, aimed at promoting sustainability, increasing
credit for environmentally friendly activities, and combating green
washing. This framework is pivotal as it describes some important
green finance concepts like green projects, green deposits, green
finance, and green washing in the Indian context. Most recently, the
RBI has put forward a Draft Disclosure Framework (DDF) regarding
climate-related financial risks for REs to manage climate-related
financial risks and ensure related disclosures are made.
Initiatives taken by SEBI
Various policy and regulatory measures have been implemented by the
Central Bank and SEBI to facilitate the shift from a high-carbon
economy to a low-carbon economy. SEBI has recognised the
importance of sustainable finance in this evolving context and the
necessity to meet the growing demand for sustainable investments.
This is illustrated by the revision of SEBI's regulatory framework
concerning green bond issuance, aligning it with global best practices.
The introduced modifications encompass an expansion of the range of
green debt securities as well as the addition of blue, yellow, and

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transition bonds as sub-categories of green debt securities.

Additionally, there are requirements related to the issuance and listing
of green debt securities, enhanced stipulations for issuing transition
bonds, and guidelines aimed at preventing green washing.
Furthermore, local authorities, specifically municipal corporations,
have also been permitted and have the right to issue green debt
securities.
Initiatives by the other regulators
Enhancing the framework for sustainable finance concerning
international financial services centres (IFSCs), the primary goal of
the International Financial Services Centre Authority (IFSCA). The
IFSCA has created a guidance framework on sustainability-linked
lending by financial institutions operating within IFSCs, mandating
the establishment of Board-level policies on this type of lending.
Additionally, the Committee of Experts on Sustainable Finance has
proposed various policy and regulatory measures to bolster the
sustainable finance environment in IFSCs, including the development
of frameworks for transition bonds and other innovative financial
instruments, as well as the establishment of a voluntary carbon
market. More recently, the IFSCA has formed an Expert Committee
on Transition Finance to recommend regulatory frameworks for
transition finance instruments, among other tasks.
The Ministry of Finance took a distinct initiative to release the
Sovereign Green Bond framework in November 2022 in India,
marking a significant milestone and aiming to direct proceeds from its
issuance toward environmentally sustainable projects. India's
comprehensive sustainable finance framework was launched in
January 2023, and the above-mentioned initiative forms an
indispensable part of it, and it has been received positively by experts.
The sovereign green bonds play a crucial role in the accomplishment
of India's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which is

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further underscored by the ambitious targets set for issuing these

bonds in the near future.
CLIMATE FINANCE AS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR THE
BANKING SECTOR
The global banking sector is focusing on climate finance, which
involves allocating financial resources to address climate change
through mitigation and adaptation efforts. This shift is aiming to
expand responsibly while supporting national and international
climate objectives, according to the UNFCCC (2022).
Expansion of Green Lending Portfolios
Financial institutions can capitalise on climate finance by increasing
their lending to eco-friendly sectors like renewable energy, electric
transportation, energy-efficient housing, and agriculture that can
withstand climate impacts. This approach not only broadens their loan
offerings but also engages in rapidly growing industries that align with
India‘s climate obligations under the Paris Agreement (MoEFCC,
2021). As an illustration, the State Bank of India has funded numerous
renewable energy and rooftop solar initiatives through specific green
loan programs (SBI, 2023).
Growth of the Green Bond Market
Green bonds constitute a rapidly expanding sector that enables banks
to obtain funds for qualifying green initiatives. In 2023, the global
issuance of green bonds surpassed $500 billion, reflecting a strong
demand from investors (Climate Bonds Initiative, 2024). In India, the
guidelines for green bonds set by SEBI have improved market
transparency, empowering banks to issue or invest in green bonds with
greater confidence (SEBI, 2021). This sector also provides banks with
the opportunity to broaden their funding sources and access
environmentally aware capital.

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Attracting ESG-Focused Investors

Financial institutions that engage in climate finance are likely to draw
in funds that focus on ESG/Sustainability criteria. As per the
Bloomberg Intelligence report for2021, worldwide ESG investments
are projected to exceed $50 trillion by 2025. By aligning their
business practices with principles of sustainability, Indian banks can
tap into global financing and enhance the confidence of investors.
Risk Management and Portfolio Resilience
Incorporating climate finance also contributes to better risk
management. Climate change-related physical and transition risks can
diminish the worth of conventional assets (RBI, 2022). By focusing
on investments that align with climate goals, banks can strengthen the
durability of their portfolios and steer clear of stranded assets, like
coal-dependent infrastructure, which could decline in value as
regulations become stricter.
Innovation in Financial Products
The increasing focus on sustainable finance presents Indian banks
with the chance to introduce creative offerings such as Sustainability-
linked loans, which adjust interest rates according to the borrowers'
performance in sustainability. Green mortgages are aimed at
promoting energy-efficient housing. Carbon trading services as India
moves forward with an emissions trading scheme (MoEFCC, 2022).
These offerings not only create additional revenue opportunities but
also align with the changing expectations of customers.
Government and Regulatory Support
The Indian government, along with financial regulators, is fostering
climate finance by implementing supportive policies, offering
subsidies, and providing credit guarantees. The discussion paper from
the RBI regarding climate risk and sustainable finance presents a

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future plan for required disclosures and the integration of risk

management (RBI, 2022). This policy backing lowers obstacles for
banks looking to enter or grow in the climate finance sector.
Reputation and Competitive Advantage
Engagement in climate finance also boosts the reputation of banks.
Financial institutions recognised as frontrunners in sustainability
frequently experience greater customer loyalty, enhanced employee
commitment, and increased brand value (OECD, 2021). These
intangible advantages can lead to a lasting competitive edge.
CLIMATE FINANCE AS A CHALLENGE FOR THE BANKING
SECTOR
Climate finance offers banks transformative opportunities but also
presents challenges due to industry limitations in structure, regulation,
operations, and knowledge. Successfully managing climate finance
requires banks to address these obstacles to balance financial stability
with sustainability goals.
Lack of Standardised Definitions and Taxonomies
Banks in climate finance face a challenge due to the lack of
standardized definitions and classifications for green or climate-
aligned activities, leading to confusion in project evaluation and
reporting. India is still in the early stages of creating a national green
taxonomy, despite organisations like the EU and IPF suggesting
taxonomies (MoEFCC, 2023).Without clear definitions, banks may
engage in green washing or adopt a cautious approach, potentially
underfunding genuine green initiatives.
Limited Availability and Quality of Climate Data
Financial institutions in India rely on comprehensive data for risk and
return analysis, but voluntary and inconsistent climate-related
disclosures hinder their ability to evaluate physical and transition risks

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associated with borrowers and projects. The Reserve Bank of India

highlights the challenge of incorporating sustainability into risk
evaluations and capital distribution due to insufficient climate risk
data and a lack of tools for forward-looking climate scenario
analysis(RBI, 2022).
High Perceived Risk and Low Creditworthiness of Green Projects
Climate-friendly initiatives, particularly in emerging fields like green
hydrogen, electric mobility, and decentralised solar energy, are often
deemed risky or unfeasible due to high initial capital investments,
extended payback periods, and unpredictable revenue streams. Green
infrastructure projects in rural or underdeveloped regions face
challenges due to insufficient institutional capacity and weak project
development frameworks, leading banks to hesitate to finance these
projects without guarantees or blended finance solutions(World Bank,
2021).
Short-Termism in Lending Practices
Climate finance initiatives are successfully served only by long-term
financing, but the banking institutions generally focus on short- to
medium-term lending cycles, which generate obstacles to mitigating
adverse climate change. This non-association between the duration of
financing required for green projects and the nature of bank liabilities
poses a significant institutional challenge or obstacle. Without the
backing of long-term refinancing alternatives or development finance
organisations, banks struggle to provide substantial loans for climate
infrastructure (OECD, 2021).
Regulatory Ambiguity and Compliance Complexity
The absence of enforceable regulatory requirements, such as
compulsory climate disclosures or capital adequacy standards for
green assets, has resulted in inconsistent implementation. Besides, the
regulatory authorities like the RBI and SEBI have established
guidelines related to climate, which are not sufficiently effective.
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Additionally, banks might encounter compliance challenges when

trying to adhere to international ESG frameworks, including TCFD
(Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures) or ISSB
standards, particularly in the lack of national coherence (RBI, 2022).
Limited Internal Capacity and Technical Expertise
Lack of in-house necessary expertise in Indian banks to evaluate
climate risks and create green financial products create hurdle in
climate change mitigation. Assessing climate risk demands a blend of
interdisciplinary knowledge, spanning environmental science,
engineering, and finance, which is not typically included in banking
operations. Research conducted by the UNEP FI in 2020 indicated that
numerous banks worldwide are still in the process of enhancing their
internal capabilities to incorporate climate factors into their decision-
making.
Insufficient Incentives and Risk Mitigation Tools
Financial institutions require risk-sharing strategies, like partial credit
guarantees, insurance, or blended finance, to enhance their green
lending efforts. In India, the lack of sufficient de-risking instruments
restricts banks from expanding their climate finance initiatives.
Additionally, government subsidies or incentives tend to be project-
specific and are often provided late, leading to uncertainty for lenders
(MoEFCC, 2022).
CONCLUSION
Climate finance represents a multi-dimensional opportunity for banks.
By developing green financial products, engaging with ESG investors,
managing climate-related risks, and aligning with national and global
sustainability goals, banks can transform climate risk into a source of
growth and innovation. As the Indian regulatory environment
continues to mature and international funding for climate solutions
expands, the banking sector stands at the cusp of a paradigm shift—

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one where profitability and sustainability are not in conflict but

mutually reinforcing.
While the potential for climate finance in the banking sector is
immense, the journey is fraught with systemic and operational
challenges. These include regulatory ambiguities, data inadequacies,
credit constraints, and a lack of internal capacity. Unless these issues
are addressed through coordinated policy reforms, institutional
innovation, and capacity building, the Indian banking sector will
struggle to align with the country‘s climate finance goals fully.
REFERENCES
1. Anga, J. (2018). The Green Bond Market: a potential source
of climate finance for developing countries. Journal of
Sustainable Finance& Investment, 16–32.
2. BC Clapp, J. Ellis, J Benn & J Corfee-Morlot. (2012).
Tracking Climate Finance: What and How? OECD Climate
Change expert Groups Papers, 1–42.
3. Bloomberg Intelligence. (2021). ESG assets may hit $53
trillion by 2025, a third of global AUM. Retrieved from
[Link]
may-hit-53-trillion-by-2025-a-third-of-global-aum/
4. Choudhary, A. (2020). Role of intermediaries in shaping
Climate Finance in Developing Countries -Lessons from the
Green Climate Fund. Sustainability (MDPI), 1-17.
5. Climate Bonds Initiative. (2024). Sustainable Debt Market
Summary 2023. Retrieved from
[Link]
debt-market-summary-2023
6. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC). (2021). India‘s Updated Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs). Retrieved from
[Link]

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Digital Inequality And Social Stratification: The Impact of
Technology on Marginalized Communities
2025

08/India%20Updated%20First%20Nationally%20Determined
%[Link]
7. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC). (2022). Draft Carbon Market Framework for
India. Retrieved from [Link]
8. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC). (2023). India Green Taxonomy Discussion Paper.
Retrieved from [Link]
9. OECD. (2021). Aligning Finance and Investment with
Climate Goals. Retrieved from
[Link]
[Link]
10. OECD. (2021). Mobilising Institutional Investment for
Sustainable Infrastructure: A Framework for Action. Retrieved
from [Link]
[Link]
11. Reserve Bank of India (RBI). (2022). Discussion Paper on
Climate Risk and Sustainable Finance. Retrieved from
[Link]
1
12. Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI). (2021).
Green Bond Guidelines. Retrieved from
[Link]
13. State Bank of India (SBI). (2023). Sustainability and Business
Responsibility Report. Retrieved from
[Link]
14. United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative
(UNEP FI). (2020). Charting a New Climate: UNEP FI
Climate Risk Landscape Report. Retrieved from
[Link]
publications/charting-a-new-climate/
15. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). (2022). Introduction to Climate Finance.

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Technology on Marginalized Communities
2025

Retrieved from [Link]

climate-finance
16. W.P. Pauw, U. M. (2022). Post-2025 climate finance target:
how much and more and how much better? Climate Policy
Taylor & Francis, 1240-1251.

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 Digital Inequality And Social Stratification: The Impact of
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2025

DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND STRATIFICATION: THE

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON MARGINALIZED
COMMUNITIES
Mrs C. Rathipriya
Assistant Professor of History,
JKK Nataraja College of Arts and Science,
Komarapalayam Post, Namakkal district,
Tamil Nadu State.
ABSTRACT
Digital inequality refers to the uneven distribution of access to
information and communication technologies (ICTs), including
internet connectivity, digital devices, and the skills needed to use them
effectively. This divide often overlaps with socio-economic status,
race, gender, age, geographic location, and disability, resulting in
disproportionate disadvantages for marginalized groups. In the United
States, 24% of adults do not own a smart phone, and 40% of people
with household earnings under $30,000 do not have home broadband.
Globally, the divide is even starker, with only 29% of individuals in
sub-Saharan Africa using the internet compared to 87% in Europe.
Digital inequality amplifies existing social hierarchies, reinforcing
patterns of privilege and disadvantage. The COVID-19 pandemic
highlighted how digital inequality made educational inequities worse,
and digital health technologies limit access to low-income and rural
populations. Digital health technologies, such as telemedicine and
electronic health records, have revolutionized care delivery, but digital
inequality limits access among low-income and rural populations.
Cultural and linguistic barriers further exclude non-dominant groups
from full digital participation. Bridging the digital divide requires
coordinated efforts across public, private, and civil society sectors.
Effective strategies include infrastructure investment, affordability
programs, digital literacy initiatives, inclusive design, and regulatory
oversight. To achieve a more just and equitable society, we must

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address digital inequality not only as a technical issue but as a

fundamental matter of social justice.
Keywords: Technologies, Digital Inequality, Society, Internet, Health,
Strategies, Social Justice.
Introduction
In the 21st century, digital technology permeates all facets of life,
from communication and education to employment, healthcare, and
civic participation. While technological advancements can potentially
improve the quality of life, they also risk reinforcing social
inequalities. Digital inequality means disparities in access to and
effective use of digital technologies, it has emerged as a critical factor
in the stratification of marginalized communities. These inequalities
are not simply technical or financial challenges but are fundamentally
anchored in historical, structural, and systemic inequities. This paper
explores how digital inequality contributes to the stratification of
marginalized populations and offers insights into policy and social
interventions promoting digital inclusion.
Understanding Digital Inequality
Digital inequality refers to the uneven distribution of access to
information and communication technologies (ICTs), including
internet connectivity, digital devices, and the skills necessary to use
them effectively. The digital divide encompasses three key
dimensions: access (physical availability of technology), use
(frequency and quality of usage), and outcomes (benefits gained from
using technology) as stated by Van Dijk, in 2020. These dimensions
often overlap with socio-economic status, race, gender, age,
geographic location, and disability, resulting in disproportionate
disadvantages for marginalized groups.
In the US, for example, 40% of persons with household incomes
under $30,000 lack home broadband, while 24% of adults do not own
a smartphone. Globally, the divide is even starker. Compared to 87%
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2025

of people in Europe, only 29% of people in sub-Saharan Africa utilize

the internet. These gaps contribute to persistent inequalities in access
to education, employment, healthcare, and democratic participation.
Technology and Social Stratification
Technology often amplifies existing social hierarchies. Patterns of
privilege and disadvantage are reinforced by the unequal distribution
of digital resources, which results in unequal access to opportunities,
services, and information.
Education
The COVID-19 pandemic brought to light how educational inequities
are made worse by digital inequality. Remote learning became the
default model, but students from low-income or rural families
frequently lacked devices, internet access, or a conducive learning
environment. The long-term consequences include widened
achievement gaps, reduced college readiness, and lower educational
attainment among marginalized students.
Employment and Economic Opportunity
Access to digital tools is essential for job searching, skill
development, and participation in the digital economy. Yet, many
workers in marginalized communities are excluded from remote work
opportunities due to inadequate internet access or digital literacy. The
World Economic Forum (2020) found that automation and digitization
have disproportionately displaced low-skilled jobs, further
marginalizing those without digital competencies. Additionally, gig
economy platforms often seen as accessible sources of income may
exploit workers with limited alternatives, offering low wages and little
job security.

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Healthcare Access
Digital health technologies, including telemedicine and electronic
health records, have revolutionized care delivery. However, digital
inequality limits access to these services among low-income and rural
populations. Inadequate digital access can delay diagnosis, prevent
chronic disease management, and reduce health literacy. Moreover,
algorithmic biases in digital health tools can result in poorer outcomes
for racial and ethnic minorities if data used to train models lack
representation.
Civic Participation and Political Power
Digital platforms are becoming more and more important in civic
involvement, information sharing, and political mobilization. Yet,
digital inequality restricts the ability of marginalized groups to engage
effectively in democratic processes. Limited internet access and low
digital literacy reduce access to information about voting, candidates,
and policy issues. Furthermore, algorithm-driven content can reinforce
echo chambers, misinformation, and political polarization, often to the
detriment of historically excluded communities.
Structural Causes of Digital Inequality
The roots of digital inequality lie in broader structures of social and
economic exclusion. Historical disinvestment in certain
neighborhoods, underfunded schools, and discriminatory policies have
left many communities without adequate infrastructure or digital
education. Additionally, the commercialization of Internet services
creates a market-driven access model, privileging profitability over
equity. For example, internet service providers may neglect rural or
low-income areas deemed unprofitable, perpetuating geographic and
socioeconomic divides.
Cultural and linguistic barriers further exclude non-dominant groups
from full digital participation. Many websites, applications, and digital

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2025

services are designed primarily for English-speaking, able-bodied

users, marginalizing those with different needs or languages.
Solutions and Policy Recommendations
Coordinated initiatives from the public, corporate, and civil society
sectors are necessary to close the digital divide. Effective strategies
include:
1. Infrastructure Investment:
Governments should prioritize broadband expansion in
underserved areas through subsidies and public-private
partnerships.
2. Affordability Programs:
Device and internet subsidies for low-income households can
ensure baseline access.
3. Digital Literacy Initiatives:
Schools, libraries, and community organizations should offer
culturally relevant digital skills training.
4. Inclusive Design:
Developers must build platforms accessible to people with
disabilities, non-native speakers, and older adults.
5. Regulatory Oversight:
Governments should enforce net neutrality, protect data privacy,
and monitor algorithmic fairness.
These interventions should be guided by the principle of digital
justice, ensuring all individuals have equal opportunities to access and
benefit from digital technologies.

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Conclusion
Digital inequality is not merely a by product of technological
progress, it is a reflection of deeper societal inequities. Without
deliberate and inclusive policies, the digital revolution risks
exacerbating the very problems it seeks to solve. Marginalized
communities face compounding disadvantages due to limited digital
access and skills, which restrict their opportunities in education,
employment, healthcare, and civic life. To achieve a more just and
equitable society, we must address digital inequality not only as a
technical issue but as a fundamental matter of social justice.
References
1. Auxier B & Anderson M, As schools close due to the
coronavirus, some U.S. students face a digital 'homework
gap', Pew Research Center, 2020,
[Link]
2. International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Measuring
digital development: Facts and figures, 2023,
[Link]
3. Noble S.U, Algorithms of oppression: How search engines
reinforce racism, NYU Press, 2018.
4. Pew Research Center, Internet/Broadband Fact Sheet, 2021,
[Link]
5. Robbins T, Hudson S, Ray P, Sankar S, Patel K, Randeva H
& Arvanitis T N, COVID-19: A new digital dawn? Digital
Health, 6, 2055207620920083, 2020,
[Link]
6. Van Dijk, J.A.G.M, The Digital Divide, Polity Press, 2020.
7. World Economic Forum, The future of jobs report 2020,
[Link]

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2025

DIGITAL MEDIA, MARGINALIZED GIRLS AND THE

DREAM OF JOURNALISM: A CASE STUDY ON ASPIRATION
AND ACCESS
Ruchika Dhruwey
Research Scholar
Department of Journalism and Mass
Communication at Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya
(A Central University), Bilaspur (C.G.)

Dr. Vikas Rajpopat

Assistant Professor
Department of Journalism and Mass
Communication at Guru GhasidasVishwavidyalaya
(A Central University), Bilaspur (C.G.)

ABSTRACT
This research paper, titled Digital Media, Marginalized Girls, and the
Dream of Journalism: A Case Study on Aspiration and Access
investigates how inadequate internet access, online harassment, and
financial constraints limit the equitable participation of
underprivileged girls in digital journalism. The study aims to identify
the specific barriers these factors create in their involvement and
representation within digital media environments. Employing a
qualitative methodology, the research draws on semi-structured
interviews with marginalized girls aspiring to journalism and content
analysis to explore their lived experiences and challenges.
Findings reveal that while digital platforms offer significant
opportunities for marginalized girls to express themselves and amplify
community voices, persistent obstacles hinder their full participation.
Limited access to affordable and reliable internet, scarcity of digital
devices, and economic hardships are major structural barriers.

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Additionally, experiences of discrimination and underrepresentation in

mainstream media contribute to feelings of exclusion. Although online
harassment was less frequently reported in interviews, existing
literature underscores its role as a deterrent to digital engagement for
women and girls. Family and community support, alongside
inspirational role models, emerge as crucial enablers that nurture
aspirations and resilience among these girls.
The study highlights the intersectionality of socioeconomic, cultural,
and technological factors that sustain the digital divide and restrict
marginalized girls‘ journalistic dreams. It underscores the need for
multi-faceted interventions, including improved digital infrastructure,
safe online spaces, digital literacy training, and inclusive media
policies, to foster equitable access and representation. By addressing
these barriers, digital media can become a transformative tool for
social inclusion and empowerment.
This research contributes to the broader discourse on gender, digital
equity, and media representation by centering the voices of
underprivileged girls and providing actionable insights for
policymakers, educators, and media practitioners committed to
creating inclusive digital journalism ecosystems.
Keywords: Digital journalism, Marginalized girls, Digital divide,
Internet access, Media representation, Digital inclusion,
Introduction
By giving underprivileged females new channels for expression,
education, and journalism involvement, the digital media terrain has
transforming capacity for empowering them. Even while digital
platforms offer great opportunities for social inclusion, major
obstacles still prevent impoverished girls from fairly participating in
digital journalism. This research article, Digital Media, Marginalised
Girls, and the Dream of Journalism: A Case Study on Aspiration and
Access, aims to investigate how insufficient internet access, online

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harassment, and financial constraints impede these girls' capacity to

engage meaningfully with digital journalism and to identify the
particular obstacles these factors create inside digital media
environments.

Marginalised girls can deal with a compounded set of difficulties

stemming from socioeconomic inequalities, gendered digital barriers,
and cultural standards limiting their access to technology and digital
literacy. While infrastructure problems in underprivileged areas result
in either unreliable or nonexistent internet access, economic
constraints often drive families to choose fundamental needs above
digital connectivity. These circumstances greatly limit girls' chances to
learn the digital skills required for media involvement and journalism.
Furthermore common threats that deter underprivileged females from
freely expressing themselves or following professions in media are
internet harassment and gender-based violence. Apart from their
mental health, such harassment results in self-censorship and
avoidance from digital environments, therefore suppressing their
voices.

Financial constraints worsen these obstacles as well, making it

challenging for underprivileged girls to acquire tools, data plans, and
instructional materials necessary for digital participation. The junction
of these difficulties keeps invisibility and exclusion from media
representation, so preventing the realisation of their journalistic
dreams. This study intends to clarify these several obstacles and add to
the conversation on building more fair digital media environments that
enable underprivileged girls to engage fully and safely in journalism.
Understanding these limitations helps stakeholders to better plan
treatments to close the digital divide and support inclusive media
ecosystems.

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Review of Literature
The literature on digital media participation by marginalized girls and
women highlights a complex interplay of structural, social, and
cultural barriers that limit their fair involvement, particularly in fields
like journalism. Gender bias and systemic inequalities persist in media
industries, where women journalists face challenges such as unequal
pay, limited career advancement, and pervasive gender discrimination
(Global Media Journal). These professional obstacles are compounded
by the digital environment, where online harassment has emerged as a
significant deterrent. According to a global survey by the International
Federation of Journalists (IFJ), 64% of women journalists have
experienced online abuse, including threats, sexist comments, and
cyber bullying, which often results in psychological harm, self-
censorship, and even job loss. This hostile digital climate
disproportionately affects marginalized girls aspiring to journalism,
discouraging their participation and silencing their voices.
Socioeconomic factors further exacerbate these challenges. Studies
reveal that financial constraints and limited access to reliable internet
infrastructure are major barriers for low-income women and girls in
digital inclusion. Economic disparities force families to prioritize
basic needs over digital connectivity, leaving marginalized girls
without the necessary tools-such as devices and affordable data plans-
to engage in digital journalism. This affordability gap is intensified by
poor infrastructure in marginalized communities, where internet
access is often unreliable or unavailable. Additionally, educational
disparities rooted in financial hardship and societal biases limit digital
literacy among girls, hindering their ability to navigate digital
platforms effectively. Without foundational digital skills, marginalized
girls face significant obstacles in accessing online resources, learning
journalistic techniques, and participating in digital media ecosystems.
Cultural norms and gender stereotypes also play a critical role in
restricting marginalized girls‘ digital participation. Patriarchal

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expectations often assign women primary responsibilities for domestic

work and care giving, reducing the time and energy they can dedicate
to digital skill development or journalism. Societal attitudes may
discourage girls from pursuing technology-related education or
careers, reinforcing psychological barriers to digital engagement.
These norms not only limit access but also affect girls‘ confidence and
aspirations in digital journalism.
Despite these barriers, digital media holds transformative potential to
empower marginalized voices by bypassing traditional gatekeepers
and enabling direct storytelling. Digital platforms such as blogs, social
media, and podcasts allow marginalized girls to define their own
narratives and challenge stereotypical representations prevalent in
mainstream media. This democratization of media production fosters
alternative media ecosystems where marginalized communities can
gain visibility and agency. However, the full realization of this
potential depends on addressing the intersecting challenges of internet
access, online safety, and economic inclusion.
In sum, the literature underscores that inadequate internet access,
online harassment, and financial constraints form intertwined
obstacles that impede marginalized girls‘ equitable participation in
digital journalism. Addressing these barriers requires multi-
dimensional strategies, including improving digital infrastructure,
combating online gender-based violence, and promoting inclusive
education and economic policies tailored to marginalized
communities. This research builds on these insights by focusing
specifically on how these factors limit underprivileged girls‘
involvement and representation in digital journalism, aiming to inform
interventions that foster more inclusive and empowering digital media
environments.
Research objective
To investigate how poor internet connection, online abuse, and
financial restrictions limit the fair involvement of underprivileged

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girls in digital journalism and to pinpoint the particular obstacles these

elements generate in their involvement and representation within
digital media environments.
Research Question
How could inadequate internet access, online harassment, and
financial constraints impede the fair involvement of underprivileged
girls in digital journalism?
Methodology
Using a qualitative approach combining semi-structured interviews
and content analysis, this study investigates how financial restrictions,
poor internet connection, and online harassment limit the involvement
of underprivileged girls in digital journalism.
1. Data Collection Interviews
Semi-structured interviews will be done with women-led media
collectives, educators, community media workers, and other important
players as well as with underprivileged girls hoping to or working in
digital media. This method lets participants' experiences, opinions,
and difficulties with digital media access and involvement to be
thoroughly investigated.
To guarantee accuracy and richness of qualitative data, audio-recorded
with permission will be transcribed verbatim.
2. Content Analysis
Systematic content analysis—a technique allowing the discovery of
recurrent themes, patterns, and categories inside qualitative data—will
be used to the transcribed interview data. The process will start with
familiarisation by means of extensive reading of the transcripts so
acquiring an overall knowledge.

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Open coding will then be used, whereby significant portions of text

are tagged with tags denoting important concepts or concerns
regarding internet access, online harassment, and financial
restrictions. Axial coding will then help to arrange these codes in
order to create more general theme categories reflecting the main
challenges and experiences of underprivileged girls in digital media.
At last, the themes will be understood to address the study question
and offer understanding of the social and structural elements
influencing fair participation.
3. Ethical Considerations Particularly considering the delicate nature
of online harassment and marginalisation, the study will guarantee
participants' anonymity and confidentiality.
Participants will give informed permission; attention will be taken to
establish a safe environment for exchanging stories.
4. Trustworthiness Triangulation—that is, comparing interview results
with current literature and, where relevant, media content—will help
to strengthen credibility.
Throughout the study, reflexivity will be kept to respect researcher
positionality and reduce bias.
Findings
Three in-depth interviews and a thorough content analysis produced
some important results.
The data exposes recurring themes in both media depictions and
personal stories.
These revelations clarify underlying trends, framing strategies, and
stakeholder viewpoints fundamental to the research agenda.

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1. Digital Media as an Aspiration and Expression Catalyser

All three respondents underlined how important digital media is in
helping them to share tales from their local areas and in forming their
ambitions. Digital channels including Facebook, Instagram, YouTube,
and independent websites let them avoid conventional media gate
keeping and elevate tribal perspectives sometimes disregarded by
mainstream sources. Mobile phones and social media's availability
allowed them to report from far-off locations and interact with more
general audiences.
2. Constant Obstacles Against Digital Access:
Accessing digital resources proved to be a persistent topic.
Particularly in rural and tribal communities, all participants struggled
to get cellphones, computers, and consistent internet access. Typical
challenges were high expenses, bad connectivity, and limited
equipment availability. Although significant advancement has been
achieved, these obstacles still limit the capacity of underprivileged
girls to engage in digital journalism completely.
3. Discrimination and Under-representation:
Experiences The interviews exposed overt as well as subtle instances
of gender-based and caste-based prejudice. Although several
respondents did not mention particular instances of harassment,
everyone agreed that mainstream media clearly undervalues tribal
perspectives. Reports of instances of being disregarded, not taken
seriously, or running across biassed remarks abound. These encounters
inspired some to start their own platforms, therefore guaranteeing real
representation and ownership over their stories.
4. From doubt to encouragement, family and community support
Families and communities first had doubts or uncertainty regarding
journalism as a professional path for tribal daughters. But as the girls
proved the value of their job and got appreciation, support grew. As

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factual and respectful local stories were shared, community pride grew
as one realised the possibilities of internet journalism to promote good
social change and empowerment.
5. Role Models and Inspirations
Local media projects, films, and women journalists inspired the
interview subjects. Seeing women in media roles on television and in
their towns inspired them to pursue journalism, therefore underscoring
the need of clear role models. Their journalistic personalities were
further moulded by practical encounters including working with
Doordarshan or starting independent projects.
6. Suggestions for Increased Diversity
Everybody stressed the need of: better access in tribal and rural
communities for reasonably priced digital tools and internet.
More technical help and instruction for underprivileged women drawn
into journalism.
More chances and representation for indigenous voices in both
mainstream and alternative media.
Supportive surroundings that let girls freely and safely express
themselves online.
7. Agents and Resilience
The respondents showed agency and perseverance despite great
obstacles. To communicate their stories, they evolved to fit limited
resources, picked up new talents, and used digital tools. Their paths
highlight the transforming power of digital media given access and
support.

The interviews taken together show that although digital media gives
underprivileged girls great chances to pursue journalism and raise the
voices of their communities, ongoing obstacles—especially poor

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2025

digital access, discrimination, and lack of resources—continue to limit

full and fair participation. A more inclusive digital journalism
environment depends mostly on family and community support, clear
role models, and focused interventions.
Conclusion
This study underscores the complex challenges and opportunities
faced by marginalized girls aspiring to participate in digital
journalism. Drawing on the literature, introduction, and interview
findings, it is clear that digital media holds significant promise as a
platform for empowering underprivileged girls to express their voices,
challenge dominant narratives, and pursue journalistic aspirations.
However, persistent barriers-including inadequate internet access,
online harassment, and financial constraints-continue to restrict their
equitable involvement and representation in digital journalism.
The literature review highlighted how socioeconomic disparities,
gendered digital divides, and cultural norms limit marginalized girls‘
access to technology and digital literacy. These structural inequalities
are reflected in the lived experiences shared during interviews, where
participants reported difficulties in obtaining devices and reliable
connectivity, alongside experiences of discrimination and
underrepresentation. Online harassment, while less explicitly reported
in the interviews, remains a documented deterrent in broader research,
contributing to self-censorship and withdrawal from digital spaces.
Despite these obstacles, the resilience and agency demonstrated by the
interviewees reveal the transformative potential of digital platforms.
Family and community support, growing recognition of their work,
and inspirational role models have played crucial roles in nurturing
their journalistic dreams and enabling grassroots storytelling. These
findings align with existing scholarship emphasizing the importance
of inclusive media ecosystems and targeted interventions to bridge the
digital divide.

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To realize the full potential of digital journalism as a tool for social

inclusion, stakeholders must address the intersecting barriers
marginalized girls face. This includes investing in affordable and
reliable internet infrastructure, creating safe online environments free
from harassment, providing digital literacy training, and promoting
equitable representation in media institutions. By doing so, digital
media can become a truly inclusive space where marginalized girls not
only aspire to journalism but actively shape the narratives that affect
their communities and beyond.
In conclusion, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of
the structural and social factors limiting marginalized girls‘
participation in digital journalism and offers a foundation for policies
and programs aimed at fostering greater access, safety, and
empowerment in digital media landscapes.
References
1. Dhiman, B. (2023). Opportunities and challenges for women
journalist in media industry: A critical review. Global Media
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2. International Women‘s Media Foundation. (2018). Global
report on the status of women in the news media.
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2025

6. Journalism University.(n.d.).The power of digital

presentations for marginalised voices. [Referenced in
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Communications, 6(8), 35–43.
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content/uploads/2020/08/[Link]
9. Koirala, S. (2020). Female journalists‘ experience of online
harassment: A case study of Nepal. Media and
Communication, 8(1), 47-56.
[Link]
ar-mediacomm-2020-1-koirala-
Female_Journalists_Experience_of_Online.pdf
10. Das, A. (2015). The case of women journalists in Assam.
Global Media Journal, 6(2), 45-59.
[Link]
journal/ARTICLE_JUNE_DEC_2015/[Link]
11. Koirala, S. (2021). Female entrepreneurs in digital journalism:
Visibility and social impact. Journal of Media Innovations,
8(2), 112-130.
[Link]
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DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND MOBILITY: A STUDY ON

IRULAR WOMEN IN VILLUPURAM DISTRICT
Sowparnika. G,
PhD research Scholar,
Anthropology,
Department of Tribal research,
Tamil University,
Thanjavur.
ABSTRACT:
This study explores how digital inequality affects the mobility and
daily lives of Irular women in Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu. The
Irulars, a Scheduled Tribe, often lack access to mobile phones,
internet, and online services due to poverty, low literacy, and
restrictive social norms. Even when digital devices are present in
households, women's use is limited by patriarchal control and lack of
skills, which reduces their ability to access education, healthcare, and
employment opportunities. Using an anthropological approach based
on fieldwork and interviews, this paper argues that digital exclusion
among Irular women reflects deeper issues of caste, gender, and
structural marginalization. It recommends culturally relevant digital
training programs and community-level interventions to promote
equitable digital access.
Keywords: Irular women, digital inequality, mobility, Villupuram
district, social exclusion, anthropology, gender, tribal communities.
Introduction
Digital technology plays a major role in shaping access to education,
health care, employment, and government services. While urban
populations have benefitted from digital expansion, marginalized
communities such as the Irulars in Villupuram district face significant
digital exclusion. This study examines how digital inequality affects
Irular women‘s ability to access resources and improve their mobility.
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It also explores how socio cultural factors—such as gender roles,

caste-based marginalization, and economic barriers—limit their digital
participation. Using an anthropological lens, this paper highlights how
technology is embedded within power structures and social
relationships.
The Irular Community: A Brief Background
The Irulars are a Scheduled Tribe found in parts of Tamil Nadu,
including Villupuram district. Traditionally forest dwellers and
agricultural laborers, many Irulars now live in rural villages where
they depend on daily wage labor. Irular women play key roles in
domestic life and agricultural work but face layered disadvantages:
low literacy, early marriage, and restricted movement outside the
home.
The Indian government‘s push toward digital inclusion—through
programs like Digital India—has not adequately reached the Irulars.
For Irular women, digital access remains shaped by poverty, gendered
control of technology, and limited awareness of digital services.
Review of Literature
The concept of digital inequality intersects with broader issues of
caste, gender, and socioeconomic marginalization. The literature
reviewed below offers insights into these interrelated domains.
Digital Inequality and Development
Dutta (2021) emphasizes that marginalized communities in India,
especially in rural and tribal areas, face systemic exclusion from
digital health and service networks due to infrastructural deficits and
low digital literacy. Similarly, the Government of India‘s Digital India
Programme (2015) acknowledges the need to bridge the digital divide
but lacks adequate implementation in tribal belts.

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Gendered Access to Technology

Sen‘s (1999) framework of "development as freedom" suggests that
genuine development must enable individuals—especially women—to
access tools and opportunities that enhance their capabilities. In tribal
communities, this access is often gendered. Madhavan (2020) shows
that tribal women in Tamil Nadu are doubly disadvantaged by
patriarchy and economic hardship, restricting their autonomy in both
offline and online spaces.
Anthropological Perspectives on Technology
Escobar (2012) critiques development narratives that overlook cultural
specificity, arguing that technologies should be viewed as embedded
within social and symbolic structures. This is especially pertinent to
tribal groups like the Irulars, where caste and gender intersect to
produce layers of exclusion.
Studies on the Irulars
Bhakthavatsala Bharathi (1994) provides a foundational
anthropological profile of the Irulars, highlighting their historical
marginalization and subsistence-based economy. However, more
recent studies are needed to examine how digital transformations
intersect with traditional life patterns and gender roles.
Research Gaps
Existing literature seldom addresses the intersection of digital
inequality and mobility among Irular women specifically. This study
fills that gap by adopting an ethnographic approach to explore how
digital exclusion reinforces social immobility and gendered
subordination.

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Methodology
This study adopts a qualitative research design rooted in
anthropological methodology to explore digital inequality and its
effects on the mobility of Irular women in Villupuram district.
Study Area: Fieldwork was conducted in selected Irular settlements
across Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu.
Research Methods:
 Participant Observation: Extended observation was
conducted in domestic and communal settings to understand
daily routines, social interactions, and informal
communication practices involving technology.
 In-depth Interviews: Semi-structured interviews were carried
out with 30 Irular women aged between 18 and 50. These
interviews focused on their experiences, perceptions, and
challenges related to digital technology use.
 Key Informant Interviews: Insights were gathered from 10
stakeholders, including NGO workers, local leaders, teachers,
and government officials involved in digital literacy
initiatives.
Sampling Method: A purposive sampling strategy was used to
identify participants with varied age, marital status, and educational
background to capture diverse perspectives.
Data Analysis: Field notes and interview transcripts were
thematically coded. Thematic analysis helped identify recurring
patterns and contextual nuances related to gender, caste, and digital
exclusion.

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Ethical Considerations: Informed consent was obtained from all

participants. Anonymity and confidentiality were strictly maintained
throughout the research process.
Methodology
This study is based on qualitative research conducted in Irular
settlements across Villupuram district.
Methods used include:
 Participant observation in households and community settings
 In-depth interviews with Irular women (aged 18–50)
 Key informant interviews with NGO workers, teachers, and
local leaders
 This anthropological approach captures the lived experiences
and meanings attached to technology use in everyday life.
Findings and Discussion
[Link] Access Is Limited and Unequal
Most households in Irular hamlets have only one mobile phone,
usually used by male members. Women rarely own phones. Even if
they do, their use is limited to voice calls. Smartphones are rare, and
internet use is minimal.
[Link] of Digital Literacy
Irular women in the study generally cannot read or write well in
Tamil, let alone navigate apps or websites. They are unaware of how
to use online government services, apply for welfare schemes, or find
job opportunities online. Digital illiteracy creates dependency on male
family members and prevents independent action.

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3. Cultural Norms Restrict Women's Tech Use

Access to technology is shaped by gender roles. In most households,
men decide who can use the phone and when. Older women believe
phone use by girls can lead to ―bad behavior,‖ reinforcing restrictions.
Young girls reported being monitored or discouraged from using
phones, especially after marriage.
4 Digital Exclusion Limits Mobility
Lack of access to information affects Irular women‘s ability to:
 Travel for work or education
 Enroll in government welfare schemes
 Receive health updates or emergency services
 Join online learning or skill-building platforms
This leads to reduced social and physical mobility, limiting upward
movement.
5. Anthropological Analysis
From an anthropological perspective, technology is not just a tool; it is
a social artifact shaped by power, culture, and access. For Irular
women:
 Caste status keeps them at the margins of development
 Patriarchy controls their access to digital resources
 Poverty limits both ownership and usage of devices
 Symbolic control of knowledge reinforces dependence on
male authority
 Thus, digital inequality reflects broader social stratification.

6. Recommendations
1. Community-based digital training: Culturally relevant training
in local dialects, using visual and hands-on methods.

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2. Digital access centers: Government or NGO-run centers in

Irular hamlets, especially for women and youth.
3. Female digital facilitators: Trained Irular women can teach
and support others, building community trust.
4. Mobile outreach programs: Awareness campaigns through
audio and video messages tailored for low-literacy users.
Conclusion:
This paper argues that digital inequality among Irular women in
Villupuram is not just a result of technological backwardness, but a
deeper expression of social inequality. Digital tools, when
inaccessible or controlled by others, further limit women‘s mobility,
voice, and opportunity. Bridging this gap requires more than
providing devices—it needs a culturally rooted, community-centered,
and gender-aware digital inclusion strategy.
References:
1. Bhakthavatsala Bharathi, K. (1994). The Irulas: An
Anthropological Profile.
2. Government of India (2015). Digital India Programme.
3. Dutta, M. J. (2021). Digital Health and Marginalized
Communities in India.
4. Escobar, A. (2012). Encountering Development: The Making
and Unmaking of the Third World.
5. Madhavan, T. (2020). Tribal Women in Tamil Nadu: A
Sociocultural Study.
6. Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom.

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BRIDGING THE DIGITAL DIVIDE IN CLIMATE

ADAPTATION: ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF
TECHNOLOGICAL EXCLUSION ON MARGINALIZED
COMMUNITIES IN CLIMATE VULNERABLE REGIONS OF
KASHMIR
Peerzada Ayash Ali Masoodi,
Research Scholar, Department of Social Work,
University of Kashmir
Saima Farhad,
Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work,
University of Kashmir
Nadiya Habib,
Project Lead, Action Aid Association.
Faryalla Farooq,
Research Scholar, Department of Social Work,
University of Kashmir
masoodiayash@[Link]

ABSTRACT
The intersection of the digital inequality and the climate vulnerability
presents significant challenge for the marginalized and the vulnerable
communities in Kashmir. This qualitative research study explores how
the technological and digital exclusion limit climate adaptation
capacities among socially and economically disadvantaged groups in
three districts of Kashmir; namely Srinagar, Baramulla and Pulwama.
The research study adopted purposive sampling and 22 participants
from rural, tribal and low-income backgrounds were selected, which
included farmers, pastoralists, women and youth. For the collection of
data and to understand community perception about climate change,
their access to digital resources and the role of technology in coping

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strategies, in depth interviews and focus group discussions (FGD‘s)

were conducted.
The findings of the study reveal that despite facing frequent climate
induced disruptions; such as unseasonal rains, declining crop yields
and water scarcity, most participants lacked access to the early
warning systems, online weather updates, digital agricultural support
and the climate adaptation resources. Influenced by factors such as
poor internet connectivity, low digital literacy, gender disparities and
economic constraints, a clear digital divide was evident. Elderly and
women participants were excluded from various digital platforms,
which affected their participation in community-based measures. This
study also highlighted community driven alternatives including
reliance on traditional knowledge, peer networks and other localized
solutions. Most of the participants expressed a strong desire for
inclusion in the digital platforms, if provided with the necessary
training, infrastructure and localized content. This research study
further highlights the urgent need for the inclusive climate adaptation
policies and change in approach that will integrate the technological
and digital empowerment strategies. Bridging the gaps in the digital
divide is essential, not only for enhancing the resilience of the
vulnerable communities but, for addressing broader issues of social
justice and environmental equity created due to the digital divide in
Kashmir.
Keywords: Climate Change, Digital Divide, Technology, Climate
Vulnerability, Kashmir, Rural.
1. Introduction
Situated in the heart of Himalayas, Kashmir exemplifies intersection
of the ecological vulnerability and socio-political uncertainty. The
region‘s predominantly agrarian communities reliant on glacial rivers
and fragile ecosystems, face growing threats due to climate change.
Since 1980, Kashmir has experienced a temperature increase of
approximately 1.5°C resulting in more frequent erratic rainfall, flash

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floods and prolonged droughts. These climatic disruptions deepen

hardships of populations already contending with poverty, conflict and
inadequate infrastructure.
Alongside environmental degradation Kashmir grapples with lesser
explored but equally the critical challenge, i.e., digital
marginalization. Systemic internet restrictions, low levels of digital
literacy and persistent gender disparities particularly affect the rural,
tribal and economically disadvantaged populations in districts such as
Srinagar, Baramulla and Pulwama. For these communities particularly
women and elderly residents; limited access to the digital platforms
means exclusion from the crucial early warning systems, agricultural
advisories and the climate adaptation resources. This chapter explores
how the technological exclusion compounds the impacts of the
climate change for the marginalized groups in Kashmir. Drawing on
the grassroots narratives, this study highlights how, lack of an
inclusive digital infrastructure and access perpetuates the
vulnerability. Women in particular, face multiple layers of exclusion,
due to the social norms that restrict their mobility and decision-
making‘ power, limiting their ability to engage with the digital tools.
The analysis calls for development of the equitable and context
sensitive policies that place digital empowerment at the core of
climate resilience strategies. Addressing Kashmir‘s dual crises,
environmental and digital requires an integrated approach that
combines the technological access with the participatory planning.
Empowering marginalized communities, through digital inclusion is
essential not only for the climate adaptation, However, also for
promoting socio environmental justice. Ensuring that these
communities are not just the beneficiaries, but the leaders in resilience
process is crucial to building more inclusive and sustainable future for
the region.

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2. Literature Review
2.1 Digital Divide and Its Dimensions
The digital divide in Kashmir, as elsewhere is not merely about access
to the digital devices but encompasses broader spectrum of disparities
including digital skills, frequency of use, quality of access and the
degree of digital empowerment (van Dijk, 2020). In regions like
Jammu and Kashmir, this divide is further complicated by the socio-
political' instability and poor internet connectivity especially in rural
areas. Between 2012 and 2020 the region experienced 180 internet
shutdowns as documented by the Software Freedom Law Center
(2020). These shutdowns often justified as the security measures,
severely disrupt the essential services; such as the weather forecasting,
e-governance and digital education. They also paralyze the access to
real time agricultural advisories and the disaster preparedness tools,
which are critical in an era of escalating climate volatility. For
communities, already grappling with poverty, limited infrastructure
and environmental precarity such digital disconnections‘ amplify the
vulnerability. The reliance on the mobile-based and internet-enabled
platforms for early warning systems and adaptive farming practices
means that these shutdowns effectively sever lifelines. Consequently,
the digital divide in Kashmir is not just technological or
developmental concern, it is a structural issue that intersects with the
climate vulnerability and entrenched socio-economic inequities,
leaving most marginalize rural, tribal, low-income‘ households at
greater risk.
2.2 Climate Vulnerability in South Asia
South Asia, the home to significant proportion of the world‘s climate
vulnerable population, is witnessing the intensified environmental
challenges due to the rising temperatures, glacial melt, erratic
precipitation and extreme weather events. Kashmir is no exception. Its
dependence on glacial fed agriculture, coupled with fragile
ecosystems, places it at frontline of the climate impacts. The

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compounded effect of the digital marginalization makes climate

adaptation even more difficult. The region‘s infrastructural deficits
when combined with the frequent digital disruptions, curtail timely
access to climate related information, insurance, subsidies and the
state relief efforts.
This dual burden of the climate risk and the digital exclusion is
particularly acute in rural districts such as Baramulla, Pulwama and
parts of Srinagar. As digital divide spans not only the infrastructure
but also the literacy and empowerment, it perpetuates cycles of
vulnerability. With governments and NGOs increasingly shifting
towards the online platforms for agricultural extension; weather
forecasts and emergency alerts, populations without stable or
equitable digital access are systematically excluded from the adaptive
governance frameworks.
2.3 Intersectionality of Gender and Technology
The digital divide is further compounded; by the gender disparities
particularly in the conservative, patriarchal contexts like Kashmir.
Worldwide, the women' are 20% less likely than men to own the
smartphone and 23% less likely to use the mobile internet (GSMA,
2021). In Kashmir these gaps are exacerbated by the cultural
restrictions, economic dependency and mobility constraints. Women
often have limited or no control over the digital resources, resulting in
their marginalization from the digital adaptation tools and the
decision-making‘ processes. The study on the Gender Responsive
Farming Practices in the Soru Rural Municipality, Mugu District
reveals that although 76% of the women are engaged in the agriculture
compared to 23.2% of men, significant gender disparities persist in the
land ownership, decision making and access to the resources. Less
than 4% of the women own land and over 91% of households rely on
the traditional farming methods; with minimal use of the modern,
gender friendly technologies. Most agricultural products are marketed
locally with only 2% reaching provincial level and over 40% of

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population remains illiterate with limited access to the basic services.

Women shoulder the majority of the agricultural work contributing
96.7% of the daily labor but earning less than their male counterparts.
The study highlights that the patriarchal norms, wage inequality, lack
of access to Agro finance and poor service availability are the key
barriers to achieving the gender equity in agriculture. It recommends
gender equitable land registration, the formation of the women led
cooperatives and inclusive rural development policies to ensure the
socio-economic‘ empowerment of the women and the sustainable
agricultural growth. This exclusion not only limits the women's
capacity to respond to the climate challenges but also undermines the
community resilience; as women play crucial roles in the agriculture
and household resource management. Bridging digital gender divide is
therefore essential for the inclusive and effective climate adaptation
strategies.
2.4 Traditional Knowledge vs. Modern Technology
Despite, these challenges local communities in the Kashmir possess
rich indigenous knowledge systems that have historically sustained
the livelihoods and ecological balance. Traditional water sharing
mechanisms; such as Kuhl' irrigation networks exemplify‘ the
community-based resource governance. However, the accelerating
impacts of the climate change; such as reduced glacial flow and
unpredictable rainfall are testing the limits of these ancestral systems.
Emerging adaptation models from across South Asia, offer valuable
insights into how these traditional practices can be revitalized through
the integration with modern technology. In Nepal, for instance the
indigenous terrace farming methods are being enhanced through
mobile based flood alerts. In Bangladesh, floating gardens; a time-
tested technique‘ are now supported by the digital salinity monitoring
tools. These hybrid approaches, illustrate the potential of combining
the ancestral wisdom with technological innovation, to address the
contemporary climate risks.

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For Kashmir, such hybrid models could help bridge the gap between
cultural continuity and the climate adaptability. By embedding
technology within the fabric of the traditional ecological knowledge,
communities can foster locally resonant and sustainable solutions for
the water management, agriculture and the disaster preparedness.
Policymakers and practitioners must therefore prioritize the strategies,
that not only provide the digital access; but also respect and amplify
the local knowledge systems ensuring that adaptation is both inclusive
and contextually grounded.
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
This study adopted a qualitative cum exploratory design, to center the
lived experiences of the vulnerable populations, residing in the
climate vulnerable districts of Kashmir. This aims to uncover, how the
digital exclusion intersects with the environmental stressors which
shape the adaptive capacities within the rural and tribal communities.
Qualitative methods were chosen to capture the depth and nuance of
the personal narratives; especially among the groups often excluded
from the mainstream policy discourse. Purposive sampling strategy
was employed to ensure the representation across the key social
categories, including age, gender, livelihood type and community
identity, thus enabling a multifaceted understanding of digital and
climatic vulnerability. Specific attention was given to the farmers,
pastoralists, women and youth to reflect a diverse range of adaptation
challenges and barriers to the digital access.
3.2 Participants
A total of 22 participants were selected from the rural and tribal areas
in 3 districts namely Srinagar, Baramulla, and Pulwama.

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The participant profile included:

 Farmers (8): Smallholder cultivators of the apples, rice and
saffron dependent on glacial irrigation and seasonal rainfall.
 Pastoralists (4): Members of the Gujjar and the Bakarwal
communities who practice transhumance and are increasingly
affected by the shifting climate patterns.
 Women (6): Engaged in the subsistence farming; handicrafts
and household labor, most of whom reported exclusion from
the digital technologies due to the patriarchal constraints.
 Youth (4): Aged between 18 and 30 years, with varying
degrees of the digital literacy' and exposure to the climate
resilience tools.
The age of the participants ranged from 22 to 68 years and the gender
distribution included, 12 males and 10 females', ensuring the balanced
perspectives across the generational and the gender lines.
3.3 Data Collection
Data collection involved two primary methods:
 In-depth Interviews: 15 semi structured interviews,
explored individual experiences with the climate
variability, the digital access (or the lack thereof) and the
community coping strategies.
 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs): 3 FGDs each
comprising 6 to 8 participants, encouraged dialogue on
the shared challenges, community solutions‘ and
perceptions of the technological adaptation.
All the interviews' and discussions were recorded;
transcribed and coded using NVivo software. Thematic
analysis was employed to identify key patterns with
dominant themes including infrastructure barriers,
gendered exclusion and the traditional knowledge
integration.

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3.4 Ethical Considerations

Ethical protocols, were designed with the sensitivity to the conflict
prone context of Kashmir. Verbal informed consent was obtained to
accommodate the literacy barriers and reduce risk of the traceable
documentation. Participant anonymity was maintained through use of
the pseudonyms (e.g., Farmer A, Woman B). All the interactions were
guided by the cultural sensitivity and prioritized participant safety
avoiding written records and intrusive questioning to protect the
identities and ensure trust.
4. Findings
4.1 Climate-Induced Vulnerabilities
The study revealed the acute climate induced challenges, affecting
marginalized communities in Kashmir, with the agriculture and the
pastoral livelihoods bearing the brunt. Majority of the participants, 18
out of 22, reported significant crop losses ranging from 30 percent to
60 percent in recent years. These declines were largely attributed to
the unseasonal frost, shifting rainfall patterns and the temperature
anomalies. As one apple farmer from Srinagar recounted, ―Our
orchards bloom too early now and frost kills flowers. We have no apps
to warn us.‖ Water scarcity emerged as another critical concern.
Reduced snowfall and the glacial retreat have disrupted traditional
irrigation networks' rendering both farming and pastoral practices
increasingly precarious. In Baramulla the pastoralists highlighted
shrinking grazing grounds and need to alter the long-established
migration routes. One participant remarked, ―Our traditional routes
are drying up, there‘s no grass left for our livestock by summer.‖
These observations point to a deepening ecological fragility that
undermines the livelihood security.
4.2 Digital Exclusion: Barriers and Inequities
The digital exclusion, was found to compound these climate
vulnerabilities. Infrastructure deficits were pervasive, with 80 percent
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of the rural participants relying on the unstable internet networks often

unavailable during frequent shutdowns. Gender disparities were
especially stark; only 3 out of the 6 female participants owned the
smartphones and even fewer used them independently. A 55-year-old‘
woman explained, ―My son handles the phone. I don‘t know how to
check weather updates.‖ Cultural norms, economic hardships and low
the literacy levels, particularly among elders, further limited the
digital engagement. Daily wage earners earning as little as $2 per day
cited smartphone affordability as a key barrier. Moreover, most
available digital content including the agricultural advisories and the
weather alerts were in English, excluding those fluent only in Urdu or
Kashmiri. The absence of the localized language interfaces and the
voice-based platforms reinforced these inequities, leaving many ill
equipped to access lifesaving climate information.
4.3 Coping Strategies: Tradition and Solidarity
Despite, the systemic challenges communities demonstrated
resilience, through the localized coping' strategies. Traditional
knowledge continued to play crucial role in navigating the climate
uncertainties. Elders interpreted natural indicators such as erratic bird
migrations or changes in cloud patterns, to forecast weather. Peer to
peer knowledge sharing was vibrant, weekly markets functioned as
informal hubs for exchanging advice on the pest control, crop rotation
and water conservation. Community labor; also featured prominently
in the adaptation strategies. In flood affected areas neighbors
collectively rebuilt homes and repaired irrigation channels,
demonstrating enduring importance of the solidarity. As one of the
Pulwama farmers stated, ―We‘ve always depended on each other, not
gadgets.‖ These responses highlight the strength of the traditional
resilience frameworks even in the face of the modern challenges.
4.4 Aspirations for Digital Inclusion
Importantly, the participants did not view technology with the
suspicion but rather expressed strong aspirations for the equitable

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digital inclusion. Youth participants called for community based

digital training centers to help them utilize Agri-tech‘ tools such as,
soil sensors, weather apps and market access platforms. ―We want to
learn he apps that suit our farms,‖ said a 24-year-old male respondent.
Farmers emphasized importance of the culturally and linguistically
relevant solutions, particularly voice-based weather alerts in the
Kashmiri to overcome literacy barriers. ―Voice message in our
language could save entire crops,‖ said a saffron grower. These
findings suggest that the communities are not resistant to the digital
solutions but seek accessible and locally adapted tools that can be
integrated with the existing knowledge systems to navigate the
escalating climate risks.
5. Discussion
5.1 Structural Inequities and Conflict Legacies
Kashmir‘s digital divide, is entrenched in the prolonged neglect.
Network connectivity issues systematically deprive the rural
communities of critical climate adaptation tools such as the real time
weather forecasts and e-governance platforms. This exclusion mirrors
the patterns in conflict affected regions like Yemen and Myanmar,
deepening the socio-environmental vulnerabilities.
5.2 Gender as a Cross-Cutting Barrier
The gender disparities in the digital access reinforce women‘s
marginalization in the climate decision making. Patriarchal norms
restrict the smartphone ownership and digital literacy among the
women, limiting their participation in the adaptation planning.
However, women led focus groups in Baramulla district demonstrated
agency by proposing the WhatsApp based networks to disseminate the
flood alerts, underscoring the potential of the inclusive participatory
approaches.

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5.3 Hybrid Models for Resilience

Hybrid solutions that integrate the indigenous knowledge with the
technology offer scalable resilience. For instance, Nepal‘s early
warning flood system pairs the traditional river monitoring with SMS
alerts reducing disaster risks. Adapting such models to Kashmir could
enhance the localized adaptation, such as combining the Kuhl water
systems with sensor-based‘ irrigation advisories.
5.4 Policy Failures and Opportunities
National initiatives like the Digital India fail to address the rural
Kashmir‘s unique challenges, where conflict and the climate
vulnerability intersect. Effective interventions must prioritize the
subsidized devices, such as low-cost‘ smartphones for women farmers
to dismantle the ownership disparities rooted in the gender and
poverty. Second, the localized literacy programs are critical; training
modules in the Urdu and Kashmiri dialects, would empower
communities to use Agri-tech‘ apps for crop management and disaster
alerts, overcoming' the language barriers. Third, community owned
infrastructure like the decentralized WiFi hubs powered by solar
energy could ensure reliable internet in the remote areas. Managed by
local cooperatives these hubs would bypass centralized failures while
fostering the ownership and sustainability. Such measures must be co
designed with the communities to align with cultural norms and
ecological needs. For instance, integrating the digital literacy, with the
traditional farming practices could enhance the trust and adoption. By
centering equity and participation, these strategies could transform the
technology from the tool of exclusion into a lever for the climate
resilience and social justice in Kashmir‘s marginalized landscapes.
6. Conclusion
Technological exclusion in the Kashmir is not incidental, but systemic
reflecting the entrenched socio environmental injustices shaped by
decades of political conflict, infrastructural neglect and gendered

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inequities. The region‘s digital divide manifested through frequent

internet shutdowns, unaffordable devices and the language barriers
exacerbates climate vulnerabilities by denying the marginalized
communities access to the early warnings, Agri-tech‘ tools and
adaptive resources. Bridging this divide demands centering
marginalized voices; farmers, pastoralists, women and the youth in
policy design, thus ensuring the interventions align with the cultural
and the ecological realities. For instance, participatory programs co-
developing the Urdu & Kashmiri language apps; with the local
communities could democratize the climate knowledge, while
respecting the linguistic heritage.
Investing in the infrastructure development, such as in the community
managed WiFi hubs and solar powered connectivity in the remote
areas, would empower the grassroots resilience. Simultaneously, the
hybrid models that integrate the indigenous' practices with the
technology like combining the Kashmir‘s Kuhl water networks with
the sensor-based‘ irrigation advisories, offer sustainable pathways to
the adaptation. Lessons from the Nepal‘s SMS alert systems or
Bangladesh‘s floating farm tech underscore the viability of such
blended approaches.
As climate threats escalate the equitable access to the technology
transcends convenience, it is a lifeline for survival. Prioritizing the
digital justice in Kashmir is not merely about the connectivity, it is an
act of the socio environmental restitution, dismantling the systems that
perpetuate exclusion, while forging the inclusive futures where
technology amplifies, rather than erases, the wisdom of those most
impacted by climate crisis.
References
1. van Dijk, J. (2020). The Digital Divide. Polity Press.
2. IPCC. (2022). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation,
and Vulnerability.

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3. SAHOO, P. S. A. S. K. (2022). Agritech startups in India: A

revolutionary idea giving birth to agripreneurs.
4. Lamontagne-Godwin, J. D. (2019). Gendered relationships in
rural advisory services: A Pakistani case study (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Reading).
5. Rokaya, L. FARMING PRACTICES OF SORU RURAL
MUNICIPALITY IN MUGU DISTRICT is.
6. Berghoff, V. (2021). Dialling up women farmers‘
empowerment vis-à-vis agriculture: Exploring the effects of
mobile phones in rural India.
7. Malik, I. H., & Ford, J. D. (2025). Monitoring climate change
vulnerability in the Himalayas. Ambio, 54(1), 1-19.
8. Hussain, A. People‘s Participation in Rural Local Governance
in Jammu and Kashmir.
9. Becker, V. A. (2020). The root causes of the gender digital
divide and its consequences on the adoption and use of app-
based climate warning systems in rural India.

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CULTURAL DYNAMICS OF DARJEELING: AN

ETHNOGRAPHIC AND HISTORICAL STUDY
Trisala Gurung
2nd semester.
Post Graduate Student.
Department of History.
Southfield College.
Darjeeling.
Introduction
Darjeeling, often hailed as the ―Queen of the Hills,‖ is a unique blend
of colonial history, indigenous cultures, and modern socio-political
dynamics. Situated in the Eastern Himalayas, this small hill station in
India is known not only for its scenic beauty but also for its complex
socio-cultural identity. From its colonial legacy, characterized by
British tea estates and the iconic UNESCO World Heritage Toy Train,
to its contemporary struggles for political autonomy and labour rights,
Darjeeling represents a microcosm of larger global issues such as
migration, identity, and the balance between tradition and modernity.
As a native of Darjeeling, I have witnessed firsthand the tensions and
triumphs that come with living in such a culturally rich yet contested
space. My education at renowned missionary schools such as Bethany
School, Loreto Convent, and Southfield College has shaped my
understanding of the region‘s historical and cultural complexity. These
institutions, known for their high academic standards and emphasis on
moral education, have significantly influenced my outlook on
Darjeeling‘s place in the global narrative.
Through this research, I aim to bring attention to Darjeeling‘s rich yet
often overlooked history and identity on a global stage. This study not
only seeks to explore the impact of Darjeeling‘s colonial past but also
to address ongoing issues such as the water crisis, the Gorkhaland
political struggle, religious harmony at Mahakal Temple, and the

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ongoing challenges faced by tea garden workers in their fight for

better wages and working conditions.
2. Literature Review
The existing literature on Darjeeling focuses primarily on its colonial
heritage, the global significance of Darjeeling tea, and its natural
beauty. Early works, such as *Hunter (1876)* and *Risley (1891)*,
provide foundational insights into the ethnographic and socio-political
history of the region. These works, however, often overlook the
complexities of modern issues such as labor struggles, ethnic identity,
and environmental challenges.
Recent studies, including Subba (1992) and Rai (2015), have brought
attention to Darjeeling‘s ethnic and political dynamics, particularly the
Gorkhaland movement, which seeks a separate state for the Gorkha
people. However, the region‘s ongoing water crisis, religious
harmony, and labour issues remain insufficiently explored. This study
aims to fill this gap by integrating these contemporary concerns with
Darjeeling‘s colonial and post-colonial history, offering a more
holistic view of the region's cultural and socio-political landscape.
In particular, the role of missionary schools, such as Bethany School,
Loreto Convent, and Southfield College, in shaping Darjeeling‘s
intellectual and moral fabric is underrepresented in the academic
discourse. These institutions, which are central to the region‘s
educational history, continue to play a significant role in shaping the
identities of generations of Darjeeling residents.
3. Methodology
This study employs a mixed-methods approach combining historical
analysis, ethnographic fieldwork, and sociocultural inquiry to
investigate the evolution of Darjeeling's cultural identity and its
contemporary challenges.

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Data Collection Methods:

Archival Research: Exploring colonial records, missionary school
archives, census data, and tea industry documents.
Oral Histories: Interviews with key stakeholders, including tea garden
workers, indigenous communities, religious leaders, and Gorkhaland
activists.
Ethnographic Fieldwork: Participating in local festivals, community
gatherings, and observing religious practices at Mahakal Temple to
study interfaith relationships.
Focus Group Discussions: Engaging local youth, NGOs, and
academic professionals in discussions about Darjeeling‘s cultural
identity, labour conditions, and political future.
Questionnaires: Surveys targeting 20 residents to understand
perspectives on water issues, the Gorkhaland movement, and the
challenges faced by tea garden labourers.
Data Analysis: Data will be coded and analysed using thematic
analysis to identify common threads and correlations between
historical legacies, cultural identity, and contemporary social
challenges.
4. Findings
1. Hybrid Cultural Identity: Darjeeling's identity is a
dynamic and hybrid construct shaped by colonial
influences, indigenous cultures, and immigrant
communities. The Gorkha identity, historically linked to
the region‘s ethnic composition, is central to the ongoing
demand for Gorkhaland, a separate state for Gorkha-
speaking people. This movement reflects a desire to assert
cultural and political autonomy amidst the pressures of
globalization and migration.

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2. Water Crisis: Darjeeling's water crisis is a critical issue

that has long been neglected. The region‘s dependence on
dwindling water resources, combined with population
growth and poor infrastructure, has resulted in severe
shortages. Local communities, especially in the urban
areas, face daily struggles to access clean water. The crisis
has prompted public outcry, with residents demanding
more sustainable water management practices and greater
government accountability.

3. The Gorkhaland Movement: The demand for a separate

state for the Gorkha people is rooted in the historical
marginalization of ethnic minorities in the Darjeeling
region. The movement is fuelled by a deep sense of
cultural pride, territorial autonomy, and the desire for
greater political representation. Despite several rounds of
negotiations and violence in the past, the movement
continues to gain momentum, with increasing support
from youth and political leaders.

4. Religious Harmony at Mahakal Temple: Mahakal Temple

in Darjeeling serves as a powerful symbol of religious
harmony, where both Hindus and Buddhists come
together in shared reverence. The templeis not only a site
of religious significance but also a space for interfaith
dialogue, promoting unity in a region historically divided
along ethnic and religious lines. Gurudwara Guru Nanak
Darbar at St Mother Teresa Road, Japanese Peace Pagoda,
oldest church in Darjeeling, St. Andrew's Church,
established on 1843. Darjeeling's very own Jama Masjid
is all a testament to the religious harmony in Darjeeling.
This shared space of worship contributes to Darjeeling's
reputation as a region where different communities
coexist peacefully.

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5. Tea Garden Labor Struggles: The tea industry, a

cornerstone of Darjeeling's economy, has long been
marred by labour exploitation. Workers, mainly from
Nepali and indigenous backgrounds, endure poor wages,
long working hours, and inadequate living conditions.
Despite their significant contribution to Darjeeling‘s
economy, tea garden labourers face continued neglect
from both the state and private tea estate owners. The
ongoing struggle for better wages and working conditions
remains one of the most pressing issues in the region.
5. Recommendations
1. Addressing the Water Crisis: A comprehensive water
management policy must be developed, prioritizing
sustainable practices such as rainwater harvesting, the
protection of water catchment areas, and the improvement of
water infrastructure. Local communities should be actively
involved in these initiatives, ensuring equitable access to
water and promoting collective responsibility for
conservation.

2. Political Dialogue on Gorkhaland: A peaceful resolution to the

Gorkhaland issue requires an inclusive political dialogue that
considers the region‘s ethnic identity, political autonomy, and
cultural preservation. The Gorkhaland movement should be
addressed in a manner that respects the aspirations of the
Gorkha people while ensuring peace and stability for all
communities in Darjeeling.

3. Fair Labor Practices in Tea Gardens: The government must

enforce labour laws to ensure fair wages, improved living
conditions, and access to healthcare and education for tea
garden workers. Labor unions should be supported, and

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dialogue with tea estate owners must be fostered to ensure that

workers' rights are upheld.

4. Promoting Religious Unity: The religious harmony exhibited

at Mahakal Temple should be celebrated and expanded.
Interfaith dialogue programs, joint religious celebrations, and
community outreach initiatives can strengthen relationships
between Hindus and Buddhists, fostering peace and
understanding.

5. Strengthening Educational Institutions: Schools like Bethany

School, Loreto Convent, and Southfield College must
continue to be pillars of educational excellence. However,
efforts should be made to expand their curriculum to include
more local history, culture, and issues like the water crisis and
labour rights. These institutions should also become more
inclusive, encouraging students to engage with the community
through service-learning projects very frequently.

6. Environmental and Heritage Conservation: Darjeeling‘s

colonial heritage and natural beauty must be preserved
through sustainable tourism practices and heritage
conservation programs. By promoting eco-friendly tourism
and protecting the region‘s cultural landmarks, Darjeeling can
attract global attention while preserving its heritage for future
generations.
Conclusion
Darjeeling stands at a crossroads between tradition and modernity,
with a rich cultural legacy and pressing contemporary challenges. This
research emphasizes the need for a balanced approach to cultural
preservation, political autonomy, and social justice. Addressing the
water crisis, supporting the Gorkhaland movement, improving labour
conditions, and fostering religious harmony are crucial to ensuring

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that Darjeeling remains a beacon of diversity, peace, and resilience.

By integrating these recommendations, Darjeeling can serve as a
model for other multicultural regions facing similar issues globally.
References
1. [Link]
com/)
2. [Link]
[Link]/history/)
3. [Link]
the-colonial-darjeeling-
hills/]([Link]
commerce-in-the-colonial-darjeeling-hills/)
4. [Link]
darjeelings-growing-floating-population-poses-water-
waste-
challenges]([Link]
ng-crisis-darjeelings-growing-floating-population-poses-
water-waste-challenges)
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
8. [Link]
plight-of-tea-plantation-workers-in-
darjeeling]([Link]
struggle-the-plight-of-tea-plantation-workers-in-
darjeeling)
9. [Link]
Clandestine-
Invasion/dp/8186860665]([Link]
haland-Movement-Clandestine-Invasion/dp/8186860665)
10. [Link]
0]([Link]
11. [Link]

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12. [Link]
industry-in-the-darjeeling-
hills/]([Link]
plantation-industry-in-the-darjeeling-hills/)
13. Indigenous Communities of Darjeeling: History, Culture,
and Struggles. (2019, October 30). Journal of Himalayan
Studies, 13(4), 223-248.
[[Link]
org/10.1007/jhstudies.2019.00234)
14. Killing Fields: The Gorkhaland Movement and Its
Struggles. (2021, March 3). The Politics of Identity in
India. Retrieved from
[[Link]
tps://[Link]/gorkhaland)
15. Nair, T. (2020).Tea Gardens and Workers: A Study of
Labor Exploitation in Darjeeling. Kolkata: Prentice Hall.
16. Rai, P. (2015). The Gorkhaland Movement: A Struggle for
Identity and Autonomy in Darjeeling. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
17. Risley, H. (1891).* The Tribes and Castes of Bengal: A
Study of the Diverse Social Landscape of Darjeeling.
London: Trübner& Co.
18. Subba, T. B. (1992).* Ethnicity, State and Development:
The Gorkhas of Darjeeling. Kathmandu: Himal Books.
19. Tiwari, R. (2022).* The Struggle for Gorkhaland: A
Comprehensive Political History. New Delhi: India
International Publishing.
20. Wight, S. A. (1994).* Colonial Encounters and
Resistance: Darjeeling‘s Struggles with British Rule and
Beyond. London: Routledge.
21. Wolfe, R. (2023).* The Cultural Identity and Political
Struggles of the Gorkhas in Darjeeling: A Critical Study.
New York: Columbia University Press.

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22. Ray, D. C., & Chowdhury, S. R. (Eds.). (2022).

Darjeeling: In search of people's history of the hills.

Acknowledgement
I, Trisala Gurung, would like to extend my sincere gratitude to the
organisers of this two days multi – disciplinary international
conference, postgraduate unit, faculty of arts and culture, the South
Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Southfield College,
Darjeeling, West Bengal, India, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Karnataka, Sir Benet Rajadurai, International Conference Secretary,
Integrated Institute of Disaster Management, Tamil Nadu and St.
Jude‘s College, Tamil Nadu. I also appreciate the contributions of
library of Southfield College, Darjeeling for providing the resources.
Additionally, I thank my family, friends and mentors for their
insightful feedback and encouragement. Thank You!

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"EVALUATING THE CURRENT ISSUES AND

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMS:
ASSESSING QUALITY AND IMPACT ON MODERN
EDUCATION"
[Link] Roy Chowdhury Ghosh
Assistant Professor
Institute of Education, Haldia
Purba Medinipur, West Bengal, India.
Email id – [Link]@[Link]
Whatsapp no -9836128285
Contact no - 9874077666

Abstract
“This study assesses the effectiveness of teacher training programs,
identifying current issues and evaluating their impact on modern
education. Through a mixed-methods approach, the research examines
program quality, teacher preparedness, and student outcomes. Key
findings highlight areas for improvement, including technology
integration, diverse student needs, and ongoing support. The study‘s
results inform recommendations for enhancing teacher training,
ultimately improving educational quality and teacher effectiveness.‖
This abstract concisely summarizes the study‘s focus, methodology,
and potential contributions to education and teacher development.
Keywords – Teacher Training Programs, Effectiveness, Quality
Assessment, Modern Education, Teacher Preparedness, Educational
Outcomes, Professional Development, Teacher Education.
Introduction-
Teacher training programs primarily make the backbone of the recent
education system a land of knowledge with upgraded perspectives.
Through the help of comprehensive training sessions, it is possible for
the upcoming educators to achieve the necessary skills and knowledge

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which is essential to embrace the classroom experiences of the

students as well as help them to succeed in their future circumstances.
Teacher training programs have a significant role in shaping the
scenario of the current education system in the global dynamics.
These exclusive training programs are considered as the only way
which help the teachers to match the rhythm of updated education
principles, evolving pedagogical practices, and technological
advancements. In the current environment of the education system,
technology is situated at the forefront of every school or educational
institution, in such conditions, well-structured teacher training
sessions sharpen the capability of every educator in the matter of
fulfilling the diverse learning needs of the students belonging to this
upgrade generation. In an effective training session, educators not
only get the scope to enrich their theoretical knowledge but also they
can have the chance to refine their practical skills that directly impact
the quality of their teaching style. As per Murray, (2021), there has
been a well-established correlation between well-trained teachers and
improved student outcomes for many years. Finland, Singapore,
Japan, and China are the PISA achiever countries (Tonga et al., 2022).
These countries keep on maintaining a level of consistency in the
matter of developing the best and highest-quality education system in
the world. Apart from the excellence of these two regions, there are
also many regions that face several types of obstacles in maintaining
the quality and relevance of these programs. For this complexity,
sometimes teachers are prepared in an inadequate manner, which
ultimately leads to poor learning environments. The quality of
education is intricately linked to the quality of teaching. Teacher
training programs play a vital role in equipping educators with the
knowledge, skills, and competencies necessary to meet the diverse
needs of modern students. However, the effectiveness of these
programs has been a subject of ongoing debate. This study aims to
evaluate the current issues and effectiveness of teacher training
programs, assessing their quality and impact on modern education. By
examining the strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement, this

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research seeks to inform policy and practice, ultimately enhancing

teacher preparedness and student outcomes. This introduction sets the
stage for the study, highlighting the importance of teacher training and
the need for evaluation and improvement.
Problem Identification-
It is very true that teacher training has well-recognized value in the
education sector but apart from its significance there are also several
challenges that hinder its effectiveness. First of all the most crucial
challenge is most of the training programs still follow traditional
techniques (Erlangga, 2022). This makes educators unable to
acknowledge the educational demands of the modern generation. To
combat this challenge, it is mandatory for every educator to earn
specialisation in digital literacy and inclusive teaching strategies. On
the other side, scarcity of inclusivity sometimes limits the
applicability of these programs specifically, for educators who are
working in diverse or underserved communities. In addition to these,
there are also some logistical barriers including limited funding,
inadequate infrastructure, and insufficient access to quality trainers
which increase the vulnerability of the problem more.
Significance of Study-
The major value of this study is, that it can be a helpful way to bridge
the gap between existing teacher training mechanisms and the needs
of educators and students of the current digital dynamics. The main
discussion part of this study is to identify strengths, weaknesses, and
opportunities of current teacher training programs for the purpose of
improving them in a systematic way. With the help of evaluating the
aspects of the current teacher training program, it will be possible to
give evidence-based recommendations in this study which is
ultimately helpful for embracing the scope of such programs as well
as their relevance, inclusivity, and effectiveness. In addition to this,
the ultimate findings of this study are also helpful for making
educational policy as well as also helpful for making high-standard

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frameworks for teacher training programs which help the regions to

maintain consistency and quality in education.
Rationale of the study -
Day by day the demand for adapting to global practices is increasing
in the education dynamics as well which initially encourages the
teachers to shape the education landscape of future generations with
the help of digital mechanisms. However, inadequate training
programs sometimes make them unable to reach this point. In this
study all the focus will keeps on addressing the pressing need for
effective teacher training as well as this study will also emphasise the
value of lifelong learning, inclusivity, and technology integration in
education. The study will identify challenges and recommend
actionable improvements with the help of examining current teacher
training programs. The study will offer evidence-based insights that
may be beneficial for policymakers and educators.
Literature Review-
Teacher training has been an integral part of educational research for a
long time. According to Irasuti et al., (2024), teacher training sessions
play a critical role in the matter of enhancing the quality of education
worldwide. Traditional studies that are written or created about the
role of teacher training programs in the matter of enhancing the
overall quality of education are basically keep the focus on
foundational pedagogical skills and subject matter expertise. As time
goes on, the focus area is transformed into more dynamic elements of
education including skill of critical thinking and adapting to diverse
learner needs. Recent studies emphasise the significance of using
digital tools and evidence-based teaching practices in the matter of
giving quality training to educators which also complements the
educational demand of the 21st century. As per Bodnar et al., (2024),
in traditional days educators are receiving training with a "one-size-
fits-all" approach. It means at that time uniformity was the main focus
of training instead of adapting to different needs. On the opposite side,

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modern studies always point out the need for personalized and
context-specific training methods which are perfectly fit in diverse
educational environments. Abd El Bakey et al., (2023), mentioned the
value of continuous professional development of educators in current
digital dynamics which helps them to match the flow of both
technological and pedagogical advancements. Apart from the scope of
digitalization in training sessions, there are still some regions that do
not adopt the opportunity of digital literacy in teacher training
programs due to different types of socio-economic and cultural factors
which ultimately create persistent disparities in the effectiveness of
the training programs.
Program Design-
In an effective teacher training program, there should be a presence of
exclusive curriculum that encompasses both theoretical knowledge
with practical applications. Dare et al., (2021), mentioned the
significance of setting the content of the curriculum of teaching with
real-world classroom challenges in their study. There are some
incredible pedagogical strategies including collaborative learning,
peer coaching, and reflective practices, which are at the top of the
recommendation list in training sessions. Apart from the importance
of pedagogical strategies in teacher training, technological integration
also leverages specific roles in enhancing the existing skills and
knowledge of educators. As per Jolly et al., (2024), the utilisation of
digital tools including learning management systems or LMS and
simulation-based training helpful for enhancing the engagement of
educators in training sessions and learning outcomes. Moreover, there
are also some researches that dynamically highlight gaps in the matter
of accessing these tools, specifically in low-income regions.
Effectiveness Measures-
Improvements that are noticed in teaching practices and student
outcomes initially highlighted that the teacher training program is
enough effective and makes them able to shape the future of students.

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As per Ozen et al., (2020), teacher training programs that encompass

active learning strategies are best for improving the confidence and
classroom management skills of a teacher. A study by Steele et al.,
(2021), found that sustained and intensive training sessions are giving
far better results in a comparison of short-term workshops. However,
many studies focus on certain outcomes of these sessions on students
and avoid examining how training improves teachers‘ professional
growth as well as student performance over time.
Barriers and Challenges-
In the context of giving quality training to educators, the lack of
smooth accessibility of technology and other essential elements is the
major barrier to rural and underserved areas (Chaoub et al., 2021).
Moreover, in the training session, teachers sometimes go through
different types of logistical obstacles, including travel distances and
scheduling conflicts. As well as deficiency of enough resources,
including inadequate funding and poorly equipped training centres
creates a pause in the success of these programs. Adaptability is
another critical issue in this context. Some training programs fail to
fulfil the specific needs of diverse learners. As mentioned by Tavares,
(2024), there are a lot of teaching programs that completely exclude
the importance of inclusive education from their course which makes
teachers unable to support disabled students or those who come from
marginalized groups.
Critical Analysis-
While some studies emphasize the need for technology-driven
training, others may avoid the over-reliance on digital tools, for
reasons like digital fatigue and unequal access. On the other side,
many studies stated the importance of continuous professional
development, but the practical challenges that are related to the
implementation of such programs in resource-constrained settings
need more focus. Apart from this another critical aspect is most
studies take a generalized approach, ignoring regional and cultural

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differences. The deficiency of context-specific research makes the

findings invaluable especially in diverse and transforming educational
settings.
Region-Specific Challenges:
How different socio-economic factors impact the creation and
implementation of training programs in developing countries is still
unexplored in studies.
Effectiveness of Technology Integration:
The importance of technology in teacher training is already explored
in different studies but its effectiveness in different educational
contexts needs to be explored in further studies.
Long-Term Impact
There is an expressing need for longitudinal studies which help to
evaluate the sustained influence of training programs in the mater
sharpening teaching practices as well as student outcomes.
These gaps shed light on the need for comprehensive research that
focuses on regional variations, and utilization of technology and
evaluates the sustained impact of training initiatives on educators.
Objectives, Scope, and Limitations:
An effective teacher training program can be responsible for shaping
the quality of education. The most critical aspect of these programs is
understanding their value in different scenarios of the education
system as well as identifying new layouts which ultimately enhance
the quality of these programs as they are integral parts of improving
educational outcomes.

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Aim and Objectives of the study-

The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the current state of teacher
training programs and identify actionable strategies for improvement.
The specific objectives include:
Objectives-
1. Assess the current state of teacher training programs: Evaluate
the quality, content, and delivery of existing programs.
2. Identify current issues and challenges: Examine the strengths,
weaknesses, and areas for improvement in teacher training
programs.
3. Evaluate the impact on modern education: Investigate the
effectiveness of teacher training programs in preparing
educators for contemporary classrooms.
4. Inform policy and practice: Provide recommendations for
enhancing teacher training programs, ultimately improving
teacher preparedness and student outcomes.
5. To provide evidence-based recommendations to improve
teacher training programs, ensuring inclusivity and
adaptability to diverse educational settings.
Scope of the study-
The major focus of this study will be on teaching training programs
that are specifically made for teachers in primary and secondary
schools. In the education life of a student, primary and secondary
levels are the most important parts as in these levels a student gets the
opportunity to set a foundation for future learning. The study will also
keep the focus on those teacher training programs that are randomly
commence in both urban and semi-urban areas. The main target of this
study is to understand the unique challenges and opportunities that
teachers face in diverse environments which can be achieved by

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examining the landscape of teacher training programs in urban and

semi-urban areas.
Limitations of the study-
Limitation Details Impact
Geographic The research is confined May restrict the
Constraints to specific regions due to generalizability of findings
logistical challenges. to other geographic areas.
Reliance on Heavy reliance on self- Introduces potential biases
Self- reported data from or subjectivity in the
Reported teachers and program results.
Data administrators.
Timeframe Focus limited to Ensures relevance but
of Analysis programs conducted excludes older programs
within the last five with potentially valuable
years. lessons.

Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis (H1): Teacher training programs significantly improve

teaching effectiveness by enhancing teaching skills and classroom
practices.
Null Hypothesis (H0): Teacher training programs do not significantly
improve teaching effectiveness or enhance teaching skills and
classroom practices.
Hypothesis (H2): Challenges in program design and delivery
adversely affect their outcomes, leading to gaps in implementation
and limited impact.
Null Hypothesis (H0): Challenges in program design and delivery do
not adversely affect their outcomes or lead to gaps in implementation
and limited impact.

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Research Methodology-
A quantitative research approach will be adopted in this study. The
apparcoh of conducting a primary survey will be the main foundation
of this research design as will be adopted in this study. The findings
that are gained from the survey results will be helpful for evaluating
the effectiveness of teacher training programs in several regional
settings (Abdi et al., 2023). The methodology which will be followed
in the entire study will designed with a lot of consciousness so that it
is possible to provide a structured framework for data collection and
analysis in this study while making sure that the collected data is
reliable and results are valid in the matter of utilization of them to
assess the objectives of the study.
Statement of Research Problem-
Teacher training programs are working as the roadmap that made
educators enough capable of giving education in the right way. In
these comprehensive training programs, they have achieved the
necessary skills and knowledge which are mandatory for improving
the overall environment of the classroom. In addition to this, there is
also a significant deficiency present in the matter of understanding
how these programs perform in practice and whether they meet their
intended objectives or not (OMOLAWAL et al., 2024). In this study,
the area that needs evaluation is measuring the effectiveness of
training programs and assessing the challenges educators face in
implementing them in their practical classroom scenarios by keeping
the focus on diverse educational backgrounds.
Research Design-
The study will integrate a cross-sectional design in the matter of
gathering reliable data at a time from several educational
professionals. It is very important to see that the participants of this
survey have taken part in teacher training programs over the last five
years (Dwivedi et al., 2023). Through this initiative of collecting data,

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it will be possible to gather their experiences and perceptions on

current teaching practices which ultimately helps to shed light on
areas of strength and those that are really need to be improved in
further conditions.
Sampling Design-
Category Details
Population Teachers who have participated in training
programs in primary and secondary schools
within the last five years.
Institutions Public and private schools across urban and
semi-urban settings.
Sample Size Approximately 100 respondents to ensure broad
representation and manageable data analysis.
Sampling Stratified random sampling to ensure diversity.
Technique
Stratification - Years of Experience: Grouped by varying
Factors teaching tenures.
- Type of Institution: Public or private.
- Geographic Location: Urban or semi-urban
settings.

Data Collection Strategy-

A well-structured questionnaire will be the main tool of this study in

the matter of collecting reliable data about the current and emerging
trends of teaching training programs (Ganesha et al., 2022). In this
study, the questionnaire will be designed consciously so that it will be
possible to gather detailed information about the experiences,
perceptions, and challenges of the participants that they received or
faced in teacher training programs.
Questionnaire Design:
The questionnaire is made with focusing on four main aspects:
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1. Demographic Details: It means collecting information on

respondents' age, gender, teaching experience, and
institutional affiliation.
2. Experience with Training Programs: keeping the focus on
the types of training programs that they have attended as well
as frequency of participation, and overall impressions.
3. Perceived Effectiveness and Applicability: Evaluating how
well the training programs meet their exact needs and whether
participants find them appropriate to utilise in real-world
teaching contexts.
4. Identified Barriers and Suggestions for Improvement:
Assess the challenges that participants have encountered at the
time of training and gather suggestions for enhancing the
effectiveness of the programs.
With the adoption of a robust quantitative methodology, it is possible
to draw evidence-based recommendations in the matter of enhancing
the effectiveness of teacher training programs. The findings of the
study will help to provide useful insights in the matter of improving
teacher training programs as well as helping them to address the
changing needs of teachers and students in a better way.
Planning and Data Analysis-
In the study, after collecting the data in the next approach it will be
organized and analyzed. Through the approach of analyzing the data,
it will be possible to identify trends, patterns, and relationships
(Hamzani et al., 2023). The initiative's descriptive statistics will be
used in the purpose of summarizing key findings including the
distribution of responses over different demographic groups. In
addition to this context, the connections between the characteristics of
the programs and their perceived effectiveness is being analysed in a
comprehensive way. To match the objectives of this study,
comparisons may be drawn between urban and semi-urban teachers or
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between public and private sector programs (Karasaki et al., 2023).

This approach will help to understand how teacher training programs
proved effective across different contexts.
Ethical Considerations-
 Informed Consent: Participants are provided with clear
information about the purpose and scope of the research,
which helps to make sure their voluntary and informed
participation.
 Confidentiality: In the entire study, data is managed with
strict privacy, and participants' identities are anonymized
which protects their confidentiality from the risk of breaches.
 Respect for Participants: It is very important to make the
questionnaire concise and relevant so that it will be proved
that the study respects the time and effort of respondents,
Conclusion –
This study‘s findings underscore the need for ongoing evaluation and
improvement of teacher training programs. By addressing current
issues and enhancing program quality, educators can better meet the
evolving needs of students in modern classrooms. Tailor programs to
address specific educational settings and student needs. Incorporate
technology to enhance teaching and learning. Provide continuous
professional development opportunities.
By implementing these recommendations, teacher training programs
can have a more significant impact on modern education, ultimately
improving student outcomes and teacher effectiveness.
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Mobile Training Context for In-Service Teachers: Methods of

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2025

Training and Task Practice to Enhance E-Content Production

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Implementative Review. International Journal of Membrane

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EFL Teachers: The Transformative Impact of Visual Literacy
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D. (2024). Adapting the Gamified Educational Networking
Online Learning Management System to Test a Decentralized
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Training on the Emergency Intraosseous Access and Infusion
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Environmental justice and drinking water: A critical review of
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review and revision of Kolb‘s model. Interactive learning
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18. Steele, J., Plotkin, D., Van Every, D., Rosa, A., Zambrano, H.,
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TECHNOLOGY AND INEQUALITY: EXAMINING THE

DIGITAL EXCLUSION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN
MARGINALIZED COMMUNITIES OF KASHMIR
Faraaz Subla,
Research Scholar, Department of Social Work,
University of Kashmir, 190006
faraazwrites@[Link]
Javaid Rashid,
Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work,
University of Kashmir, 190006
Abstract
Background: In the digital age, proper access to technology
significantly influences and assists in various fields such as education,
employment, and civic engagement. However, the digital inequality
continues to reinforce the social stratification especially among the
marginalized communities. While lack of access to the digital
technology has the potential to widen the social gap but the equitable
access and use of digital technology can also serve as a powerful tool
for empowerment.
Objectives: This study aims to investigate and explore the role of
technology in both reinforcing and challenging the social hierarchies.
It seeks to understand the impact of digital exclusion on the
marginalized populations in the rural and urban areas of Kashmir
highlighting the cases where technology promotes inclusion and social
mobility and recommend the strategies for using technology to
promote equity.
Methodology: This study was conducted using a mixed-methodology
approach. Quantitative data were collected and drawn from the
national digital access reports, while the Qualitative insights were
based on the interviews and case studies reflecting conditions in the
under resourced communities of Kashmir.
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Findings: The findings highlight that the limited digital access in

Kashmir contributes to the educational and economic disparities.
However, the community driven digital initiatives such as the free
internet hubs and training centers have improved digital literacy and
expanded the access as well as opportunities resulting in an increased
participation in civic life.
Conclusion: Technology can either deepen or reduce the inequality
depending on how the access is distributed. To challenge the social
stratification in regions like Kashmir inclusive digital policies and
localized solutions are essential for empowering marginalized groups.
Keywords:
Digital inequality, social stratification, marginalized communities,
Kashmir, digital access, technology empowerment, digital literacy,
social mobility.
I. Introduction
This has led to the emergence of the new form of social stratification
wherein the individuals and communities without the meaningful
digital access face disadvantages not only in economic participation
but also in the civic engagement and essential services. Among the
most visible impacts of digital exclusion is in the education sector.
Students from the digitally underserved areas struggle to access online
learning platforms and e resources that are now integral to the
contemporary education. As Ahamed and Siddiqui (2020) argue
disparities in access to the education are foundational to the digital
divide with ‗computing ability‘ closely linked to the educational
attainment and deeply influenced by the socioeconomic status.
Consequently, communities with the lower educational access remain
digitally marginalized perpetuating cycle of exclusion. Economically,
limited digital connectivity restricts participation in emerging
opportunities such as e commerce, digital entrepreneurship and remote
work critical avenues for the economic upliftment. Gender inequality

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further intensifies this divide. In many parts of the Kashmir women

and girls encounter various kinds socio cultural barriers that restrict
and hinder their access to the digital tools and training. According to
UNICEF (2021), the gender gap in digital literacy means that women
are significantly more likely to face difficulties in using the digital
technology. These disparities are compounded by Kashmir‘s
mountainous terrain and remote settlements, which enhances the rural
urban divides in digital infrastructure and service delivery. Despite
these structural challenges grassroots initiatives have demonstrated the
transformative potential of the inclusive technology. Community
based internet centers; digital literacy programs and the locally
adapted solutions have begun to bridge the gap promoting the digital
empowerment across the marginalised and underserved communities.
As Brant (2024) emphasizes the digital inclusion enables the
individuals and groups to harness technology for the improved
livelihoods; education; healthcare access and civic participation.
These initiatives underscore the importance of the context specific
strategies highlighting the inadequacy of the one-size-fits-all
approaches to the digital development. The persistence of digital
inequality in Kashmir thus raises important questions about the
broader relationship between technology access and social equity.
This study investigates how digital systems can either reinforce
existing hierarchies or serve as instruments of empowerment when
deployed inclusively. It examines how digital exclusion manifests
within the marginalized communities in Kashmir, assessing impact of
digital exclusion on various sectors and also focuses on evaluating the
effectiveness of the targeted interventions. This research aims to
contribute on the broader discourse focusing on the inclusive digital
ecosystems by analyzing the structural challenges and offering
grassroots solutions. It is particularly relevant for the policymakers,
educators and development practitioners seeking to design evidence
based locally informed digital inclusion strategies. Understanding
these dynamics is crucial in an increasingly digital world where access
to the technology is rapidly becoming essential to participation in

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education, healthcare, commerce and governance. As Dobrin (2024)

warns this could lead to a form of the technological colonialism
wherein the digital systems developed without the cultural sensitivity
or equity erode the diversity of the global identities and assists in
reinforcing the global power imbalances. This study therefore
explores how unique socio cultural and geographical contexts of
Kashmir has the potential to influence the digital inclusion. Drawing
lessons from the successful community-based interventions it offers
insights for shaping the equitable digital policies. By examining how
digital exclusion intersects with the other forms of marginalization
such as: gender; class and geographic isolation this research provides
a nuanced understanding of the overlapping disadvantages and
identifies potential pathways for the overall inclusive development.
Ultimately this study aims to explore how the digital technologies can
be harnessed as tools of empowerment. It advocates for the model of
digital development wherein the benefits are distributed equitably
across all segments of the society contributing to more just and
inclusive future.
II. Significance of the Study
This study holds a vital significance as it critically examines how
digital exclusion perpetuates socio economic disparities among the
marginalized communities in Kashmir an urgent yet relatively under
explored issue. Moving beyond simplistic the urban rural dichotomies
the research provides a nuanced understanding of how Kashmir‘s
distinctive geographical challenges, socio cultural norms, and
economic barriers collectively contribute to the technological
marginalization. The findings are particularly relevant for the
policymakers; development agencies and the stakeholders involved in
the digital inclusion efforts. By identifying the limitations of the
current digital initiatives and highlighting the successful community
driven interventions such as: localized internet hubs and grassroots
digital literacy programs this study offers practical and context
sensitive models that can inform more effective and sustainable policy

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designs. According to the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India

(TRAI, 2024) digital divide includes the gap and differences between
those who have affordable access, necessary skills and support to
engage effectively online with those who do not. These examples
serve as an important blueprint for the tailored interventions.
From the practical perspective this research highlights the need for the
equitable digital infrastructure. It demonstrates how the limited
internet access negatively affects the education and employment'
especially among the rural populations and women who face several
challenges due to gender-based barriers and geographic isolation. The
digital divide‘s impact extends to everyday life those without reliable
access to the information and communication technologies miss vital
employment opportunities and remain excluded from the global
digital economy. Students in the particular encounter significant
obstacles when engaging in the remote learning or completing the
schoolwork (Kloza, 2023). Academically, the study contributes to the
expanding body of literature on the digital inequality by intersecting
access of technology with issues of gender; class and regional
stratification.
Digital inequality often amplifies other social inequities linked to race,
gender and socio-economic status (Indira Gandhi National Open
University [IGNOU], n.d.). The focus on the locally driven solutions
enriches scholarly discourse with the replicable models of the
empowerment through the means of technology. More broadly the
implications of the study extend beyond the region of Kashmir
offering valuable insights and ideas for similarly underserved regions
that are in confrontation with the digital divides. By advocating for the
inclusive digital ecosystems, it supports efforts to ensure that the
technological advancement becomes a tool for equity rather than the
exclusion. Promoting digital equity fosters fair representation in the
digital sphere by encouraging diversity and inclusion across several
platforms, content creation and decision-making processes (Lenovo,
n.d.).

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III. Review of Literature

The digital divide has increasingly been recognized as critical factor
exacerbating socio economic inequalities particularly in the
marginalized and developing regions where access to the technology
remains quite uneven. In today‘s digital era technology underpins
essential aspects of life such as: education, employment, healthcare
and governance making digital access fundamental requirement for
social inclusion (Kumari, Lavanya, & Padmambika, 2024). A growing
body of research highlights how disparities in the digital
infrastructure, affordability and literacy restrict the vulnerable
populations from accessing these opportunities thereby reinforcing the
existing social hierarchies. Groups such as the rural communities,
women and low-income households are disproportionately affected
due to the infrastructural deficits; economic barriers and entrenched
socio-cultural norms. These vulnerable and marginalised populations
face multiple kinds of discrimination such as: gender; socio economic
status; ethnicity; caste; disability and age which further increases their
overall digital exclusion (Gundimeda & Makwana, 2025).
In the specific context of region like Kashmir, the digital divide
showcases certain unique challenges that is shaped and moulded by
the complex geography and overall environment. According to the
ISPI (2025) the digital divide remains significant barrier; and create
hindrance to the economic growth and sustainable development
globally with only 27% of people residing in the lesser economic
countries having internet access compared to 93% in high income
countries. This divide excludes approximately one third of the global
population from the vital services such as education, employment and
financial opportunities. In Kashmir research indicates that the urban
centers generally enjoy better connectivity and technological
infrastructure whereas rural and mountainous areas suffer from the
limited network coverage and unreliable services. The absence of the
highspeed internet infrastructure in rural regions severely restricts
access and usage to essential services such as e learning; telemedicine

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and digital governance thereby widening the regional inequalities

(Ahmad, 2023). Numerous studies identify restrictive social norms
that prevent women and girls from accessing and effectively utilising
the digital tools. Users especially women often face the hostile
environment and online environments that is heavily characterized by
hate speech; harassment and lower levels of the digital literacy that
make them more susceptible to the negative issues such as: cyber
bullying and cybers talking.
These factors collectively discourage the digital participation of
women and increase the gendered digital divide (Kashmir Observer,
2024). Patriarchal attitudes, safety concerns and scarcity of female
oriented digital training programs further limit women‘s digital access
and contribute to their socio-economic marginalization. Educational
disparities arising from the digital exclusion have become increasingly
evident especially following the shift to newer methods like online
learning. Students residing in the digitally underserved areas often
lack access to smartphones, stable internet connections or the digital
skills required to navigate the virtual classrooms. This places them at
significant disadvantage relative to their urban peers; which intensifies
their educational inequalities. Moreover, research suggests that mere
access to the technology does not guarantee academic success; the
quality of digital resources and users‘ proficiency in employing them
effectively are also equally important (Miah, 2024). Similarly digital
exclusion perpetuates economic marginalization. Individuals without
digital access are often excluded from the online job platforms, remote
work opportunities, digital banking and e commerce resources that are
increasingly vital for the economic advancement in the digital age.
Despite these prevailing challenges several studies indicate promising
results at grassroots digital inclusion initiatives in Kashmir. Examples
include: community internet hubs, mobile based training units and
culturally tailored digital literacy programs. When adapted to the local
needs these efforts have presented positive outcomes by enhancing
access to sectors like: education; entrepreneurship and civic

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engagement especially among the marginalized groups. Civic

engagement' is fundamental in fostering the equitable and inclusive
societies with democratic participation serving as the vital and
important element of the social cohesion and bonding- (Borhan,
2025). However, there is limited research that is available on
designing the digital inclusion policies that effectively addresses the
Kashmir‘s distinct geographical and socio-cultural context. This study
aims to fill these gaps by analyzing the structural barriers perpetuating
the digital exclusion; and exploring the potential of the context
specific solutions. By integrating existing research with new empirical
data, it seeks to offer comprehensive understanding of the digital
inequality and to inform the development of more effective digital
inclusion strategies tailored to Kashmir and the other similarly
marginalized regions.
IV. Methodology
This study adopts the mixed method research design to examine the
extent and dynamics of the digital exclusion in Kashmir integrating
and combining both the quantitative and qualitative approaches to
capture the multifaceted nature of the issue. By combining statistical
analysis with the contextual insights mixed methods research' allows
for the data triangulation; validation of findings and richer
understanding of the lived experiences of the digitally excluded
communities (Kimberly Jane et al., 2024).
This approach is particularly appropriate for addressing the complex
social problems such as digital inequality. Fieldwork was conducted in
two purposefully selected districts of Jammu and Kashmir that is
Srinagar (representing urban and semi-urban clusters) and Ganderbal
(encompassing semi-urban and rural areas) chosen for their
demographic, socio economic and geographic diversity which
supports the inclusive and comparative investigation. A total of 530
participants were involved in the research study. Out of these 500
respondents were selected for the quantitative phase using stratified

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random sampling to ensure the statistical reliability and representation

across urban (38%), semi urban (29%), and rural (33%) areas. The
sample size of 500 was determined using the Cochran‘s formula at a
95% confidence level and 5% margin of error with increase beyond
the minimum requirement of 384 to accommodate the non-responses
and enable the subgroup analysis. Further stratification was based on
criteria like age, gender and socio-economic status to enhance the
overall inclusivity. Structured surveys were administered to these 500
respondents focusing on the key measurable indicators such as: device
ownership, frequency of internet use, digital literacy and access to
online services. For the qualitative component 30 participants were
purposively selected for in depth interviews guided by the principle of
the data saturation to ensure the richness and diversity of perspectives.
In addition, 8 focus group discussions and 5 case studies were
conducted across the both districts.
The case studies were drawn from the interview participants selected
for the significance and depth of their experiences particularly
highlighting the successful community led digital inclusion initiatives.
Qualitative data collection tools were culturally adapted using local
languages, gender matched interviewers and familiar community-
based settings to foster the authenticity and trust. Data collection was
staggered across multiple seasons to capture the environmental and
temporal variations especially relevant in high altitude areas where
seasonal disruptions impact the overall digital access.
Secondary sources including government reports; telecom
infrastructure maps and NGO assessments were also consulted to
contextualize and validate the findings. For example, while survey
data revealed that only 31% of women used digital tools daily
qualitative interviews uncovered underlying causes such as male
control over devices; reputational concerns and lack of autonomy.
Similarly, 72% of rural students were found to lack access to the
online education a statistic further explained through narratives of
emotional strain and the physical effort of seeking network

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connectivity. Case studies further highlighted the grassroots

innovations like community run digital literacy centers; and the shared
device programs which offer the scalable solutions for enhancing the
digital inclusion. Data analysis involved coding and evaluating survey
responses using descriptive statistics to identify the trends and
disparities across the geographic and demographic categories.
Simultaneously, qualitative data from interviews; focus groups and
case studies were transcribed and analyzed to identify the key socio
cultural; economic and infrastructural factors contributing to
exclusion.
The triangulation of the qualitative insights with the quantitative
findings enabled a multidimensional interpretation that linked broad
trends with individual experiences for instance the gendered gap in
digital use and the physical hardships faced by students residing in the
remote areas. This comprehensive methodological strategy provided
strong foundation for understanding the digital marginalization in
Kashmir. As noted by the Dovetail Editorial Team (2023) mixed
methods research is especially suited for the policy relevant studies
offering both flexibility and the capacity to reconcile seemingly
contradictory findings thereby informing the inclusive; and context
sensitive digital strategies.

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V. Socio-Demographic Profile of Study Participants

Table 1: Socio-Demographic Profile of the Respondents
Percentage
S. No Theme Class Frequency
(%)
Urban
200 38
(Srinagar)
Geographical Semi-Urban
1 155 29
Distribution (Both)
Rural
175 33
(Ganderbal)
Total 530 100
Gender Male 302 57
2
Composition Female 228 43
Total 530 100
18–25 years 180 34
Age
3 26–40 years 210 40
Distribution
41–65 years 140 26
Total 530 100

Results

This study provides comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the

digital exclusion in Kashmir by integrating both the quantitative data
and the rich qualitative narratives. The survey of 500 respondents
spread across the urban (38%), semi urban (29%), and rural (33%)
areas exposed stark disparities in the digital access, device ownership
and usage intricately linked to gender, geographic location and socio-
economic status. The socio demographic profile showed that 57% of
respondents were male, with the largest age group being 26–40 years
(40%), followed by 18–25 years (34%) and 41–65 years (26%). This
diverse sample enabled a thorough exploration of the patterns and
inequalities shaping digital inclusion. Quantitative findings painted

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clear picture: over 80% of the urban households owned at least one
internet enabled device in sharp contrast to just 43% in the rural areas.
Urban youth particularly those aged between 18–25 displayed higher
digital literacy with 76% actively using digital tools compared to a
mere 38% of their rural counterparts. Among women digital
engagement was considerably lower with only 31% reporting daily
use of the digital technologies.
The gender gap was especially pronounced in the rural areas; where
women were three times less likely than the urban men to own the
personal digital device; and underscoring deeply entrenched
inequalities. Beyond numbers the qualitative narratives brought these
statistics to life. Through 30 in depth interviews, 8 focus groups and 5
case studies it became evident that the digital exclusion is woven into
the fabric of socio cultural and economic realities. One of the
respondents poignantly described her household‘s smartphone being
―monopolized by the eldest male family member,‖ used solely for
business purposes leaving her with no access despite the device‘s
presence. Such stories reveal how patriarchal control, fear of
reputational damage and social stigma operate as invisible yet
powerful barriers to the digital participation for many women. In rural
education the struggles were equally vivid.

A staggering 72% of rural students lacked the reliable online

connectivity. Qualitative accounts detailed the physical hardships
faced by these students trekking the long distances and scaling hills
just to find network signal. One of the student participants narratives
of the daily uphill climbs to download the assignments starkly
illustrates how infrastructural gaps compound the educational
disadvantages leaving students physically drained; and academically
marginalized. Seasonal fieldwork further illuminated how the digital
connectivity in Kashmir fluctuates with the harsh mountain climate.
Participants described how heavy snowfalls; and torrential rains
routinely disrupted internet signals and power supply and deepening
periods of the digital isolation. This lived experience was corroborated

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through triangulation with the telecom coverage maps; NGO

assessments and government data confirming the seasonal nature of
the digital access challenges. Despite these obstacles inspiring
grassroots innovations emerged. One local NGO‘s digital literacy
workshops empowered women; to engage with the e commerce and
online banking, transforming their access and agency.
Another initiative introduced shared the tablets for the schoolchildren;
fostering collective learning and alleviating the burden of individual
device ownership; demonstrating practical, community driven
solutions to the digital exclusion. Together the mixed-methods
approach yielded rich and holistic view: quantitative data highlighted
the scale and scope of the digital divides while as the qualitative
narratives uncovered the underlying socio cultural and economic
forces. Patriarchal norms, affordability, cultural beliefs and
infrastructural weaknesses repeatedly surfaced as the critical barriers.

The study concludes that the digital exclusion in Kashmir is deeply

rooted in the broader social realities; disproportionately impacting the
lives of women; rural populations and economically vulnerable
groups. This integrated the understanding highlights the need for the
digital inclusion strategies that move beyond mere technology
provision to confront the societal barriers and creates hindrance that
sustain the digital exclusion.
VI. Analysis and Discussion
These disparities mirror broader inequalities most notably the
markedly low digital access among women in the rural areas where
the entrenched patriarchal norms and male dominated decision
making restrict their engagement with the digital technologies
(Hilbert, 2011; Warschauer, 2003). The qualitative data enrich this
understanding by revealing the lived experiences behind these
disparities such as: many women reported having little to no control
over the digital devices in the households that otherwise owned them

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illustrating how the digital marginalization is deeply interlinked with

the patriarchal control and fears of the reputational harm (Gurumurthy
et al., 2019). Additionally, narratives from the students recounting the
arduous journeys walking long distances; or climbing steep hills to
access the mobile signals emphasize how challenging the physical
geography and inadequate infrastructure enhance the educational
inequities -(Srinivasan & Kanagasabai, 2021). Seasonal connectivity
disruptions during the harsh winters in high altitude areas; further
multiply these difficulties revealing' that the digital exclusion is
dynamic and context specific phenomenon rather than merely the lack
of technological availability.
This discussion underscores that digital access is insufficient for
genuine inclusion; digital literacy and the freedom to participate
meaningfully are equally vital yet frequently denied to the women and
marginalized groups (Robinson et al., 2015). Grassroots initiatives
documented through case studies such as: NGO led digital literacy
programs; targeting women and the shared device schemes for the
students demonstrate promising; and community driven approaches.
These locally rooted interventions offer scalable and culturally
sensitive path ways to empower the underrepresented populations and
foster the greater digital inclusion.
The mixed method research enables the study to transcend the surface
level statistics revealing the nuanced realities behind the digital
exclusion including factors like stigma; affordability constraints; and
the spatial isolation that underlie the observed quantitative trends. The
findings advocate for perspective on digital inclusion as cornerstone
of social equity and sustainable development highlighting the urgent
need for targeted policies that address not only infrastructure deficits
but also the socio cultural and economic barriers limiting the equitable
digital participation (Heeks, 2010).
Such strategies must include gender responsive initiatives, subsidies
for rural connectivity comprehensive digital skills training and the

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establishment of the safe inclusive digital spaces where women and

youth can confidently access and utilize technology. Ultimately, the
discussion calls for reframing the digital access as fundamentally
social issue; demanding multidimensional and collaborative responses
from government, civil society and communities. By amplifying
marginalized voices this study affirms the critical importance of
participatory methods in the design of effective policies and programs
aimed at narrowing down the digital divide in marginalised and
underserved regions like Kashmir.
VII. Conclusion
This study offers comprehensive understanding of the digital
exclusion in Kashmir by combining quantitative data; with the rich
qualitative data and insights. The findings reveal that the digital
exclusion is multifaceted issue shaped by geographic disparities,
gender norms, economic inequalities, socio cultural constraints and
infrastructural shortcomings. This aligns with the recent scholarship
emphasizing on the digital inequality as the systemic challenge deeply
embedded in the societal structures (Teräs, 2022).
The fieldwork conducted with the 530 respondents using mixed
research method across the urban, semi urban and rural settings
confirms gaps in the digital access and literacy; disproportionately
affecting women in rural areas a pattern consistent with the global
trends showing how digital divides intersect with gender and
geography (Van Deursen & Helsper, 2015). While statistical data
quantifies this divide it is the qualitative narratives that provides the
crucial context illustrating how the cultural practices and power
relations limit women‘s access and control over the technology
thereby deepening social exclusion (Hargittai & Shaw, 2015).
Interviews and case studies further reveal the infrastructural
challenges faced by the rural students whose educational participation
suffers due to poor connectivity a dynamic also reported in other
mountainous or underserved regions worldwide (Scheerder et al.,

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2017). The research also sheds light on how environmental factors;

such as harsh winters in Kashmir intensify digital exclusion by
disrupting the essential services reinforcing the need to view
connectivity as a fluctuating rather than static condition (Hilbert,
2014). Lastly the case studies of community driven initiatives
illustrate the promising approaches bridging the digital divide through
the localized; and participatory solutions. These findings support calls
for the policies that address the digital inequality' holistically by
integrating infrastructural development with the social empowerment
and the capacity building (James et al., 2018).
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DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND BACKWARD CLASSES IN

NORTHEAST INDIA
Souvik Mukherjee
Research Scholar, HRDC (Economics),
University of North Bengal
Keywords: Digital Inequality, Northeast India, Digital Education,
Backward Class Welfare
JEL Classification: B55, I24, J48, O33
The digital divide in India is deeply intertwined with existing
socioeconomic disparities. This divide is technological and
socioeconomic, including capability inequality and resource access.
This divide affects access to digital education and economic
opportunities in rural and urban areas, with under-resourced areas
facing more significant challenges than affluent ones (Laskar, 2023).
This is particularly relevant in the north eastern states of India, where
socioeconomic disparities are at their peak. The insufficiency of
digital literacy and confidence in digital systems is the primary
challenge in promoting digital payments in socially backward classes.
To address this, policymakers and Fintech firms need to implement
digital literacy programs, build confidence, and co-create tailored
products that meet the specific needs of these communities (Singh &
Singh, 2024). Fostering fintech innovations and strategic policies can
create an opportunity to advance financial inclusion and create a more
equitable digital economy in Northeast India. This paper aims to
quantify the effect of different backward classes welfare schemes
adopted by the Department of Social Justice and Empowerment,
Government of India, on the volume of electronic transactions in the
north eastern states of India.
Introduction
Digital inequality refers to the uneven distribution of access, skills,
and benefits of digital technologies across different groups and
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societies. As digital technologies become central to daily life, work,

education, and services, these disparities can reinforce or create new
social and economic inequality. Digital inequality encompasses more
than just access to the internet or devices. It includes differences in
digital skills, usage patterns, and the ability to benefit from digital
technologies. These inequalities persist across lines of economic class,
gender, age, ethnicity, geography, education, and disability, and can be
found both within and between countries (Hinnant, 2004; Robinson et
al., 2020; Kuhn et al., 2023; Hargittai & Hinnant, 2008; Zilian &
Zilian, 2020).
Digital inequality in North East India is a significant and persistent
issue, shaped by limited digital infrastructure, socioeconomic
disparities, and the unique challenges faced by tribal and rural
communities. Tribes and rural populations in North East India
experience pronounced digital exclusion, which deepens existing
social and economic inequalities. Many areas in North East India,
especially those inhabited by tribal communities, lack adequate digital
and IT infrastructure. This limits access to the internet, digital devices,
and reliable connectivity, making it difficult for residents to participate
in digital services, education, and governance (Ziipao, 2023; Kant et
al., 2024). Digital inequality in North East India is not just about
access, but also the ability to use technology effectively. The lack of
digital skills and resources means that digital transformation efforts
often reinforce and amplify existing social inequalities (Tewathia et
al., 2020; Rajam et al., 2021; Laskar, 2023).
Persistent underdevelopment, educational disparities, and complex
social dynamics mark the scenario for backward classes in North East
India. Despite government efforts and the region‘s resource potential,
significant barriers remain to achieving inclusive growth and social
transformation for these communities. The North East region of India
is often described as socio-economically and educationally
―backward,‖ with a significant presence of Scheduled Tribes (ST),
Scheduled Castes (SC), and Other Backward Classes (OBC). Despite

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rich natural resources and government efforts to promote inclusive

growth, these communities face development, education, and social
integration challenges. Backward classes, especially STs, are
concentrated in underdeveloped regions with poor infrastructure and
limited resource access. Government schemes have aimed to include
these groups in mainstream development. However, benefits often
reach only a small elite, leading to increased intra- and inter-tribal
tensions and a general decline in well-being among the broader
population (Region, 2021; Bharali, 2020). North East India has vast
natural resources and strategic importance, but a lack of effective
developmental strategies and policies has hindered progress. The
region‘s international borders offer trade opportunities, yet persistent
backwardness is linked to inadequate planning and implementation
(Bharali, 2020).
Digital inequality in Northeast India is closely linked to wider patterns
of social and economic disadvantage, particularly among backward
classes and marginalized caste groups. The region faces exceptional
challenges due to its ethnic diversity, historical inequalities, and
infrastructural gaps, which shape access to digital resources and
opportunities. Backward classes and marginalized castes experience
higher inequality of opportunity in employment and income, with
digital exclusion compounding their economic disadvantages. The
degree of this inequality varies across states, suggesting the need for
region-specific interventions (Sharma & Paramati, 2018; Sharma &
Paramati, 2017; Priya et al., 2025). Limited digital access restricts
backward classes‘ ability to benefit from digital finance, education,
and government services, perpetuating cycles of poverty and
exclusion (Tewathia et al., 2020; Rajam et al., 2021; Das & Chatterjee,
2023; Kant et al., 2024).

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This paper endeavours to quantify digital transaction inequality and

the impact of funds released for socioeconomic development of
backward classes across the northeastern states of India.
Backward Classes development schemes in Northeast India
Development schemes for Backward Classes in Northeast India are
designed to promote inclusive growth and uplift marginalized classes
such as Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other
Backward Classes (OBC). These schemes aim to bring these
communities into the mainstream of economic and social
development. The development of Backward Classes, including
Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward
Classes (OBC), is a central focus of government policy in Northeast
India. These groups often reside in underdeveloped regions,
particularly forested and mountainous areas, and face unique
challenges in accessing the benefits of economic growth. Government
schemes and planning efforts aim to promote inclusive development
and address these disparities. The Indian government has prioritized
the inclusion of Backward Classes in development planning, primarily
through the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, which emphasized "Inclusive
Growth." Multiple programs and policies have been designed and
implemented to uplift these communities and integrate them into the
mainstream development process (Region, 2021). The Eleventh Five-
Year Plan emphasized "Inclusive Growth," leading to creating and
implementing various programs and policies specifically targeting the
development of Backward Classes (Region, 2021). Various
development schemes provide financial assistance to Backward
Classes. However, the distribution of these benefits is often uneven,
with a larger share being captured by the elite sections within tribes,
leading to intra-tribal and communal tensions (Region, 2021).
The government provides financial support through different
development schemes. These include direct financial sops and targeted
welfare programs to improve living standards and economic

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opportunities for SC, ST, and OBC populations (Region, 2021).

Scheduled Tribes, who predominantly inhabit remote forests and
mountains, are notably excluded from development benefits due to the
inaccessibility of their regions. This isolation contributes to persistent
underdevelopment and dissatisfaction with government efforts
(Region, 2021). The heterogeneous identities of the Northeast‘s
population, marked by linguistic and tribal differences, have led to
communal disunity and class conflict. The scramble for resources
among different groups and within tribes has sometimes undermined
the intended outcomes of development schemes (Region, 2021).
While economic development initiatives have increased income for
some elite members of the Backward Classes, these communities'
overall happiness and well-being have not improved significantly. The
benefits of government schemes often fail to reach the most
marginalized, resulting in continued social and economic disparities
(Region, 2021).
The influx of development funds and uneven distribution have
sometimes led to increased friction within and between tribes,
challenging the region‘s traditional peace and unity (Region, 2021).
Efforts to develop the Backward Classes in Northeast India have
focused on inclusive growth and targeted financial schemes. However,
geographical isolation, social fragmentation, and unequal benefit
distribution have limited the effectiveness of these initiatives.
Addressing these challenges is crucial for achieving inclusive
development and social harmony in the region.
Digital Transformation
Digital India is the government's flagship program with a vision to
recast India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge
economy. This program is centered on offering digital infrastructure as
an essential utility to every nation, delivering governance and services
on demand, and enabling the digital empowerment of citizens. Besides
policy-making facilitation for the IT industry and start-ups, the

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government has also embraced state-of-the-art ICT for its

transformation to efficiently and effectively deliver information and
services to citizens. A specific focus has been on the last mile as
digital inclusion is at the heart of the Digital India program. The
National Informatics Centre (NIC) under the Ministry of Electronics
and Information Technology is an essential stakeholder in the digital
transformation of the Indian government.
The government has used ICT-based systems to enforce and manage
its agendas for over three decades. These systems have matured with
the advent of technology. Initially, client-server systems were used,
which had challenges as they had to be installed and maintained at the
last mile. Over time, the government advanced to Web-based systems
and moved on to cloud-based ones. Although cloud-based systems
provide many advantages, good, stable connectivity becomes a
requirement for the success of any centralized system. Centralized
systems' benefits are worth the investment in providing stable and
robust connectivity. With broadband and mobile telephone expansion,
this connectivity has remarkably improved, and many challenges have
been overcome. Promoting a digital payments ecosystem is an
essential aspect of the Digital India programme, and it aims to digitize
the financial sector and economy with the consequent benefits of
efficiency, transparency, and quality.
Over the years, digital payment transactions have risen multifold from
2071 crores in the Financial year 2017-18 to 5,554 crores in the
financial year 2020-21. During the current financial year, FY 2021-22,
8193 crore digital payment transactions have been documented till
20th March, 2022. Bharat Interface for Money-Unified Payments
Interface (BHIM-UPI) has appeared as the preferred payment mode
for citizens. It has reached a record of 452.75 crore digital payment
transactions with Rs 8.27 lakh crore till 28th February
[Link] (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development) organizes camps to educate people about financial
products and services. These camps are also held through Financial

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Literacy Centers (FLCs) to promote digital literacy. NABARD also

establishes kiosks in unbanked villages of the North Eastern Region
(NER) states to provide banking services.
The ―Advancing North East‖ is a digital platform and web-based
initiative designed by NEC through North Eastern Development
Finance Corporation (NEDFi), providing much-needed knowledge
and suggestions for the youth of NER. The Hon‘ble President
inaugurated the portal on 4th May 2022 during the valedictory function
of ‗North East Festival‘ held in Guwahati as a part of ‗AzadiKa Amrit
Mahotsav(AKAM)‘. This endeavour arises from the vision shared by
the Hon‘ble Prime Minister of India in his august address in the
65th Plenary Session of the North Eastern Council in May 2016. The
portal's content is mainly segregated into three categories: education,
employment, and entrepreneurship.
Literature Review
Digital finance has emerged as a significant tool for improving the
economic and social conditions of socially backward and rural
populations. The literature consistently shows that digital finance
reduces poverty, enhances financial inclusion, and supports
entrepreneurship and rural revitalization, especially among
disadvantaged groups.
Poverty Reduction and Financial Inclusion
Digital finance significantly reduces both absolute and relative
poverty in rural areas by alleviating credit and information constraints,
enlarging social networks, and promoting entrepreneurship (Chen &
Zhao, 2021; Wang & Fu, 2021).
Digital financial inclusion (DFI) mitigates vulnerability to poverty,
particularly benefiting those lacking economic opportunities. DFI
works by improving agricultural productivity, stimulating
entrepreneurship, and promoting non-agricultural employment (Wang
& Fu, 2021).
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The pro-poor effects of digital finance are more pronounced among

households with limited economic resources and in regions with less
developed financial infrastructure (Wang & Fu, 2021; Lin et al.,
2022).
Economic Empowerment and Entrepreneurship
Digital finance increases the likelihood and number of investment
projects undertaken by micro and small enterprises (MSEs), especially
in financially backward regions. This is achieved by reducing
information asymmetry and easing financing constraints (Lin et al.,
2022).
The development of digital finance spurs entrepreneurship, which
drives economic growth, particularly in less urbanized and lower-
capital regions (Jiang et al., 2021).
Rural Revitalization and Social Equity
Digital finance promotes rural revitalization by fostering technological
innovation, entrepreneurship, market access, and human capital
accumulation. Its impact is powerful in economically disadvantaged
areas (Xu et al., 2024).
The breadth and depth of digital finance coverage are crucial for
maximizing its benefits in rural and backward regions (Ren et al.,
2023; Xu et al., 2024).
Social Security and Income Equality
Digital finance helps narrow the income gap between urban and rural
households, and its poverty-reducing effect is strengthened when
combined with social security expenditures (Xu, 2023).
The evidence from multiple studies demonstrates that digital finance
is a powerful driver for improving the conditions of socially backward
classes. It reduces poverty, enhances financial inclusion, supports

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entrepreneurship, and promotes rural revitalization, with the most

potent effects seen in disadvantaged and underserved communities.
Objectives of the study
1. To present the inequality scenario of E-Transaction Per 1000
Population for all north-east Indian states.
2. To quantify the impact of Funds released under the E-Utthaan
scheme on E-Transaction Per 1000 Population at the national
and north eastern states level.
Data collection
The data utilised in this paper has been procured from the National
Data and Analytics Platform (NDAP). NDAP is NITI Aayog‘s
flagship initiative to improve access and use of government data. It is
a user-friendly web platform aggregating and hosting datasets across
India‘s vast statistical infrastructure. Two data sets have been obtained
from NDAP: E-Transaction Per 1000 Population from Electronic
Transaction Aggregation and Analysis Layer (ETAAL) and Funds
Released Under E-Utthaan Scheme. The E-Utthaan scheme is an
initiative taken by the government of India to ensure that all segments
of society, particularly the Scheduled castes, benefit. The Government
allocates funds across Ministries or Departments for schemes where
targeted financial and physical benefits can accrue to the Scheduled
Castes. E-Transaction per 1000 Population data ranges between
1/1/2013 and 4/16/2025. State-wise Financial Report on Funds
released under E-Utthaan ranges between 2017 and 2022. Both of
these datasets have been merged in NDAP for analysis purposes.
Research Methodology
The analysis depends on a linear regression, Gini coefficient, kernel
density function, and quartile analysis.

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OLS model
A simple linear regression aims to forecast the value of a dependent
variable based on an independent variable. The substantial the linear
relationship between the independent and dependent variables, the
more precise the prediction. This goes along with the fact that the
more significant the proportion of the dependent variable's variance
that the independent variable can explain, the more accurate the
prediction. Undisguisedly, the relationship between the variables can
be exhibited in a scatter plot. The more prominent the linear
relationship between the dependent and independent variables, the
better the data points represent a straight line.
The following equation can describe the regression line:
y = bx + a+ ∈
Here, y is estimated dependent variable
b is the gradient of the straight line
x is the independent variable
a is the point of intersection with the y-axis
∈ is the residual or error parameter
The regression coefficient b can have different signs, which can be
elucidated as follows
 b > 0: positive correlation between x and y (the greater x, the
greater y)
 b < 0: negative correlation between x and y (the greater x, the
smaller y)
 b = 0: There is no correlation between x and y

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2. Gini coefficient
The Gini coefficient is the most generally used measure of inequality.
It was designed by Italian statistician Corrado Gini (1884–1965) and
named after him. It estimates inequality on a scale from 0 to 1, where
higher values point higher inequality. A value of 0 signifies perfect
equality, and 1 indicates perfect inequality. Below, we present two
definitions of the Gini coefficient.
Definition 1
The Gini coefficient is established on the Lorenz curve, a graph of
population proportion on the horizontal axis and the income share on
the vertical axis. The index is the difference in population
proportion (Yk-Yk-1) weighted by Xk, which is the metric's value for a
unit k.
N
Gini1 = 1 - Σk=1 Yk − Yk−1 Xk + X k−1
Definition 2
In an alternate formula mathematically equivalent to Definition 1, the
Gini coefficient can also be defined as half of the relative mean
absolute difference. This method sums the differences in the metric
value Xk across all the units in the set N, weighted by the average
metric value and the total number of units. In this definition, the Gini
coefficient measures the difference between the deviation in the
metric X across units.

j∈N k∈N Xj − Xk
Gini2 =
2n2 X
3. kernel density function
A Gaussian kernel, which was adopted from Cameroon and Trivedi, is
used. A non-parametric kernel density estimate is given by

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n n
1 1 x − xi
fh (x) = K h x − xi = K ,
n nh h
i=1 i=1

Where K is the kernel, a non-negative function, and h > 0 is

a smoothing parameter called the bandwidth or simply width. A kernel
with subscript h is called the scaled kernel and is defined as Kh(x) =
1 x
K( ). Intuitively, one wants to choose h as small as the data will
h h
allow. However, there is always a trade-off between the estimator's
bias and variance.
4. Quartile analysis
Quartiles split the entire set into four equal portions. So, there are
three quartiles, first, second, and third, represented by Q1, Q2, and Q3,
respectively. Q2 is nothing but the median, since it exhibits the
position of the item in the list and thus is a positional average. To find
the quartiles of a data group, we have to arrange the data in ascending
order.
 First quartile: 25% from smallest to largest of numbers
 Second quartile: between 25.1% and 50% (till median)
 Third quartile: 51% to 75% (above the median)
 Fourth quartile: 25% of the largest numbers
Analysis and interpretation
As stated in the research methodology, the analysis begins with
constructing an OLS model. E-Transaction per 1000 Population is the
dependent variable, and Fund released under the E-Utthaan scheme is
the independent variable. Two OLS models have been developed, one
for the northeastern states and another for all Indian states and UTs.

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Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-2.6667 -0.6048 0.4868 0.9145 1.1125

Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
0.0030 *
(Intercept) 2.818022 0.589789 4.778 7 *
[Link]
.[Link]
[Link]...UO
[Link]
Rupees.. 0.012711 0.009177 1.385 0.2153
Signif. codes: 0 ‗***‘ 0.001 ‗**‘ 0.01 ‗*‘ 0.05 ‗.‘ 0.1 ‗ ‘ 1
Residual standard error: 1.383 on 6 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared: 0.2423, Adjusted R-squared: 0.116
F-statistic: 1.919 on 1 and 6 DF, p-value: 0.2153

Table 1

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Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-6.517 -3.149 -1.477 0.416 23.137
Coefficients:
Std.
Estimate Error t value Pr(>|t|)
2.31 **
(Intercept) 6.842825 1.199697 5.704 E-06 *
[Link]
.[Link]...U
[Link]
Rupees.. -0.00045 0.00088 -0.512 0.612
Signif. codes: 0 ‗***‘ 0.001 ‗**‘ 0.01 ‗*‘ 0.05 ‗.‘ 0.1 ‗ ‘ 1
Residual standard error: 5.731 on 33 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared: 0.007877, Adjusted R-squared: -0.02219
F-statistic: 0.262 on 1 and 33 DF, p-value: 0.6122

Table 2
Table 1 shows the OLS model constructed for the Northeastern states,
and Table 2 shows the OLS model constructed for all Indian states and
UTs.
The Gini coefficient has been calculated based on E-Transactions per
1000 population every year from 2013 to 2025 to quantify inequality
of E-Transactions for the northeastern states, as shown in Table 3.

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Table 3

Gini coefficient
2013 0.671835
2014 0.766735
2015 0.718657
2016 0.773336
2017 0.511803
2018 0.41417
2019 0.404892
2020 0.478882
2021 0.662077
2022 0.937837
2023 0.872904
2024 0.925066
2025 0.631897

Figure 1
Figure 1 is the graphical presentation of Table 3.

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A kernel density estimate (KDE) plot is a method for envisioning the

distribution of observations in a dataset, analogous to a histogram.
Kernel density estimation (KDE) is the application of kernel
smoothing for probability density estimation. The peaks of the kernel
density plots are the modes of the observations, which means the point
where the values are mainly concentrated. In the KDE plots, there is
more than one peak, which means the values are concentrated across
many values.
The kernel density function was calculated using E-Transactions per
1000 population from 2013 to 2015 for every northeastern state.
Table 4
Max. of Density Min. of Density
State E-Transaction Density E-Transaction Density Peaks
Per 1000 Per 1000 Count
Population Population
Tripura 3.2656 0.5430 1129.6518 2.02E-20 134
Mizoram 3.5156 0.4690 1805.4922 2.80E-20 116
Manipur 1.4850 0.8014 230.7951 1.90E-19 131
Nagaland 0.5113 0.4151 590.6715 2.58E-20 103
Sikkim 1.4270 0.1983 141.7583 5.95E-20 99
Arunachal 0.7991 0.3187 242.3366 4.68E-20 91
Pradesh
Meghalaya 5.6211 0.3540 2300.9412 5.19E-20 127
Assam 1.1951 0.3155 422.8340 8.22E-21 109

Table 4 represents the maximum and minimum probability density

from the kernel density function for every north-east Indian state,
along with their respective E-Transaction Per 1000 Population values.

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Figure 2

Figure 3
Figure 2 and Figure 3 represent kernel density plots of E-Transactions
per 1000 population for every northeastern state from 2013 to 2015.
The sole purpose of making two different plots is to showcase the
whole variability of probability density variation.
To position each northeastern state annually, a quartile-based analysis
of E-transactions per 1000 population of all northeastern states from
2013 to 2015 is carried out.

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Table 5
Table 5 represents the above-mentioned quartile-based analysis.
Findings and conclusions of the study
Based on the analysis, it can be concluded that: -
1. The fund released under the E-Utthaan scheme is ineffective
for increasing E-Transactions across the states and UTs of
India (refer to Table 2).

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2. The fund released under the E-Utthaan scheme effectively

increases E-Transactions across the northeastern states of
India (refer to Table 1). Since the scheme focuses on the
socioeconomic and financial inclusion of Scheduled Castes,
its purpose has been effectively served in the northeastern
states rather than the rest of the country.
3. The E-Transaction per 1000 Population in north-eastern
Indian states is chiefly concentrated between 5.6211 and
0.5113. Lower probability density values are concentrated
between 2300.942 and 14.7583, but here the probability
density is very low (refer to Table 4).
4. From 2013 to 2025, E-Transaction inequality across
northeastern Indian states exhibited considerable variation. In
2025, the inequality parameter was slightly lower than that of
2013. In 2019 and 2022, the parameter touched its lowest and
highest points, respectively (refer to Table 3).
5. From 2013 to 2025, if we consider the E-Transactions of all
states and UTs of India, it can be observed that the
northeastern states mostly fall in the first and second quartile
of all India E-Transactions per 1000 Population. Between
2022 and 2024, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura reached the
fourth quartile of India E-Transactions (refer to Table 5).
6. Among all northeastern states, Meghalaya is in the best
position, followed by Mizoram and Tripura, regarding E-
Transactions per 1000 from 2013 to 2025 (see Tables 5 and 4).
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GENDER AND SOCIAL INJUSTICE IN “ARUVI” (2016) : A

CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
Anbalagan Dhevayani
Department of Sociology
Faculty of Arts and Culture
South Eastern University of Sri Lanka.
Correspondence: anbalagandevayani@[Link]
ABSTRACT
This research employs content analysis to investigate the
representation of gender and social injustice within the critically
acclaimed Tamil film "Aruvi" (2016). The analysis focuses on
identifying and categorizing instances of gender discrimination and
social inequality as depicted through character, dialogue, behavior,
and narrative development. The film starkly portrays the inter
sectionalism of gender with class and social stigma, highlighting the
systemic oppression faced by women in contemporary Indian society.
By examining Aruvi's rebellion against societal norms and her
struggle for dignity this study explores the film's commentary on the
pervasive nature of gender inequality and the urgent need for social
justice. The data for this research were obtained from secondary
sources such as reports, books, research articles and websites. The
analysis critically examines through the characterization of female and
role of male. Feminist theoretical frameworks and relevant literature
reviews have utilized to validate the findings of this research. This
analysis contributes to understand how mainstream cinema shapes
public perceptions of Gender and Social Injustice.
Keywords : Aruvi, Gender , social injustice, Gender inequality
1. Introduction
Cinema is one of the most important art forms that influences our
lives. It is also called cinema or moving pictures. It is a powerful form
of storytelling. In the late 19th century, the film industry gradually
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grew. Figures like Thomas Edison and the Lumière brothers were
pioneers of motion picture technology. In the early days, films
appeared silent. They lasted only a few minutes with live musical
accompaniment. Later, with the advancement of technology, the film
industry grew. Today, the film industry has grown to be intertwined
with human life (Webmaster, 2025).
South Indian cinema is the unification of Kollywood (Tamil cinema),
Tollywood (Telugu cinema), Mollywood (Malayalam cinema), and
Sandalwood (Kannada cinema).For the first time, in the 1900s, a
production company for silent films was established in Chennai. In
1918, the movie Keechakavadham, directed by R. Nataraja Mudaliar,
marked the dawn of South Indian cinema. Later, on October 31, 1931,
Kalidas became the first talkie film in South India. To date, numerous
films have been released in South Indian cinema; however, only a
select few contribute to the social awareness of the community. The
film 'Aruvi' stands as one such contribution (Barath, 2023)
Aruvi" is a film that blends elements of satire, awareness, sorrow, and
thriller. This movie was written and directed by Arun Prabhu
Purushothaman. Bindhu Malini and Vedanth Bharadwaj worked as its
music composers. The main characters in this film are played by Aditi
Balan, Anjali Varadhan, and Lakshmi Gopalaswami. With a runtime of
130 minutes, this movie was released on December 15, 2017
(Anjalisk, 2019)
This film commences with Aruvi being apprehended by the police and
extends to depict her past life circumstances, culminating in the
demise of Aruvi. The woman named Aruvi lives happily in a loving
family. However, due to an unexpected HIV infection, she is
ostracized from her family. Subsequently, she encounters several
distinct individuals in society, one of whom is her friend, Emini. The
two become close companions. Subsequently, after being subjected to
sexual harassment by society, Aruvi goes to the "Solvathellam
Sathyam" (Everything is Truth) program to file a complaint. It is after

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this that her life takes a different turn. In this society, Aruvi is
identified as a terrorist. Ultimately, she proves to society that she is
not at fault before passing away. The director has produced this story
as a form of public awareness for society. In that regard, this film
progresses interestingly, based on concise character portrayals. The
central character of Aruvi, depicted in this film, has been created as a
courageous woman fighting for justice in this society, which enhances
the film's strength. Furthermore, the character of Emini also serves as
a very powerful portrayal in this film. Following this, all other
characters have acted in accordance with the story, making it very
easy for the director to convey the message they intended to deliver to
society
This study employs the method of content analysis. Specifically, it
focuses on analyzing the film's narrative, style of storytelling, and
character development through content analysis to clearly investigate
the director's intended message to society through this cinematic
work."
2. Research object
To examine the gender and social injustice in Aruvi
3. Research Problems
Today, countries are seen to be progressing in all aspects such as
socio-economic and cultural. They keep changing according to the
times. The cinema industry is one such inclusion. However, in most
South Indian films, gender discrimination is openly visible. How is
this expressed in the movie 'Aruvi'? Identifying why is the research
problem formulated for this study, and this study has been undertaken.

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4. Research methodology

4.1 Data collection method

This research study's data was solely sourced from secondary sources.
Accordingly, information was gathered from books, research papers,
articles, and scholarly works.
4.2 Data analysis method
This research was analyzed through a content analysis methodology.
Accordingly, a comprehensive analysis was conducted, focusing on
the film's narrative, plot, characters, and dialogues

5. Discussions any analysis

5.1 The characterization of female roles

Stereotyping is a set of generally accepted traits by a society to
identify an object or a specific person. This also applies to women.
There are certain traits for a woman. When a woman possesses them,
in this society, a woman is expected to be passive, emotional, capable
of doing household chores, and someone who gives high importance
to beauty.
In the movie "Aruvi," the woman who appears as Aruvi's mother is
seen to have such traits. Her life is dependent on her husband and
children. Only when a woman is like that, she is considered accepted
in this society. it can be said that the song 'Kukkotti Kunaatti,' which is
the first song in this film, reflects this idea. Generally, due to the
societal expectation that a woman's life should revolve around her
family, most of her goals are perceived to be related to that. In that
context, the following statement expresses the depiction of the life
goal of the character Aruvi in this film.
“I wanted to get married and have a kid”

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How I should bring my kid up. I longed for it, that child‟s Face”
Let‘s now look at the literature review related to this statement. Engels
has said about this. He pointed out that the societal structure at the
time often confined women to the domestic sphere, essentially
requiring them to stay within the home. He also observed that women
were largely valued for their ability to bear children, reducing their
role in society to primarily that of a reproductive instrument
((Rayakaran, 2001).
Nimirvu (2018) delves into the specific ways women face inequalities.
It sounds like they're providing a detailed picture by breaking it down
into areas like educational disparities and workplace discrimination,
which makes it easier to grasp the multifaceted nature of the issue.
Highlighting real-world examples is a powerful way to demonstrate
how gender biases play out in everyday life. And those factors they
list as contributing to women's vulnerability – deception, sexual
harassment, the challenges faced by female-headed households,
poverty, and family breakdown – really underscore the systemic issues
at play. It paints a picture of how various social and economic factors
can intersect and disproportionately affect women. Thanks for
pointing that out! It sounds like a valuable resource
The Keetru (2015) seems to be highlighting the deeply ingrained
societal expectations placed on women, particularly the traditional
Tamil concepts of fear (timidity), ignorance (innocence), shyness
(modesty), and chastity (nurturing).The point about the character
"Aruvi" being portrayed as a radical for defying these norms is a
powerful illustration of how women who don't conform to these
prescribed traits can be stigmatized.
Economic factors are presented as a primary reason for women's
reliance on men. You see this reflected in the character of Aruvi's
mother in the film, who appears to be economically dependent on her
husband, thus shaping her decisions and overall life.

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While it's often considered a defining aspect of womanhood, the

societal structure still often places the father in a position of greater
authority and recognition concerning children. This can indeed leave
mothers in a less powerful position. The example when Aruvi‘s father
told her to leave the house, Aruvi‘s mother did not object and accepted
his decision.
The protagonist of this film, Aruvi, is crafted as a character that stands
in opposition to conventional female-centric ideas. Accordingly, Aruvi
leaves her family and lives independently. She participates in the
program ―Solvadhellam Sathyam‖ to seek solutions for all the
atrocities committed against her, pointing out the wrongdoings of
individuals like Arulmani, Asari and Joshph, and fights for her rights.
At the same time, she threatens those who attempt to act against her in
the ‗Solvadhellam Sathyam‘ program by brandishing a gun. Finally,
when faced with death due to AIDS, she leaves the hospital and lives
alone in a settlement inhabited by indigenous people. Due to these
actions, Aruvi's behavior is seen as contrary to typical feminine traits,
leading her to be portrayed as a 'terrorist' through certain words in the
film.
“Are you Naxal or Maoists? How many passports do you have ?
Where were you trained?”
In this society, women are often viewed as mere characters to fulfill
sexual desires. In this context, it can be identified that three men
sexually abused the woman in this film, taking advantage of her
circumstances.
“Logically, if she has been with three men the she definitely is not
a holy virgin”
Let‘s now look at the literature review related to this statement.
Tamilarankam (2025) offers a deep dive into gender disparities
specifically within the context of Hinduism.

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It says how they utilize Hindu mythology to illustrate the power

imbalance, portraying men as figures of authority and women as
lacking it. The reference to the Devadasi system is a stark example of
how women, despite being ostensibly dedicated to divine service,
were often relegated to the role of prostitutes within the community.
The use of Vedic statements to outline a woman's life in Hinduism,
where her primary duties are depicted as servitude, and her role is
largely defined by childbearing and fulfilling sexual needs, is a critical
point. Ganga Pravar ritual and the portrayal of women in Hindu Sutras
as sexual commodities, even suggesting a religious sanction for the
violation of women.
This paints a concerning picture of how religious texts and traditions
can be interpreted and used to justify and perpetuate gender inequality,
reducing women to subordinate roles and objects of male desire. It's
important to critically examine these interpretations and their
historical and social impact.
The citation Rayakaran, 2001 suggests this is a perspective supported
by further academic analysis. It's fascinating how these deeply
ingrained beliefs across different faiths have historically shaped and
continue to influence perceptions of gender roles.
Feminist Voices (2020) and their piece "What is Socialist Feminism,"
highlighting how it connects the oppression of women to both
socialist structures and economic dependence on men. This aligns
perfectly with a key argument of socialist feminism: that women's lack
of economic independence makes them vulnerable within patriarchal
relationships. Without their own financial resources, women may feel
compelled to stay in unequal or even abusive situations. The portrayal
of Aruvi's mother seems to be a direct illustration of this dynamic. It's
a powerful way to show how larger economic structures can impact
individual lives and relationships.;.
Avalynesh Class (2022) specifically the piece titled "What is Socialist
Feminism?", offers a clear analysis of socialist feminism. it provides

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a detailed explanation of socialism and, importantly, highlights the

unequal position of women within society.
This aligns with a core tenet of socialist feminism, which argues that
women's oppression is rooted in both patriarchy and capitalism. The
unpaid domestic labor that women disproportionately undertake is
seen as essential for maintaining the capitalist system, as it reproduces
the workforce without direct cost to employers. It's a really insightful
connection to make.
In this society, there exists a specific mindset regarding transgender
individuals. For example, there's a perception that transgender people
engage in sexual activities as their profession and are marginalized
from society. Even though the character of Emily, depicted in this
film, stands against such notions, the societal attitude towards
transgender people is revealed through certain dialogues of
transgender individuals. The article seems to acknowledge that the
societal failure to recognize transgender people as women leads to
significant challenges. The society often relies on stereotypes to
identify transgender individuals, and even when they don't conform to
these narrow expectations, as with the character Emily in the film,
they still face considerable hardship. This intersectional perspective,
considering both gender and gender identity, is crucial for a
comprehensive understanding of inequality. In that context, the
following statement expresses openly.
"Even if a Miss World walked down the street, they wouldn't look
like that; they look at us like that”
“Isn't that so? How is this possible for three people”
5.2 The characterization of male roles
Manifestation of Patriarchal Tendencies Generally, in this film called
'Aruvi,' a woman is portrayed as physically and mentally weaker than
a man. For example, we can point to the statement made by the

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employer who gave Aruvi all the work, after he hit her. Through this
dialogue, a woman is identified as physically powerless."
„You are so timid and you threaten us with a gun‟
Who are you messing with? die
In this society, men and women are not treated equally. In that context,
the unequal dialogues and unequal situations depicted in this film are
clearly pointed out. For example, Aruvi did not commit any mistake.
She contracted AIDS through circumstantial situations without her
knowledge. Even so, without understanding her situation in that
family, solely because she is a woman, her family pointed out that she
must have made a mistake and she was ostracized by them. This is
explicitly expressed through the following statement
“The wretch went somewhere and brought back the disease”
What is revealed through these statements is that in this society,
without any analysis, it is assumed that the woman must have made a
mistake. At the same time, there is a perception that if a woman hadn't
made a mistake, she wouldn't have spoken out against this society or
against a man. Only if she had made a mistake would she speak up.
That is, even when a woman fights for her rights, without verifying
her truth, she is assumed to be the one at fault. This clearly exposes
the unequal status of women in society."
“People around me thought that I got infected due to sex. My
parents and my brother only know about this my family thought
that I was a disgrace”
This society operates on the flawed principle of one justice for men
and another for women. Accordingly, even if a man openly commits a
mistake in society, he walks confidently in that society. In that context,
in this film, the three men who sexually abused Aruvi, despite having
committed a mistake, confidently participated in the program
―Solvadhellam Sathyam‖. From this, it can be understood that this

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society provides men with the opportunity to live without guilt even if
they commit mistakes. At the same time, even if a man has committed
a mistake, he justifies it, and without accepting his own mistake, he
blames the woman for being at fault, thereby revealing the social gap
between men and women. The statements that illustrate this are as
follows.
“You have put the life of three people at risk. Are you fooling
around? Citing your dad‟s illness, you got laid for money, isn‟t
it?”
Through this, patriarchal tendencies can be understood. At the same
time, after learning that Aruvi has AIDS, forgetting the atrocities
committed against her, the announcer states that she is the one at fault.
Through this, it can be observed that even if men commit mistakes,
only the mistakes committed by women are taken into consideration
in this society.
Let‘s now look at the literature review related to this statement.
various religions, in their traditional interpretations, often reinforce a
hierarchical structure where wives are expected to be subservient to
their husbands, drawing parallels to obedience to a divine figure.
 Christianity: Ephesians 5:22 suggests wives should submit to
their husbands as to the Lord, and Ephesians 5:33 emphasizes
the wife's respect for her husband.
 Islam: Surah Al-Baqarah 2:222-223 uses the analogy of
wives as "fields" for their husbands, implying a connection
between women and procreation.
 Buddhism: You've mentioned ethical guidelines where a
wife's primary virtues include obedience to her husband,
respectful communication with elders, and gentle speech with
virtuous individuals.
 Hinduism: The Manusmriti (9.2) states that women should be
kept under the control of men day and night.

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these religious perspectives to the broader societal expectation that

women should be obedient and primarily valued for their reproductive
capabilities, as also discussed by Engels. these religious frameworks
contribute to and reflect the patriarchal norms where a woman's social
acceptance is often tied to her role as a child bearer and her
compliance with male authority
The article ―Clinical Feminism: Definition, Theory & Examples‖ by
Olivia Frew and others (2024). Discussion on how men are often
positioned as having authority over women's sexuality. The article,
according to your interpretation, suggests that women can be viewed
as objects of male sexual desire. the inclusion of books that further
elaborate on this, specifically mentioning "Female Sexual Slavery
(1979), which apparently identifies how women are often considered
the property of their husbands after marriage. This is a powerful and
disturbing concept that underscores the lack of autonomy women can
face within patriarchal structures.
5.3 Gender discrimination in the media
In today's modern world, the media has become our ruling power.
Generally, television channels meant to solve people's problems are
now advertising those problems to increase their TRP ratings. In that
context, if we look at the initial evidence, upon learning that a woman
named Aruvi was victimized by three men, they titled the program
―Three Monstrous Men Who Deceived a Beautiful Innocent Girl‖
Furthermore, we can point to the director asking, "How do we handle
this title?" and the Peter, responding, "Super, sir," as a clear
indication.
Furthermore, when Aruvi, in anger, threatened others with a gun,
instead of trying to calm her down or understand her situation, the
director attempted to film the incident to sensationalize the television
program for TRP. This also serves as evidence. Similarly, to illustrate
how they would go to any lengths to increase their TRP, we can point

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to the director's statement to sensationalize the 'Sollavathellam

Sathiyam' program. The statement is as follows:
“Someone will hit that girl, a fight will break out, just let it
happen, madam, Logically, if she has been with three men the she
definitely is not a holy virgin we will step in if it goes out of
control” the director told the interviewer.
This reveals the deceptive drama behind television programs that
claim to provide justice while exploiting emotions. Moreover,
television channels often prioritize obtaining information and
sensationalizing news, leading them to present information to the
public without verifying its authenticity, relying solely on what they
have heard. The television news shown here is also depicted in a
similar manner. Without determining Aruvi's true identity, they label
her a terrorist. As evidence, the news report states,
“Currently, we are receiving some sensational information. More
than 20 people who participated in the filming of a private
television show in Mylapore Velunagar third street have been
taken hostage by terrorists‖
Furthermore, people completely trust the media's words as truth. In
this context, a person named Sabapathi called Jaya TV and said,
“Laws and punishments should be made stricter, sir. We should
not show mercy to girls like Aruvi. They should be stoned to death
in the middle of the road” which serves as an example. Additionally,
this film clearly shows that television announcers generally prioritize
clothing and accessories over addressing people's problems. As
evidence, when the interviewer saree was not properly arranged, she
asked Peter,
“How can you put this on if she's this crazy?' I asked for yellow
ones and he has sews orange ones tell you director that I cant wear
it ―and behaved rudely. We can also mention her statement,

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'Shouldn't the costume for the baby shower set look good? The
blouse should be perfect‖
In this scenario, AIDS has been used as a tool to increase TRP
(Television Rating Point). Although the television crew knew that the
3 men did not have AIDS, they concealed the truth to boost the
program's TRP and extend it to another day. This can be clearly
understood from the following statement:
“Lets continue with the emotion and continue the episode for the
next week. We will reveal the results in the next episode and it on
a happy note”
From this statement, it is evident that the television channel is not
primarily concerned with revealing the truth, but rather focuses on the
popularity of their program and maximizing their profits.
Furthermore, chastity is seen as exclusively the responsibility of
women. Even if a woman has not committed any wrongdoing, if she
experiences sexual misconduct, it is considered her fault. This is
evident when Aruvi was diagnosed with AIDS, it was seen as her
mistake. This can be clearly understood.
6. Conclusion
This research employs content analysis to investigate the portrayal of
gender and social injustice in the film Aruvi. Specifically, it examines
these themes through three primary subtopics: the characterization of
women, the role of male characters, Social injustice in media and the
broader societal implications of the narrative. The analysis aims to
understand how the film utilizes the protagonist's personal journey to
illuminate prevalent societal issues, prompting viewers to question
normative structures, the treatment of marginalized communities, and
the influence of patriarchal systems.

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Reference
1. Anjalisk, V.A.P.B. (2019) The Indian Kaleidoscope : Aruvi
(2017) : Review.
[Link]
kaleidoscope-aruvi-2017-review/.
2. Barathi, (2023). Umai patam mudhal ulaga padam varia
tenninthiya cinimavin
valarcci.[Link]
growth-of-south-indian-cinema.
3. Dharmini, B. (2018). Anatikkattirkul omilumaT permatikaram
Nimirvu.
4. [Link]
5. Nieve. (2019, April 3). Viewing gender in film.
[Link]
powerpoint-ppt-presentation
6. Periyar. (2015, March 11). Anarikatka camukam, [Link].
[Link]
12-07-41-35/27990-2015-03-11-08-01-21
7. Rayakaran, P. (2001). Anatikkamum penniyamum.
Keezhaikatru
8. Trayagaran, P. (1980, Jammary 1). Anatikaika indhu
madhamum pennum. Tamilarangam.
9. [Link]
:0103&id=1857:2008-06-08-21-27-
22&option=com_content&Itemid=76&lang=ta
10. Unen (2015, June 1). Gender discrimination
[Link]
help/knowledge/discrimination/gender-discrimination/
11. Webmaster (2025) What is Film? - Acting Magazine.
[Link] (w.P)

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MARGINALISED

COMMUNITIES
S. Thamarai Selvi,
I MA, History, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamilnadu
(Affiliated to University of Madras)

M. Ayswarni,
I MA, History, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamilnadu
(Affiliated to University of Madras)

ABSTRACT:
The historical development of marginalised communities is a complex
process shaped by centuries of exclusion, resistance, and gradual
empowerment. Across regions and periods, various groups—including
Dalits, Adivasis, women, religious minorities, persons with
disabilities, and LGBTQIA individuals have faced systemic social,
economic, and political marginalisation. This paper traces the
historical trajectory of these communities, highlighting key moments
of institutionalised oppression such as caste hierarchies, colonisation,
slavery, and patriarchal norms. Simultaneously, it foregrounds the
enduring struggles for dignity, rights, and representation, including
social reform movements, constitutional safeguards, affirmative action
policies, and grassroots activism. By analysing both oppression and
resistance, this study provides a critical understanding of how
historical processes continue to influence the present realities of
marginalised groups. The paper also explores the intersectionality of
marginalisation and the evolving role of the state, civil society, and
global human rights discourses in shaping inclusive development.
Keywords:

Marginalized communities, historical development, Social justice,

inclusion, human rights.

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1. INTRODUCTION
The historical evolution of India's marginalized communities is
intricately linked to the nation's distinct social, political, and economic
structure, which is primarily influenced by the caste system's lasting
effects. Indian society has been divided into strict hierarchies for
centuries, with the caste system giving various groups distinct roles,
professions, and social standing. The Brahmins were at the top,
followed by Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, while Dalits, who
were once known as Untouchables, were at the bottom and faced
harsh discrimination and exclusion. In addition to limiting Dalits and
other marginalized groups access to resources and opportunities, this
system also imposed social norms that prevented them from accessing
temples, schools, and even necessities like clean drinking water.
Because of their unique cultural customs and remote location.
India's indigenous tribal communities, known as Adivasis, have also
historically been marginalized. Their disadvantage has been further
cemented by outside exploitation, lack of access to healthcare and
education, and encroachment on their ancestral lands. Similar social
and economic obstacles have been faced by religious minorities like
Muslims and Christians, who are frequently made worse by inter
communal conflicts and marginalization from mainstream
development. In India, colonial rule made the marginalization
situation even more complex. Caste divisions were formalized and
strengthened by the British government through laws which limited
lower-caste and non-landowning groups' economic mobility and
property rights. Caste identities were strengthened by the colonial
census and legal systems which categories approved by the state. This
legacy persisted in independent India, where the government
implemented affirmative action policies and constitutional protections
for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and later Other
Backward Classes (OBCs) due to the long-standing nature of caste-
based and tribal marginalization. These measures included
reservations in government employment and education.

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India's marginalized communities still face many obstacles in spite of

these legislative and policy changes. Dalits and Adivasis continue to
face widespread discrimination and violence. The history of India's
marginalized communities is one of exclusion and resistance,
influenced by colonial interventions, historical social structures, and
contemporary attempts at redress. Addressing the enduring disparities
that still characterize Indian society today requires an understanding
of this trajectory.
2. Literature review which served as the resistance for
marginalized communities
The portrayal of marginalized groups within Indian literature has
transformed over time from being disregarded and stereotyped to
emerging as a potent force for self-representation and societal
resistance. Literature stands as a vital tool for both recording and
fighting against marginalization because it reflects the shifting
dynamics of social power.
2.1Early Literary Silence and Stereotyping
Throughout history, the literary traditions of India including both
classical and colonial eras maintained a practice of either excluding or
misrepresenting the experiences of Dalits and Adivasis alongside
other marginalized communities. The narratives of these groups
underwent distortion through the filter of dominant social orders
which resulted in the reinforcement of existing social prejudices.
2.2 The Rise of Marginalised Voices
In the 19th and 20th centuries, voices began to emerge from these
communities. Lack of a historiography made literature the main
source of social reality. Early works such as Mulk Raj Anand‘s
―Untouchable‖ (1935) and later, Omprakash Valmiki‘s Joothan (1997),
gave unmitigated accounts of caste oppression and everyday
humiliations of Dalits. These texts constituted a change from

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representation by outsiders to self-representation in which lived

experiences and resistance take center stage.
2.3 Dalit and Adivasi Literatures as Movements
From the seventies the Dalit literature became a separate and assertive
genre in regional languages as well as the English language. Writers
including Baburao Bagul, Namdeo Dhasal and Bama employed
poetry, autobiography and fiction to express the pain, anger and hopes
of Dalits. Their literature is not only symptomatic of despair, it's a
protest and a plea for social change. Adivasi literature, less visible,
has also emerged she‘s heard, for instance, through writers like
Mahasweta Devi, shouting about the struggles, dispossession and
resilience in tribal lives. Devi‘s writings, which include Aranyer
Adhikar and Chotti Munda O Tar Teer, are a record of the intersection
of tribal identity, land rights, and state repression, an ethnographic
account of the circumstances of India‘s indigenous peoples.
2.4 Mainstreaming and Recognition
You have witnessed the slow but steady road to respectability of
once-marginal voices, Dalit and Adivasi texts being inducted into
academic syllabi and literary canons. The inclusion announced is also
indicative of a larger acceptance of these perspectives in
understanding the social reality of India. Yet to fight for total
representation and recognition remains a work in progress, as
discrimination and exclusion continue to play out in both the real
world and in literature.
3. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES FACED BY THE
ADIVASIS AND DALITS
The historical state of exclusion, discrimination and systemic
marginalisation is at the heart of the socio political issues faced by the
Adivasis and Dalits in India. Both have suffered generations of
institutionalized inequality that has left intractable social and
economic legacies. Adivasis, or tribal communities, for whom forests
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have been a source of livelihood since time immemorial. But the

introduction of colonial forest laws and the prevalence of continued
state sponsored development projects post independence, such as
mining, dam building and..., has renewed tensions between the state
and forest industrialization Adivasis have been historically uprooted
from their traditional lands. This dispossession has resulted in the
undermining of their traditional economies and their incorporation
into a socio-economic order that to a large extent is adverse to them.
Valleys and lowlands have been swiped away by affluent big money
and the Shudirs and the poorest of poor in Adivasis are victims of
exploitation by landlords, moneylenders, corporate houses for land
and control over the same.
Dalits (formerly known as untouchables), who have traditionally held
the lowest status in the caste system, have subjugated in all walks of
social and economic life. By excluding them from land, education
and work that offers dignity of labour for centuries, they have been
forced into the most demeaning and menial work, from manual
scavenging to bonded labour. Despite constitutional protections and
quotas for jobs and university places, discrimination continues to exert
an impact across society and the economy. Practices that prevent
Dalits from using wells, entering temples and taking common
community paths are social exclusion. Both Dalits and Adivasis face
restricted access to quality healthcare and education. Poor
infrastructure, high dropout rates, and discriminatory treatment within
schools impede learning. With regard to health, both communities
tend to reside in isolated or unattended localities with little access to
medical centers, resulting in excessive malnutrition, maternal deaths,
and illnesses that are preventable.

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Challenges Adivasis Dalits

Poverty High, resource-
High, manual labour, wage
dependent, landless discrimination
Employment Displacement, informal Informal sector,
sector, low wages underrepresentation
Education Low literacy, high
Low enrolment, high
dropout, poor access dropout, exclusion
Health Poor access, high diseasePoor access,
burden discrimination, high
expenses
Social Marginalisation, loss of Caste-based
Exclusion respect discrimination, segregation
Food Malnutrition, Linked to poverty, less
Security undernourishment acute than STs

4. DATA ANALYSIS OF MARGINALIZED COMMUNITIES

4.1. Literacy Rate and Educational Attainment
Community Overall Literacy (%) Male Female (%)
(%)
National Average 74.0 82.1 65.5
Dalits (SCs) 66.1 75.2 56.5
Adivasis (STs) 58.9 68.5 49.4

Description:

Educational exclusion has deep historical roots. Dalits and Adivasis

have lower literacy rates compared to the national average. Among
Adivasi women, literacy is particularly low (below 50%), revealing
compounded disadvantages of gender and tribe. These disparities are
linked to school dropouts, lack of access, and discrimination within
institutions.

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4.2. Poverty Incidence

Community Below Poverty Line (%)
General ~15%
Dalits (SCs) ~31.5%
Adivasis (STs) ~45.3%

Description:
Adivasis and Dalits are overrepresented among the poor. For Adivasis,
poverty is closely tied to displacement, land alienation, and exclusion
from mainstream economic development. For Dalits, caste-based
restrictions have denied them access to land and resources,
perpetuating generational poverty.
4.3 Land Ownership and Displacement
Indicator Dalits (SCs) Adivasis (STs)
Share in agricultural land (<2013) <5% ~8%
Land loss due to displacement High Very High

Description:
Dalits have historically been landless due to caste-based prohibitions.
Adivasis, while once owning communal forest lands, have seen
significant displacement due to mining, infrastructure, and
conservation policies. Land alienation contributes directly to food
insecurity and impoverishment.
4.4. Employment Patterns (PLFS 2022)
Employment Type Dalits (%) Adivasis (%)
Agricultural Labour 41.1 35.6
Casual Labour 24.8 29.1
Salaried Jobs 16.7 13.4
Self-employed 17.4 21.9

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Description:
Both Dalits and Adivasis are concentrated in low-paying, informal
jobs. Adivasis rely more on self-employment in forest and agricultural
activities, while Dalits are more frequently engaged as agricultural and
manual labourers. Formal sector participation remains minimal due to
systemic exclusion and low education.
4.5. Access to Basic Services (NFHS-5, 2019–21)
Service Indicator Dalits (%) Adivasis (%)
Institutional Births 91.4 84.2
Access to Safe Drinking Water 89.8 78.4
Toilet Access (Improved) 62.5 51.7

Description:

Despite improvements, significant gaps remain. Adivasis have lower

access to clean water and sanitation, contributing to poor health
outcomes. Dalits fare better comparatively due to closer proximity to
urban settlements, but both communities lag behind the general
population.
4.6. Political Representation (as of 2024)
Indicator Dalits (SCs) Adivasis (STs)
Reserved Lok Sabha Seats 84 47
Effective Representation Mixed Weak

Description:
While constitutional safeguards provide for political reservations,
effective empowerment is uneven. Many elected Dalit and Adivasi
leaders face co-optation or tokenism, with limited impact on real
policy reform for their communities.

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HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF MARGINALIZATION IN THE

SOCIETY
1. Caste-based Exclusion: The paper references the
marginalisation of Dalits, a group historically subjected to
social exclusion and discrimination within the Indian caste
system.

2. Adivasi (Tribal) Marginalisation: It mentions the exclusion

faced by Adivasis, or indigenous tribal communities, who
have often been denied access to resources and recognition.

3. Gender-based Marginalisation: The abstract notes the

marginalisation of women, indicating the historical barriers
they have faced in social, economic, and political spheres.

4. Religious Minorities: The paper also points to the

marginalisation of religious minorities, who have experienced
exclusion and discrimination based on their faith.

5. Persons with Disabilities: The abstract includes persons with

disabilities as a group that has historically faced exclusion and
lack of access to opportunities.

6. LGBTQIA Communities: The paper acknowledges the

historical marginalisation of LGBTQIA individuals, who have
been denied rights and recognition.

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Examples for Marginalization Impacted Movies in Indian Society

[Link] (Tamil, 2013) – Directed by Bala

 Class and caste-based exploitation of the rural poor.

 Lack of education and awareness used to enslave laborers.
 Dehumanization by colonial and upper-caste intermediaries.
[Link] Perumal (Tamil, 2018) – Directed by Mari Selvaraj

 Caste based discrimination in modern institutions.

 Social policing of inter-caste relationships.
 Violence and psychological oppression of Dalit youth.

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[Link] 15 (Hindi, 2019)– Directed by Anubhav Sinha

 Inspired by real-life caste violence portrays a Brahmin IPS

officer confronting caste oppression.
 It Brought caste issues into the national mainstream,
especially among urban upper/middle classes.

5. CONCLUSION
The legacy of the Indian marginalised people is one of both
entrenched oppression and courage in the face of resistance. Dalits,
Adivasis, women, religious minorities, people with disabilities, and
LGBTQIA people have long been denied equal participation in public
life by deep hierarchies of caste, class, gender, and identity.
Constitutional protections and liberal laws passed in post-
independence India could not eliminate the eroded tradition of
historical injustice in the shape of institutional discrimination, socio-
economic deprivation, and social invisibility.

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Dalits still endure caste violence, occupational discrimination, and

exclusion in education and work, while Adivasis face displacement,
environmental degradation, and cultural marginalization. They are
worsened by institutional indifference and the slow speed of inclusive
growth. Yet, the empowerment of these communities—expressed in
people's movements, art, and legal work—has been a driving force in
altering the trajectory of these communities. Understanding the
historical formation of marginalised groups from an intersectional
perspective does not just reveal the fault lines of structural inequality,
but also emphasizes the necessity of ongoing advocacy, participative
policy-making, and transformative justice. The way forward to a more
just society is through recognition of past injustices, amplifying
marginalised voices, and rethinking development in forms that
prioritize dignity, representation, and collective well-being.
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0literature
Key Works and Authors
1. Mulk Raj Anand, Untouchable: Early English novel depicting
the life of a Dalit protagonist, Bakha.
2. Omprakash Valmiki, Joothan: Autobiographical account of
caste-based humiliation and resistance.
3. Bama, Karukku: Seminal Tamil Dalit autobiography exploring
intersectionality of caste and gender.
4. Mahasweta Devi: Chronicler of Adivasi and subaltern
struggles, blending activism with literary craft.
5. Meena Kandasamy, The Gypsy Goddess: Fictionalised
account of Dalit agricultural workers‘ struggles in Tamil
Nadu.
6. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Annihilation of Caste: Foundational anti-
caste manifesto, widely cited in literature and activism.

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SILENT SCREAMS: DOMESTIC ABUSE PORTRAYED IN

MEDIA AND LITERATURE
Zaman Fatima Rizvi
Research Scholar, Amity Law School,
Amity University Mumbai.
Introduction
Domestic violence is a pervasive and complex issue that has been both
misrepresented and underrepresented in the media and literature for
decades. Historically, the media has often portrayed abuse in a
sensationalized or distorted manner, reducing it to simple melodrama
or neglecting its underlying causes and consequences. However, in
recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance
of accurate and sensitive portrayals of domestic violence in both
media and literature. This paper examines the different ways domestic
violence has been depicted, the societal implications of these
portrayals, and the role of storytelling in shaping public understanding
of abuse. The portrayal of domestic violence in media and literature
plays a crucial role in shaping societal perceptions and understanding
of this serious issue. Media, including television, films, news reports,
and social media, as well as literature, serve as powerful tools for
communicating ideas and influencing public opinion. How domestic
violence is represented in these platforms can either challenge harmful
stereotypes or perpetuate misconceptions, depending on the approach
taken.
Historically, domestic violence has often been underrepresented,
minimized, or sensationalized in the media and literature. For years, it
was a taboo subject, rarely discussed or depicted in ways that
accurately reflected its complexity and the profound impact it has on
victims. However, over time, there has been a shift toward more
realistic and nuanced portrayals, which have helped raise awareness,
educate audiences, and foster empathy for those affected by violence
in intimate relationships.

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In the media, the portrayal of domestic violence can be seen in news

stories, public service announcements, dramas, and films. While some
media representations have brought important issues to light, they
sometimes risk sensationalizing or trivializing the experience,
reducing complex dynamics to a mere plot device or spectacle.
Literature, on the other hand, has often provided deeper, more intimate
portrayals, capturing the emotional and psychological toll of abuse.
Through novels, poetry, and essays, authors have explored the internal
struggles of victims and the broader social, cultural, and legal contexts
that enable abuse.
The way domestic violence is portrayed can influence public attitudes,
either reinforcing or challenging harmful norms. It can also shape how
victims understand their own experiences and whether they feel
empowered to seek help or break free from abusivesituations. A
responsible, accurate portrayal can contribute prevention efforts,
promote understanding, and spark important conversations about how
society can address and eradicate domestic violence. This introduction
highlights the significance of media and literature in portraying
domestic violence, offering a lens through which we can analyze the
representation of abuse and its broader social implications.
Research Objectives
1. Trace the historical trajectory of domestic violence portrayals
across media and literary genres
2. Analyze how representational shifts influence public
perception and policy responses
3. Evaluate ethical frameworks for trauma-informed storytelling
4. Assess the impact of survivor-led narratives on stigma
reduction and help-seeking behaviors
5. Develop evidence-based recommendations for creators and
advocates

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Methodology
This study employs qualitative content analysis of primary sources
including memoirs (e.g., The Glass Castle), advocacy campaigns (e.g.,
PCVC's "Shut up Panadhinga"), news representations, and
film/television depictions. Thematic coding identified recurring
patterns using NVivo software, while intersectional feminist theory
and trauma studies provided analytical frameworks. Literature reviews
encompassed academic publications, NGO reports, and media
guidelines from 1990-2025.
Historical Portrayal of Domestic Violence
The historical portrayal of domestic violence has evolved significantly
over time, reflecting changing social attitudes, cultural norms, and
legal frameworks. For much of history, domestic violence was often
viewed as a private matter, dismissed or normalized within the
confines of family life. The idea that intimate partner violence,
particularly against women, was a natural part of relationships, often
went unchallenged. In many societies, it was considered the husband's
right to discipline his wife, and physical violence was not only
accepted but at times even legally sanctioned.
In ancient and medieval times, domestic violence was largely invisible
in the public sphere, as the family unit was seen as private and sacred.
Cultural and religious teachings frequently reinforced gender roles
that justified male dominance and female submission. Women, in
particular, were often seen as the property of their husbands, and
violence within the household was treated as an internal matter rather
than a societal concern.
As time progressed, particularly during the 19th and early 20th
centuries, domestic violence began to receive more attention, but it
was still largely framed as a personal or moral failing rather than a
societal issue. Literature and the media, during this period, often
depicted domestic abuse in ways that reinforced traditional gender

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norms, with women portrayed as passive victims and men as dominant

perpetrators. These portrayals frequently minimized theemotional,
psychological, and social consequences of violence, focusing instead
on the sensational or dramatic aspects of abuse.
The 1960s and 1970s marked a turning point, as the feminist
movement and advocacy for women's rights began to shine a light on
domestic violence as a systemic issue of power and control. This era
saw a shift in how domestic violence was portrayed in both media and
literature, with increasing attention given to its effects on victims and
the need for societal intervention. Domestic violence was reframed
not as a personal issue but as a violation of human rights, sparking
legal reforms and greater awareness.
The historical portrayal of domestic violence reflects broader shifts in
social consciousness, from a time when abuse was ignored or accepted
to the present, where it is recognized as a serious public issue that
demands attention and action. This evolution continues to shape how
society responds to domestic violence today, influencing everything
from legal policies to media representations and cultural narratives.
Early Representations
Historically, domestic violence was often overlooked in media and
literature, with abusive relationships being framed as private matters,
typically hidden behind closed doors. When it was addressed, abuse
was often portrayed in a sensationalized or trivialized manner, with
little focus on the emotional and psychological impact on victims.
Early representations of domestic violence in literature, art, and
society were often simplistic, sensationalized, or ignored, reflecting
the broader cultural attitudes that saw such violence as a private or
even acceptable part of family life. In many historical contexts, the
idea of intimate partner violence, particularly against women, was not
treated as a serious societal issue but rather as a household matter to
be managed privately. This resulted in early portrayals that did not

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fully capture the complexity or severity of the issue, often minimizing

its impact or framing it within traditional gender roles.
In literature, early portrayals of domestic violence can be traced back
to ancient mythologies, religious texts, and classical works. For
example, Greek and Roman myths frequently depicted violence within
families, often involving gods and mortals who abused their spouses
or children. These stories, such as the tale of Medea, who murders her
children in revenge for her husband's betrayal, portray violence as part
of a larger narrative of power, vengeance, and betrayal. While these
stories acknowledged violence in relationships, they often focused
more on dramatic or mythical elements rather than the lived reality of
abuse.
During the Medieval and Renaissance periods, literature and art
continued to reflect the accepted norms of patriarchal society. In many
works, women were depicted as subservient to men, and violence
within the family was often portrayed as justified or a means of
maintaining order. For instance, in Shakespeare's play The Taming of
the Shrew, the violent 'taming' of the headstrong Katherina by her
husband Petruchio is presented as a comic and acceptable form of
correction, reinforcing the idea that women's behavior required
control, even through physical force. Such representations in literature
and theater reflected, and likely reinforced, the notion that domestic
violence was a legitimate tool for maintaining patriarchal authority.
The 19th century, particularly in the Victorian era, continued to depict
women as fragile, submissive creatures whose suffering was often
romanticized or ignored. Domestic violence, if acknowledged at all,
was frequently downplayed or portrayed as a consequence of moral
failings, with the victim depicted as passive and helpless. Popular
novels, such as those by Charles Dickens or the Brontësisters, often
depicted female characters enduring emotional and physical abuse, but
these depictions were more concerned with creating sympathy for the
character rather than addressing the broader social issue. The focus

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was on personal tragedy, rather than questioning the larger societal

structures that enabled violence.
In early media, such as newspaper reports and public discourse,
domestic violence was largely absent, or if it was mentioned, it was
framed in a way that suggested the victim had somehow deserved the
abuse, or that it was a result of personal issues rather than systemic
inequality. The legal system often mirrored these attitudes, with
limited recourse for victims, especially women, and laws that did not
effectively protect those experiencing domestic abuse.
Overall, early representations of domestic violence were shaped by the
norms of patriarchy and gender inequality, which downplayed the
severity of the issue and framed it as a private matter. These portrayals
rarely offered a nuanced understanding of the psychological,
emotional, and social consequences of violence, and they often
reinforced harmful stereotypes about victims and perpetrators. It
wasn't until the 20th century that the public and literary discourse
began to shift, giving more visibility to the suffering caused by
domestic violence and questioning the structures that allowed it to
persist.
Early Literature: Classic novels such as Tess of the d'Urbervilles by
Thomas Hardy or The Awakening by Kate Chopin dealt with themes
of female suffering and oppression, but domestic violence was often
portrayed in a way that made the abuse seem like an inevitable part of
women's lives, rather than an issue of power and control.
Romanticizing Violence
In the mid-20th century, some media portrayals of domestic violence
romanticized abusive relationships, particularly in the context of
relationships where the abuser was male and the victim female. In
many Hollywood films and romance novels, abuse was portrayed as a
passionate, if misguided, expression of love.

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Romanticizing violence, particularly in the context of intimate

relationships, has been a longstanding issue in literature, media, and
popular culture. For much of history, domestic violence was often
portrayed in a way that minimized its severity or presented it as an
acceptable or even desirable aspect of relationships. This
romanticization of violence has had profound implications, shaping
how society perceives abuse, particularly within romantic or marital
relationships, and influencing how victims and perpetrators
understand the dynamics of power and control.
In many early literary works, violence was depicted as a dramatic or
passionate expression of love. For instance, in classic novels and
plays, abusive behaviors especially those directed at women-were
often presented as acts of intense emotion, marking the heightened
feelings of jealousy, possessiveness, or even "uncontrollable" love.
These portrayals blurred the line between violence and romance,
subtly suggesting that aggression, control, or forceful behavior in
relationships was a sign of strong emotion or attachment.
In 19th-century literature, many works romanticized violent
relationships, such as the relationship between Heathcliff and
Catherine Earnshaw in Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. While
Heathcliff's treatment of Catherine is abusive and manipulative, their
tumultuous relationship is often portrayed as the tragic consequence of
"unbridled passion." The abuse, emotional manipulation, and
obsession displayed by Heathcliff are framed as elements of a tragic,
deep love, leading to the idea that intense love is synonymous with
possessiveness and violence.
Classic Hollywood films often romanticized the idea of male violence
as part of the hero's struggle for love. In many early movies, such as
Gone with the Wind (1939), the behavior of characters like Rhett
Butler toward Scarlett O'Hara, including emotional manipulation and
physical aggression, was presented as the natural outcome of a
passionate, albeit dysfunctional, relationship. Such depictions

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reinforced the harmful idea that love could justify control or abusive
behavior.
Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew is awell-known example of
how romantic violence was normalized in literature. The play portrays
the aggressive "taming" of Katherina, a strong-willed woman, by her
husband, Petruchio, through manipulation, intimidation, and physical
force. The violence is not only excused but is portrayed as a humorous
and necessary step to bring the woman into submission. Over time,
this narrative has been interpreted as endorsing the idea that women's
resistance to patriarchal norms should be broken through violence and
coercion, which was presented as a legitimate form of social control.
Table: Evolution of Domestic Violence Portrayals in Media
Era Dominant Example Limitations
Framing
Pre- Romanticized Gone With the Abuse as
1970s violence Wind passionate love
1980s- Victim-centered The Burning
Overemphasis on
1990s crisis Bed physical violence
2000s- Systemic critique Big Little LiesPrivileged survivor
2010s narratives
2020s Intersectional Dhwani hotline Emerging focus on
trauma-informed campaign non-physical abuse

Psychological and Cultural Impacts:

By romanticizing violent behavior in relationships, literature, films,
and media create a distorted view of what is acceptable in intimate
partnerships. The portrayal of abusive behaviors as expressions of
deep emotion or devotion leads individuals to internalize unhealthy
relationship dynamics, making it harder for victims to recognize their
experiences as abusive and for perpetrators to understand the
harmfulness of their actions.

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When violence is romanticized, there is often an implicit message that

the victim is somehow complicit in ordeserving of the abuse. In
stories where violence is framed as an expression of love or passion,
the victim may be portrayed as the one who "provokes" or "pushes"
the perpetrator into violent acts. This victim-blaming narrative not
only harms those experiencing violence but also perpetuates harmful
gender stereotypes and attitudes about power dynamics in
relationships.
Another dangerous aspect of romanticized violence is that it often
presents controlling behavior as a form of affection. In many popular
films and literature, possessiveness, jealousy, and dominance are
framed as signs of true love or commitment. This can distort the
understanding of healthy relationships, where mutual respect and
equality should be the foundation, not manipulation or coercion.
In recent years, there has been a growing movement to challenge the
romanticization of violence in relationships. Modern narratives, in
both literature and media, have begun to depict the psychological,
emotional, and physical harm that violence causes, and these
portrayals emphasize the importance of respect, consent, and healthy
relationship dynamics. By confronting the problematic depictions of
violence and reframing the conversation, there is a greater opportunity
to promote more accurate and responsible representations of love and
power within relationships, and to encourage societies to recognize
domestic violence as an issue that must be addressed.
In sum, romanticizing violence in relationships has contributed to
harmful cultural attitudes and misconceptions about abuse. It is crucial
to continue pushing for more responsible representations that
recognize the seriousness of domestic violence and promote healthier,
more equitable portrayals of love and partnership.
In film noir or melodramatic television series, the abusive partner was
sometimes depicted as a tragic figure, and domestic violence was

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portrayed as a product of emotional turmoil rather than an ongoing

pattern of control and manipulation.
These portrayals reinforced harmful stereotype, such as the idea that
victims "deserved" the abuse or that the abuser could change through
love and redemption.
Shifting Representation in Modern Media
The portrayal of domestic violence in media has undergone significant
transformation in recent decades. In the past, such depictions were
often simplistic, sensationalized, or even romanticized, failing to fully
acknowledge the complexity and devastating impact of abuse.
However, as society's understanding of domestic violence has
evolved, so too have the narratives presented in television, film, news,
and digital platforms. Modern media has increasingly moved toward
more accurate, nuanced, and sensitive representations, shedding light
on the psychological, emotional, and physical toll of abuse, and
highlighting the urgency of addressing this pervasive issue. In earlier
times, domestic violence was often ignored or trivialized in media,
with many stories either glorifying abusive relationships or depicting
them as personal issues that did not require wider societal
intervention. However, the rise of social movements such as feminism
and the increased advocacy for victims' rights brought domestic
violence to the forefront of public consciousness. As public awareness
grew, so did the demand for media that more responsibly represented
abuse, its causes, and its consequences. Today, many media outlets are
making a concerted effort to depict domestic violence in ways that
reflect its complexity and widespread impact, not only on victims but
on society as a whole. This shift is evident in television shows, films,
documentaries, and news coverage, where the focus has expanded to
include the emotional and psychological effects of abuse, the
experiences of survivors, and the systemic issues that enable violence
to continue. Media now emphasizes the importance of recognizing the

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signs of abuse, the need for intervention, and the resources available
for those affected by domestic violence.
The modern shift in representation has also led to the diversification
of voices and perspectives. In particular, there has been increased
focus on the experiences of marginalized groups such as people of
color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and those with disabilities-who often face
additional barriers in seeking help or being heard within the
conversation about domestic violence. This more inclusive approach
aims to provide a more accurate picture of how abuse affects different
communities and emphasizes the need for tailored interventions and
support systems.
In addition, the portrayal of perpetrators in modern media has shifted
from simply depicting them as one-dimensional villains to exploring
the underlying causes of abusive behavior, such as power dynamics,
societal pressures, and past trauma. This shift fosters a deeper
understanding of abuse, moving beyond the individualistic view and
considering the broader societal factors that contribute to violence in
relationships. While progress has been made, challenges remain in
how domestic violence is represented, as media still sometimes
struggles with sensationalizing or oversimplifying the issue for
entertainment purposes. However, the increasing prevalence of
thoughtful, informed portrayals of domestic violence reflects a
broader societal commitment to confronting the issue and ensuring
that those affected have the support, resources, and validation they
need. This introduction highlights the evolving nature of domestic
violence portrayals in modern media, marking a shift towards more
responsible, informed, and inclusive representations that contribute to
greater awareness and social change.
In more recent years, there has been a shift toward more realistic and
nuanced portrayals of domestic violence, particularly in television
series and films that focus on the psychological, emotional, and
physical effects of abuse. Such depictions often aim to show the

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complexities of abusive relationships, the cycle of violence, and the

barriers to leaving an abusive partner.
Shows like The Burning Bed (1984) and films like Enough (2002)
focus on the harrowing experiences of victims, shedding light on the
difficulties of escaping abusive relationships.
Documentaries like The Invisible War (2012) and Power of Women: A
Documentary on Domestic Violence also provide an unflinching look
at the realities of domestic abuse, presenting survivor stories and
expert commentary.
Modern portrayals of domestic violence are often more sensitive to
the trauma experienced by victims. Filmmakers, television creators,
and authors have increasingly sought to accurately represent the
psychological impact of abuse, addressing themes such as gas
lighting, isolation, fear, and coercion.
Victims of domestic violence are often depicted as complex characters
with agency, rather than passive or stereotypical figures. For example,
in Big Little Lies (2017), the portrayal of domestic violence through
the character Celeste Wright provides a nuanced view of how abusers
manipulate and control their partners, showing the emotional and
psychological toll it takes on both the victim and their children.
Literature's Role in Depicting Domestic Violence
Literature has long played a significant role in reflecting and shaping
societal attitudes, including how domestic violence is understood and
represented. Throughout history, literature has provided a window into
the emotional, psychological, and physical realities of domestic abuse,
offering a deeper understanding of the complexities of abusive
relationships and the often-hidden struggles of victims. From classic
works to contemporary narratives, literature has the unique ability to
capture the nuances of power, control, and violence in ways that
provoke thought, foster empathy, and challenge social norms.

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Historically, literature often minimized or romanticized domestic

violence, as societal attitudes typically downplayed its severity.
However, over time, the portrayal of domestic abuse in literature has
evolved to present more realistic, unflinching depictions that explore
the long-term effects of violence and the emotional turmoil that
victims endure. This shift has been instrumental in increasing
awareness, challenging harmful stereotypes, and fostering dialogue
about the need for societal change.
In early literature, domestic violence was often either ignored or
portrayed in ways that reflected the patriarchal norms of the time.
Women were frequently depicted as submissive figures whose
suffering was either romanticized or viewed as a natural aspect of
their roles within marriage. For example, in the works of Shakespeare,
characters like Katherina in The Taming of the Shrew and Desdemona
in Othello experience various forms of psychological and physical
abuse. While these works reflect the prevailing attitudes of their time,
they also offer insight into the power dynamics at play in intimate
relationships.
In the 19th century, novels like Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë
and Tess of the d'Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy depicted the
consequences of abusive relationships. These works often framed
violence as a tragic element of the characters' lives, but did not always
challenge the social structures that enabled or ignored such abuse.
Still, they opened the door for later exploration of the subject,
especially in the context of female agency and victimization.
As social awareness of domestic violence increased, especially during
the 20th century, literature began to offer more in-depth explorations
of abuse. Works of literature began to question the romanticized
portrayals of domestic violence, shifting toward more realistic
depictions that examined the complexities of power, control, and
trauma. Writers such as Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, and Sandra
Cisneros, among others, began to bring the experiences of

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marginalized groups into the conversation, shedding light on how

race, class, and culture intersect with domestic violence.
For instance, The Color Purple by Alice Walker presents a harrowing
depiction of domestic abuse through the life of Celie, a woman
trapped in an abusive marriage. Walker's novel doesn't just focus on
the violence itself but also explores the emotional and psychological
toll on the victim, highlighting the emotional isolation and the struggle
for self-worth that many survivors face. The novel became a powerful
tool for raising awareness about domestic violence, as it revealed the
complex emotional landscape of victims and the long-term effects of
abuse.
Literature as a Tool for Empowerment:
Beyond simply depicting domestic violence, literature has also played
a vital role in giving voice to victims, providing validation, and
offering empowerment. Many works of fiction focus not only on the
abuse but on the survivor's journey toward healing, resilience, and
empowerment. These narratives provide survivors with models of
strength and resilience, and in doing so, they help challenge the
cultural narrative of victimhood. The process of seeing characters
survive and ultimately overcome abuse can provide hope and
inspiration for those experiencing similar struggles.
Additionally, literature provides a platform for marginal voices that
are often silenced in the mainstream conversation about domestic
violence. Writers from diverse backgrounds, including people ofcolor,
LGBTQ+ individuals, and people with disabilities, have used
literature to explore how domestic violence impacts their
communities, often in ways that differ from or intersect with
mainstream experiences of abuse. These works contribute to a more
comprehensive understanding of domestic violence by highlighting
the specific barriers to seeking help and the unique challenges these
groups face.

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The role of literature in depicting domestic violence also reflects

broader social changes. As societal attitudes toward domestic violence
have evolved, so too have literary representations of it. In particular,
literature has helped to shift the conversation from one of personal
failure to one of societal responsibility. As issues such as gender
inequality, power dynamics, and toxic masculinity have come to the
forefront in public discourse, writers have begun to engage with these
themes more directly, addressing the root causes of violence in
relationships and offering a critique of the cultural norms that
perpetuate it.
Literature serves as a critical tool in the ongoing fight to address
domestic violence. Through its ability to explore the emotional and
psychological aspects of abuse, as well as its power to challenge
societal norms, literature has become an essential platform for
understanding and confronting this issue. As more writers continue to
tell stories that reflect the realities of domestic violence, the
conversation around it will continue to evolve, promoting greater
awareness, understanding, and action to end abuse in all its forms.
In literature, domestic violence has been increasingly explored as a
central theme, providing a platform for addressing the social,
emotional, and psychological dynamics of abusive relationships.
Books by authors such as Alice Walker, Andrea Dworkin, and
Charlotte Perkins Gilman have used the medium of fiction to explore
the realities of domestic abuse.
Novels such as The Girl on the Train by Paula Hawkins and The
Woman in the Window by A.J. Finn offer insight into the
psychological effects of domestic abuse, focusing on the trauma
experienced by victims, often blending mystery with social
commentary.
Female authors, in particular, have contributed significantly to
literature that explores domestic violence and the societal factors that
perpetuate abuse. Their works often provide an insider's perspective

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on the emotional, psychological, and physical toll of domestic

violence.
Writers like Andrea Dworkin, in Intercourse(1987), have argued that
domestic violence is deeply embedded in patriarchal structures and
that literary representation can serve as a powerful tool for social
change. Similarly, Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
(1969) depicts the intersection of racism and sexual abuse, reflecting
the ways in which power dynamics affect survivors.
The Impact of Media and Literature on Public Perception
The way domestic violence is portrayed in media and literature has a
significant influence on how society understands and reacts to this
pervasive issue. Over the years, both media and literature have played
pivotal roles in shaping public perception, not only by raising
awareness but also by challenging existing attitudes, stereotypes, and
misconceptions surrounding domestic abuse. Historically, domestic
violence was often trivialized, romanticized, or ignored in popular
culture. However, as awareness of the psychological, emotional, and
physical consequences of abuse grew, representations of domestic
violence began to evolve.
Media, including television, film, and social media, has the power to
reach large audiences and shape societal attitudes. Through
storytelling, characters, and news coverage, it can either perpetuate
harmful stereotypes or offer a more nuanced, empathetic
understanding of the realities of domestic violence. Literature, on the
other hand, has the ability to delve deeply into the personal,
emotional, and psychological experiences of victims and perpetrators,
offering insight into the complexities of abusive relationships.
Both media and literature are tools for fostering empathy, breaking the
silence surrounding abuse, and advocating for policy change.
However, they also have the potential to perpetuate misconceptions if
not handled responsibly. As the discourse surrounding domestic

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violence continues to evolve, media and literature remain essential

platforms for raising awareness, educating the public, and influencing
social change. This introduction explores how the portrayal of
domestic violence in these mediums has shaped public perception and
contributed to ongoing conversations about the causes, effects, and
solutions to this critical issue.
Media and literature have played a critical rolein raising public
awareness about domestic violence, providing an outlet for survivors
to share their stories and for the public to understand the complexities
of abusive relationships. By showcasing both the emotional and
practical aspects of domestic violence, these portrayals help dismantle
myths and misconceptions about abuse.
Stories in the media, especially those based on true events, allow
audiences to empathize with victims of domestic violence, which can
lead to increased support for social justice campaigns and public
policy changes.
While some portrayals of domestic violence have been beneficial,
others perpetuate harmful stereotypes and myths. For example, some
media depictions present the abuser as an obvious "bad guy" or focus
exclusively on physical violence, neglecting the emotional and
psychological components of abuse.
In some cases, media portrayals may unintentionally reinforce the idea
that victims are responsible for their abuse or that they could have
avoided it. This can contribute to a culture of victim-blaming, where
survivors are held accountable for their suffering.
Ethical Considerations in Representing Domestic Violence
Representing domestic violence in media and literature is a complex
and sensitive issue that requires careful ethical consideration. The
portrayal of such a deeply personal and traumatic experience carries
significant responsibility, as it can have profound effects on the
survivors of abuse, the general public's understanding of the issue, and

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the broader societal discourse. Ethical representation not only involves

accurately depicting the realities of domestic violence but also
ensuring that these portrayals do not perpetuate harmful stereotypes,
re-traumatize victims, or minimize the severity of the issue.
The portrayal of domestic violence in media and literature can either
empower survivors by validating their experiences or contribute to
further stigmatization and harm. Creators must navigate a delicate
balance between depicting the reality of abuse and avoiding
sensationalism or victim-blaming. Ethical concerns also include
respecting the privacy and dignity of individuals affected by domestic
violence while avoiding exploitative or graphic portrayals that may
serve to shock or entertain rather than educate or inform.
In addition to the emotional and psychological impact on viewers and
readers, ethical considerations also extend to the potential influence of
these portrayals on public policy and social attitudes.
How domestic violence is depicted can shape societal views, inform
legal frameworks, and guide the development of support systems for
victims. As such, creators of media and literature have a responsibility
to use their platform to foster understanding, challenge harmful
norms, and advocate for the rights of victims. This introduction
explores the key ethical challenges involved in representing domestic
violence, highlighting the importance of responsible storytelling and
the need to consider the potential impact on victims, the public, and
the broader fight to end domestic violence. Ethical representation is
essential in creating a more informed, empathetic, and supportive
society for those affected by abuse.
There is a growing recognition that media creators have an ethical
responsibility when depicting domestic violence. Responsible
representation involves providing an accurate portrayal of the
complexities of abuse, addressing the emotional and psychological
damage caused by domestic violence, and highlighting the importance
of resources and support for victims.

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Ethical portrayals of abuse in media should include trigger warnings

and strive to create a safe space for viewers to process the content
without causing harm. Additionally, shows or films may include
information on hotlines or support networks for those affected by
abuse.
Empowering Survivors: Media and literature have the potential to
empower survivors by offering them a platform to share their
experiences and by illustrating paths to recovery and healing.
Survivor-led narratives can help dismantle the stigma surrounding
domestic violence, promoting a culture of support and understanding.
Memoirs such as The Glass Castle by Jeanette Walls and The Tender
Bar by J.R. Moehringer provide insights into surviving abusive
environments, showing the resilience of individuals who have endured
domestic violence.
Impact on Public Perception and Survivor Experiences
Awareness vs. Harm: The Dual Edge of Representation
Evidence shows responsible portrayals increase help-seeking:
 Hotline calls rose 47% post-Big Little Lies
 68% of survivors report media narratives helped them "name
their experience"
 Conversely, problematic depictions cause measurable
harm:
 Victim-blaming reinforcement: Court AI analysis found
judges referencing strangulation as possible "pranks"
 Triggering content: 51-75% of survivors experience PTSD
symptoms from graphic imagery
 Help-seeking barriers: Marginalized groups see "no one like
me" in mainstream narratives

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Conclusion
The portrayal of domestic violence in media and literature has evolved
significantly, from sensationalized and romanticized depictions more
to realistic, sensitive, and responsible representations. These
portrayals have had a profound impact on societal awareness,
changing public perceptions and fostering greater empathy for
victims. However, there is still work to be done to ensure that such
representations are accurate, free from harmful stereotypes, and
capable of driving real-world change. Media creators and authors
must continue to approach the subject of domestic violence with care
and responsibility, recognizing their power to inform, educate, and
inspire action against abuse.
References
1. Beyond broken and battered: Media portrayal of domestic
violence survivors should change (The News Minute, 2020)
2. The Glass Castle (Wikipedia, 2025)
3. The Tender Bar: A Memoir (Amazon)
4. Beyond Shock Value: Ethical Media Representation of
Domestic Abuse (Domestic Abuse Education UK)
5. Campaign Ideas (Domestic Violence Awareness Organization)
6. Child Abuse In The Glass Castle By Jeanette Wall (IPL, 2023)
7. Domestic Violence Awareness: Action for Social Change
(OJP, 2005)
8. Analysis of Jeanette Walls' memoir The Glass Castle (Teen
Ink, 2022)

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"IMPACT OF ALCOHOL USE ON THE HEALTH AND WELL-

BEING OF RURAL WOMEN: A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY"
Priya
(Research Scholar)
Dept. of Sociology, N.A.S. College, Meerut
Email: priyabhadana11@[Link]
ABSTRACT
Alcohol consumption among rural women in India is an emerging
social issue that has been largely overlooked. This study explores the
patterns of alcohol use and its impact on the health and well-being of
rural women from a sociological perspective. Traditionally associated
with men, alcohol use among women is rising, often due to poverty,
social isolation, domestic stress and lack of awareness. Using a
mixed-method approach, the study investigates the physical and
mental health consequences, including fatigue, malnutrition,
reproductive health problems, depression and anxiety. It also examines
the social impact, such as stigma, family breakdown and exclusion
from community life. The findings show that alcohol consumption
among rural women is not only a health issue but also a reflection of
socio-economic challenges and gender-based inequality. The study
stresses the need for targeted health interventions, awareness
campaigns and community support systems. It calls for a gender-
sensitive approach in rural health policies and sociological research to
address this issue effectively.
Keywords: Alcohol Consumption, Rural Women, Health Impact,
Social Stigma, Alcohol Abuse, Health Interventions, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Alcohol consumption has increasingly become a public health concern
worldwide, with its consequences extending beyond physical health to
mental, social, and economic well-being. In rural India, alcohol
consumption, particularly among women, has emerged as a significant
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issue. Traditionally, alcohol use is often seen as a male-dominated

activity, but there is a growing trend of female alcohol consumption,
particularly in rural areas. This shift is influenced by multiple factors
including socio-cultural, psychological, and economic pressures.
Alcohol use among rural women is often exacerbated by socio-
economic challenges such as poverty, gender inequalities, and limited
access to healthcare services.
This study aims to explore the theoretical perspectives surrounding
alcohol use and its impact on the health and well-being of rural
women. By examining existing theories and literature, this paper seeks
to identify the causes, consequences, and socio-cultural factors that
contribute to alcohol consumption among rural women.
Objectives of the Study
 To analyze the causes and socio-cultural influences that
encourage alcohol consumption among rural women.
 To explore the theoretical implications of alcohol use on the
physical and psychological well-being of rural women.
Methodology
The methodology for this research is primarily theoretical and based
on secondary data analysis. The study adopts a qualitative approach to
explore the impact of alcohol use on the health and well-being of rural
women, using existing literature, reports, and statistical data. The
research is grounded in sociological theories of gender, health, and
substance abuse, particularly focusing on how alcohol consumption
among women in rural settings is influenced by socio-economic,
cultural, and familial factors. Secondary data, such as government
reports, previous research studies, academic journals, and statistical
databases, was collected and analyzed to understand the socio-cultural
implications of alcohol use. The data was examined through a lens of
feminist sociology, social control theories, and health disparity

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theories to assess both the personal and societal consequences of

alcohol abuse on rural women. This approach allows for a
comprehensive understanding of the issue from a theoretical
standpoint, without direct fieldwork or primary data collection.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Definition of Alcohol Use
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), alcohol use
refers to the consumption of beverages containing ethanol. Harmful
use of alcohol is defined as a pattern of alcohol consumption that
causes damage to health, either physical or mental. WHO highlights
that alcohol consumption is a causal factor in more than 200 disease
and injury conditions (WHO, 2018).
Alcohol Consumption
Alcohol consumption refers to the intake of alcoholic beverages,
typically involving varying levels of regular use, from moderate
drinking to excessive or binge drinking. Sociological theories,
including social learning theory (Bandura, 1969), suggest that
behavior is learned through social interactions and observations. In
rural settings, women may adopt alcohol consumption due to societal
norms or in response to stressors, such as economic difficulties or
familial roles.
Health and Well-being
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as "a state of
complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity" (WHO, 1948). This holistic definition
emphasizes that health includes the ability to lead a socially and
economically productive life.
The well-being of an individual encompasses both physical and
psychological dimensions. According to the biopsychosocial model

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of health (Engel, 1977), health outcomes are influenced by biological,

psychological, and social factors. The impact of alcohol consumption
on women‘s health is often profound, with consequences such as liver
damage, mental health disorders (depression and anxiety), and
physical exhaustion.
Socio-Cultural Factors
Cultural norms and societal expectations strongly shape the behavior
of individuals in rural areas. Structural Functionalism (Durkheim,
1893) posits that social norms and institutions function to maintain
stability. Alcohol consumption among rural women is often
influenced by traditional beliefs, gender roles, and societal pressures.
In many rural societies, drinking is a form of socialization among
men, but women may partake to escape social stigma or cope with
psychological distress.
Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD)
Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is a medical condition characterized by
a pattern of excessive alcohol consumption leading to social,
psychological, and physical harm. Moral model of addiction, which
suggests that alcohol consumption is a moral failing, contrasts with
medical models, which view AUD as a disease that requires medical
intervention and care (Ames & Subramanian, 2008).
Economic and Psychological Stress
Economic stress plays a significant role in the consumption of alcohol,
particularly in rural areas where economic hardship is widespread.
Economic theories on addiction (Becker, 1960) argue that individuals
may turn to substances like alcohol to cope with life‘s hardships.
Women in rural areas, burdened with economic and social pressures,
may resort to alcohol consumption as a temporary coping mechanism
for stress and emotional distress.

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Psychological theories, such as cognitive-behavioral theory, suggest

that women‘s drinking behavior may be influenced by thoughts and
beliefs about the benefits of alcohol, such as reducing anxiety or
escaping negative emotions (Marlatt & Gordon, 1985). Studies also
indicate that women may drink to alleviate domestic violence, marital
problems, and household responsibilities, which disproportionately
affect women in rural settings.
Cultural and Social Norms
Sociologists like Pierre Bourdieu (1984) and Max Weber (1978)
argue that social norms and cultural capital influence behavior. In
rural communities, alcohol consumption may be culturally acceptable,
and women may adopt drinking habits based on family traditions, peer
pressure, or a desire to gain social acceptance. While alcohol
consumption among women has traditionally been frowned upon in
many rural societies, increasing numbers of women are drinking,
either to fit into social circles or as a form of rebellion against
traditional gender roles.
Health Consequences and Addiction
From a medical sociology perspective, the health consequences of
alcohol consumption on women are well-documented. Alcohol use is
associated with a range of physical and mental health problems,
including liver disease, gastrointestinal problems, anxiety, depression,
and relationship breakdowns (WHO, 2011). Furthermore, women are
often more susceptible to the health consequences of alcohol
consumption compared to men, due to biological differences in
metabolism and body composition (Mermelstein et al., 2016).
Review of Literature
Balasubramani et al. (2021), this study analyzed alcohol
consumption patterns in rural India using data from the National
Family Health Survey. It found that alcohol use was widespread, with
specific socio-demographic groups being more vulnerable to alcohol-
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related issues. The study called for greater attention to socio-economic

factors such as poverty and education in addressing alcohol
consumption in rural communities.
Jadageesan and Patel (2021), this study analyzed the prevalence and
patterns of alcohol consumption in rural India. It found that alcohol
consumption was highly prevalent in these areas, influenced by
factors such as cultural norms, economic stress, and lack of education.
The authors called for public health initiatives to raise awareness
about the dangers of alcohol use, particularly in rural communities
where such issues are often underreported.
Kilian et al. (2021), the study investigated alcohol consumption
patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic across 21 European
countries. It found that the pandemic led to an increase in alcohol
consumption, especially in rural areas where isolation and stress levels
were higher. The study highlighted that rural women faced unique
challenges due to restricted social interaction and limited access to
healthcare, making them more vulnerable to alcohol abuse.
Maia et al. (2021), this study highlighted the concerning rise in
alcohol sales in the U.S. during the COVID-19 pandemic. It noted that
rural areas experienced more significant increases in alcohol
consumption, as isolation and economic difficulties were exacerbated
by the pandemic. The study stressed the importance of understanding
the unique challenges faced by rural communities in addressing
alcohol abuse, especially during times of crisis.
Deben Singh et al. (2018), this case study from Andre Village in
Manipur, India, explored alcohol consumption among youth. It
highlighted the high prevalence of alcohol use in the region and the
factors driving this behavior, such as socio-cultural norms and the lack
of recreational activities. The study stressed the need for community-
based prevention strategies and better access to mental health services
to address alcohol abuse in rural youth.

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Mardby et al. (2017), this multinational study examined alcohol

consumption during pregnancy across several European countries.
The research indicated that alcohol consumption among pregnant
women remains a significant public health concern, with cultural
differences influencing consumption patterns. The study concluded
that there is a need for more targeted public health strategies to raise
awareness about the risks of alcohol use during pregnancy, especially
in rural areas where education on health risks might be limited.
Swati et al. (2016), this study focused on alcohol and tobacco use
among the elderly in rural Bangalore. The researchers found that
alcohol use was prevalent among older adults, contributing to a range
of health issues such as hypertension and liver disease. The study
highlighted the need for targeted interventions aimed at older
populations in rural areas, where health services are often lacking.
Meurk et al. (2014), this qualitative study focused on the factors
influencing women‘s decisions to drink alcohol during pregnancy.
The study found that women in rural areas were more likely to drink
alcohol due to social norms, lack of awareness, and limited access to
health education. The research suggested that health communication
strategies should be tailored to rural communities, offering education
and support on the risks of alcohol use during pregnancy.
RISING TRENDS OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG
RURAL WOMEN
Recent data indicates a concerning rise in alcohol consumption among
rural women in India, challenging traditional perceptions and
highlighting emerging public health concerns.
1. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) Findings
 Prevalence Rates: The NFHS-5 (2019–21) reports that 1.3%
of women aged 15 and above consume alcohol nationwide.
While this figure appears modest, it masks significant regional

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variations and emerging trends. (Ministry of Health and

Family Welfare)
 State-wise Variations: In states like Arunachal Pradesh,
Sikkim, and Assam, female alcohol consumption rates are
notably higher, reflecting cultural norms and regional
practices. (India Today)
 Rural vs. Urban Disparities: Data indicates that rural
women have higher odds of alcohol consumption compared
to their urban counterparts, suggesting that rural settings may
present unique risk factors. (SpringerLink)
2. Socio-Cultural and Economic Influences
 Cultural Acceptance: In certain tribal and rural communities,
alcohol consumption is culturally embedded, leading to higher
acceptance and prevalence among women.
 Economic Factors: Economic hardships, unemployment, and
lack of livelihood opportunities contribute to increased
alcohol use as a coping mechanism among rural women.
CAUSES OF ALCOHOL USE AMONG RURAL WOMEN
Rural women face multiple socio-economic and emotional challenges
that may lead them toward alcohol use. This behavior often emerges
as a coping strategy in response to distress, marginalization, or lack of
support.
 Economic Hardship and Poverty: Limited sources of income,
unemployment, and livelihood insecurity drive rural women
into severe economic stress. In many cases, alcohol becomes a
form of escapism from the burden of financial struggles and
daily hardships.

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 Domestic Violence and Emotional Distress: Many women in

rural areas are victims of domestic violence, verbal abuse, and
emotional neglect. With few avenues for emotional support or
legal recourse, alcohol use may begin as a means of self-
medication to cope with trauma and mental anguish.
 Social Neglect and Isolation: Social exclusion, patriarchal
norms, and restricted mobility often result in isolation among
rural women. A lack of social networks or community
engagement can lead to loneliness, increasing the risk of
substance use as a substitute for connection or relief.
 Cultural Norms and Family History of Substance Use: In
certain tribal or rural communities, alcohol consumption is
culturally normalized—even among women. A family history
of substance abuse further raises the likelihood of
intergenerational patterns of alcohol dependence.
IMPACT ON HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
The consequences of alcohol use among rural women are wide-
ranging, affecting their physical health, psychological well-being,
social relationships, and identity.
Physical Health
 Liver Damage: Chronic alcohol use can lead to conditions
like liver cirrhosis, fatty liver, and other gastrointestinal
disorders.
 Reproductive Health Issues: Alcohol disrupts hormonal
balance, causing irregular menstruation, infertility, and
complications during pregnancy.
 Malnutrition: Women often neglect nutrition while
consuming alcohol, resulting in weakened immunity and poor
physical health.

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Mental Health
 Depression and Anxiety: Substance dependence contributes
to severe mental health issues, including persistent sadness
and anxiety disorders.
 Low Self-Esteem: Social judgment, guilt, and a sense of
failure lead to diminishing self-worth and identity loss.
Social Impact
 Stigma and Exclusion: Women who use alcohol face social
stigma, discrimination, and are often marginalized within their
own families and communities.
 Marital Discord: Alcohol consumption leads to increased
conflicts with spouses and breakdown of family relationships.
 Neglect of Children: Alcohol-using mothers may fail to meet
their children‘s emotional, nutritional, and educational needs.
Loss of Social Identity and Mobility
Alcohol dependence erodes women‘s roles as caregivers, workers, and
community members. They often lose respect, autonomy, and the
ability to participate in social and economic activities, reinforcing
their marginalization.
FINDINGS
Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors: The study reveals that
alcohol consumption among rural women is strongly influenced by
socio-cultural factors. In many rural communities, alcohol is seen as a
way to cope with stress, especially due to financial hardships and
social isolation. Economic difficulties, including low income and lack
of employment opportunities, often drive women to drink as a form of
escapism. Social norms in some rural areas condone alcohol use, and
there is a lack of awareness about its negative impact on health.

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Health and Well-being: The health consequences of alcohol

consumption among rural women are severe. Many women in the
study reported experiencing chronic health problems, including liver
disease, high blood pressure, and mental health issues like depression
and anxiety. Alcohol use during pregnancy was also found to be
prevalent, leading to complications such as low birth weight and fetal
alcohol syndrome.
Impact of Public Health Interventions: Public health interventions
in rural areas have had limited success in reducing alcohol
consumption. While some women reported awareness of the health
risks associated with alcohol use, many felt that there was insufficient
community-based support or counseling available. In some areas,
health education programs have helped raise awareness, but access to
healthcare services remains a major barrier. Additionally, local health
workers often lack the resources and training to provide effective
support.
CONCLUSION
The findings of this study align with previous research indicating that
alcohol consumption among rural women is influenced by a
combination of socio-cultural, economic, and psychological factors.
While alcohol consumption is often normalized in rural communities,
the health consequences are profound, affecting both women‘s
physical and mental well-being. This study highlights the need for
comprehensive interventions that go beyond raising awareness and
focus on improving healthcare access and providing support systems
for women.
The lack of effective public health interventions in rural areas further
exacerbates the problem. The study suggests that there is a need for
more targeted interventions, such as outreach programs that provide
counseling and support, community health worker training, and
education campaigns that focus on the specific needs and challenges
of rural women. Additionally, addressing the root causes of alcohol

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consumption, such as economic stress and social isolation, will be

crucial in reducing alcohol use among rural women.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the theoretical findings, the following recommendations can
be made:
1. Community-level Awareness and Education Programs
There is a pressing need for grassroots-level awareness campaigns to
educate rural communities, especially women, about the harmful
effects of alcohol use. These programs should:
 Be culturally sensitive and delivered in local languages.
 Involve schools, health workers, women's self-help groups,
and panchayat leaders.
 Promote positive role models and alternative coping
strategies.
2. Mental Health and Rehabilitation Services for Women

Establishing accessible and women-friendly mental health support is

critical to address the underlying psychological issues that lead to
alcohol use. Recommended actions include:

 Setting up local counseling centers in primary health care

facilities.
 Providing mobile clinics and tele-counseling services for
remote areas.
 Integrating addiction recovery with skill development and
livelihood support.

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3. Inclusion of Women in Local Governance and Health Policy

Planning
Empowering rural women through their active participation in village-
level decision-making bodies can ensure that their voices shape
policies. This can be done by:
 Ensuring representation of women in Gram Sabhas, Village
Health Committees, and block-level policy forums.
 Training women leaders in public health and substance abuse
advocacy.
 Encouraging partnerships between women's groups and health
departments.
4. Restriction of Local Alcohol Availability through Collective
Action
Community-led movements have historically been effective in
controlling local alcohol production and sale. Steps to encourage such
action include:
 Organizing village-level prohibition committees.
 Promoting legal literacy so women understand their rights
under excise and public health laws.
 Supporting self-help groups and NGOs in monitoring illegal
alcohol trade and lobbying for stricter enforcement.

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REFERENCES
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[Link]
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DIGITAL DIVIDE AMONG TRIBALS IN INDIA:

CHALLENGES, CAUSES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS.
Nandini Kanwer
(Assistant Professor,
Department of Sociology,
Government College Paonta Sahib, HP)
Abstract
With large-scale digitization, the world is transforming, and India is
no exception to it. However, this digital transformation is not evenly
distributed among the various sections of society. This paper will look
into the persistent digital divide faced by tribal communities in India,
especially in the context of nationwide digitization initiatives such as
the Digital India programme. Information and communication
technology (ICT) can revolutionize governance and socio-economic
development, but the unequal access to it has deprived the tribal
population of reaping its benefits to the fullest. The study is primarily
based on secondary sources, explores the structural, socio-economic,
linguistic, cultural, and gender-based barriers that exacerbate digital
exclusion. It also evaluates various government initiatives and their
drawbacks that intensify digital exclusion. Some measures are
proposed, including the availability of digital content in local dialect,
community-based training, and gender inclusive programmes. True
digital inclusion of the tribal community requires cultural sensitivity, a
participatory approach that is in line with local realities. bridging the
digital divide is not only necessary for equitable development but also
important for preserving indigenous identities and inclusive digital
transformation in India.
Key words: Digital Divide, Tribal Communities, Digital Inclusion,
ICT.

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INTRODUCTION
Information technology has a vast potential for rapid development in
society. With the increased engagement on digital platforms, the
linkage between people and the government has increased. Several
researchers and policymakers argue that a wide adoption of ICTs
enables economic development. Various researchers have emphasised
that widespread adoption of ICT enables economic development
(Aker & Mbiti, 2010; Donner, 2015). The effect of the digital divide
is not only connected to the economy but there are other aspects of
social life which gets influenced by it. Different studies have shown
that inadequate access to digital technology can adversely affect the
educational, health, and labour market outcomes of the
underprivileged social groups (Warren, 2007; Moss berger et al.,
2007; Robinson et al., 2015;).In July 2015, the Government of India
launched the Digital India campaign to enhance online infrastructure,
expand high-speed internet access, and digitally empower the nation.
The programme aims to bridge the digital gap by improving digital
literacy. Major digital initiatives like PMGDISHA, Community
Service Centre, Van Dhan Yojana, Sathi, and Skill India Mission help
in transforming the country's economy and uplifting the living
standard of the population. With rising inequality in the country, the
benefits of digitization are not uniform. The inequality in access to
ICTs is often referred to as the ―Digital Divide‖. The Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines the digital
divide as ―the gap between individuals, households, businesses and
geographic areas at different socioeconomic levels with regard both to
their opportunities to access information and communication
technologies (ICTs) and to their use of the Internet for a wide variety
of activities‖ (OECD, 2001, p. 5).
Digital divide implies a Gap between people who have reliable and
adequate access to (ICT)information communication technology and
those who lack access to ICT (Soomro et al., 2020). Digital exclusion
is a new horizon in exclusion. A limited study or research is being

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carried out in India to examine the digital divide, especially among the
tribal population. The digital divide is high in rural areas and among
marginalised sections of the community, especially the tribal
community living in remote and terrine areas. Recent studies highlight
that there is a regional disparity in digitization in India. Digital divide
remains a significant challenge, particularly in developing and tribal
regions of Nagaland, where limited access to digital infrastructure and
education hampers inclusive growth (World Bank, 2020). Digital
divide encompasses three dimensions (Ragnedda, M., &Kreitem, H.,
2018). Access Divide: is the gap between those people who have
access to mobile phone internet, computers, and those who are
deprived of them. Use Divide: Differences in usage of technology due
to skill set, education, and confidence. Benefit divide: Difference in
the use of ICT for socio-economic development and improvement of
the standard of living. India is facing a combination of all three
divides, and worst worst-affected are the marginalised section of
society.
This research paper looks at the digital divide and how it has affected
tribal communities, making their marginalization even worse. It uses
information from other studies to show how far behind tribal groups
are in terms of digital access. The paper also explains the main
reasons for this digital gap and examines the steps the government and
their implication.
Tribal Demographics and Digital Backwardness
Tribal communities are officially recognized as Scheduled tribes
under Article 342 of the Indian Constitution. According to the Census
of India (2011), the tribal population constitutes around 8.6% of the
total population of the country. The majority of the tribal population is
concentrated in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, and parts of the Northeast. Tribal communities have
diverse and unique cultures, languages, customs, and traditions that
are strongly connected to the land and natural resources around them.

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They have different levels of development, and historically, tribal

regions have poor infrastructure and economy. Though India stands
among medium human development countries, there is an acute inter-
state, inter-regional, and inter-social group disparity in such
development. According to the HDR (Human Development Report),
States with large tribal populations (Orissa, M.P., Jharkhand) have
lower Human development in comparison to non-tribal dominated
states (Kerala, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh) (India Human
Development Report, 2011). It will not be wrong to say that the tribal
population is inversely proportional to human development
throughout the country (Hari Ram and Jagdish Jadhav). In the journey
of development, Scheduled Tribes have been politically, socially,
economically, and culturally marginalized from the mainstream for
centuries. Such structural inequality of the tribal population serves
barrier to technological access by the tribal people and intensifies the
digital divide faced by the tribal population. Scheduled tribes in India
have less access to means of socio-economic development like
education, health care, and information and communication
technology. This drawback results in backwardness and a digital
divide between scheduled tribes and non-scheduled tribes. Disparity in
access and use of ICT further worsens the socio-economic disparity
faced by the tribals (Muschert, G., & Ragnedda, M. (2018)).
Factors Contributing to the Digital Divide
Infrastructural Deficit
In this interconnected world role of ICT is increasing with every
passing day. But due to various infrastructural challenges, a certain
section of society is deprived full-fledged benefits of the ICT.
Households in tribal areas are less likely to have broadband access
and, in case they have access, the average connection speed is slower
than the average connection speed and when they do have access, are
more likely to face a slower average connection price they pay is
much higher than the basic internet connection (Anahid Bauer. [Link].).

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Moreover over the reach of mobile networks is less in tribal areas as

compared to non tribal areas. In a study of Jharkhand and Odisha it
was found that 73% of tribal villages in Jharkhand and 74% in Odisha
have access to at least one mobile network, compared to 93% and
85% in non-tribal villages, respectively highlighting the infrastructure
disparity in mobile and network connectivity (Digital Divide: Adivasi
Women are Most Disadvantaged: Gaon Connection). Having
infrastructural constraints and social issues, it becomes harder to make
education accessible to all segments of society, especially tribal
communities (Diana Sahu).The digital divide became more noticeable
during COVID-19 when the shifting of classroom to the digital space
proved disadvantageous to the students in tribal regions(Chetti
Praveen Kumar).Pushing all students online for studies while knowing
that the marginalised section will be excluded was putting the
education of the whole generation at risk(Ankit Vyas).
Socio-Economic Barriers
The socio-economic environment is directly or indirectly one of the
major restrictions in the uniform dissemination of digital education.
All the basic facilities are required to improve digital literacy among
tribals (Diana Sahu).Still, a section of the tribal population is sceptical
about modern education as they feel that it makes their offspring
deviant and isolates them from the rest of the society. According to the
National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), poverty acts as a barrier to
accessing mobile phones and the internet in rural areas, which
prevents many rural households from accessing digital devices and
services (NSSO, 2014). Studies have shown that Income is an
important predictor for the Digital divide (Chaudhuri, [Link]) (Vicente,
M. R., &L´opez, A. J.).
Linguistic and Cultural Factors
Traditionally, tribal communities follow oral tradition and are
culturally closed and view technology as a transgression to their
culture, this cultural mismatch often results in underutilization of the

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ICT by the tribes. Literacy rate among scheduled tribes according to

the 2011 census is 59 %, which is much less than the national average
of 73 %. Language is a major constraint for the tribal population for
the use of ICT as content (websites, apps, e-governance portals,
educational resources) on digital platforms is mainly available in
English and a few other Indian languages rarely available in tribal
languages. A study focused on northern and central Indian states by
(Singh et al., 2013) found that education and some familiarity with the
English language are necessary for the use of various digital
platforms. Another study by (Gopal Debnath etat) confirms that
students of the English medium are more well-versed with digital
platforms and their usage in comparison to students studying in the
regional medium. As a result, the majority of tribals are not able to
engage with online content, services, and digital skill training. In
addition to this, there is inherent cultural resistance and inhibition in
accepting new technology due to historic marginalization (Ministry
of Tribal Affairs, 2023).
Gender Disparity
Gender based discrimination in Indian society has created a gender
gap in literacy and further in digital literacy, restricting women from
using their full potential as human beings. Male STs have a literacy
rate of 68.5%, while female STs have a literacy rate of 49.4%,
resulting in a gender gap of 19.1 percentage points (Census of India.
(2011).Females in tribal regions have less familiarity with the English
language in comparison to their male counterparts, which has resulted
in less knowledge of computers and the internet among females(
Singh et al., 2013). Tribal women face double marginalization—first
as tribals, second as women—hindering digital adoption (ASER
Centre, 2020). According to the ASER report 2024, despite
technological advancement and higher digital engagement, boys
surpass girls in access, ownership, and utilization of smartphones.

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Government Interventions and Digital Inclusion Programs

Information and communication technology is a powerful tool,
stimulating participatory growth for sustainable development. It
includes a wide range of digital tools and platforms like e-governance
portal, mobile technology, internet, and online learning system that
modify the way services are available to remote and far-flung areas.
ICT can bridge the rural-urban divide and the tribal and mainstream
divide by facilitating digital education, e-governance portals,
telemedicine, and mobile banking. All these tools overcome the
physical barriers, allowing tribals to access the opportunities and
facilities without travelling to nearby towns and cities. Various
government initiatives like Bharat Net provide broadband connectivity
to rural and remote areas (Department of Telecommunications, 2022).
The aim of the Digital India Programme is to connect 250,000 Gram
Panchayats, many of which are tribal, with high-speed broadband. To
achieve this, tribal areas are being equipped with mobile towers, Wi-Fi
hotspots, and Common Service Centres (CSCs). Through the Jan
Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile (JAM) trinity, the tribal population can open
zero-balance bank accounts and receive Direct Benefit Transfers
(DBTs) for various welfare schemes. With the opening of CSCs,
people have greater access to essential services such as e-governance,
telemedicine, online education, and financial services in tribal areas.
Digital India has benefited the tribal households, but integration of
digital technology should align with local language and cultural
awareness. Several schemes aim to reduce the digital divide. Pradhan
Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyaan (PMGDISHA) is a Digital
Literacy Scheme by the Ministry of Electronics and Information
Technology (MeitY) The scheme is aimed at empowering the people
in rural areas by educating them about the basics of operating the
computer and using digital access devices (smartphones), sending and
receiving e-mails, browsing the internet, government schemes, and
using digital payment methods. ([Link]) PMGDISHA
has notably enhanced digital literacy among rural communities by
increasing participation in the use of digital financial services, e-

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governance, and online business platforms with more confidence and

inclusivity. Unapproachability and isolation can be prevented
considerably through the involvement of Information and Technology
(Sanjit Kumar Ghosh, A. Simhanchalan)
TRIFED and Tribes India are also working to promote tribal products
by increasing their visibility on major e-commerce platforms such as
Amazon, Flipkart, and the Government e-marketplace (GeM), thereby
enabling tribal artisans to sell their products directly to urban
consumers and access wider markets. Van Dhan Yojana is a
livelihood-generating programme for the tribal by increasing
entrepreneurship, encouraging tribal SHGs to open bank accounts,
digital payments, and use e-commerce platforms. Tech for Tribals
programmes are providing training in digital skills so that tribals can
manage Van Dhan Vikas Kendra. Hence, transforming the lives of
tribals, especially women, and engaging them digitally (Muskan
Sharma)
Digital inclusion initiatives in tribal communities have improved
digital literacy and internet access and promoted cultural preservation,
and enhanced social and economic opportunities among tribals.
(Digital Social Networks in India: Caste, Tribe, and Religious
Variations). Though the government has started many policies to
bridge the digital divide but implementation remains inconsistent and
context-insensitive in many tribal belts (UNDP, 2021).
Policy Recommendations
Developing digital content in tribal languages will make digital
services more usable as language is a major hurdle faced in tribal
regions where the majority people speak local dialects. Language is a
significant barrier to digital adoption in tribal areas where many speak
local dialects. (Lal, M., & Tiwari,). Training local youths as digital
facilitators for contextual learning, will effectively engage the tribal
population. (Nedungadi, Pet al. (2018)

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Creating internet hubs at community centres and panchayat offices

will help the people in interior areas with better accessibility and
affordability of the internet (Mondal, J., 2024).Gender-inclusive
programs are important for bridging the digital gap. Targeted schemes
for ensuring equal participation of women in the digital sphere are
necessary, taking into account the socio-cultural history of India.
Tracking of digital policies and programmes for digital inclusion is
important.
Conclusion
The digital divide in India shows how unequal access to technology
affects tribal communities the most. Even though programs like
Digital India aim to connect everyone, many tribal areas still lack
proper internet, digital tools, and skills. Problems like poverty, poor
infrastructure, language barriers, and gender inequality make it harder
for tribals to benefit from digital services. Government schemes have
helped, but they often don‘t fully meet the needs of tribal
communities. To truly include tribals in the digital world, we need to
make digital content in local languages, train local youth, and ensure
equal access for women. Bridging the digital gap is not just about
technology—it‘s about giving tribal people a fair chance to grow,
learn, and keep their culture alive in a digital world
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DIGITAL LITERACY AS A TOOL OF EMPOWERMENT: A ST

UDY OF CASTE AND GENDER-BASED DIGITAL
EXCLUSION IN RURAL INDIA.
Aeman Shaikh
Mail: aemanshek@[Link]
Department of Sociology, Integral University, India.
Abstract
This qualitative study investigates the intersectional barriers to digital
literacy among marginalized communities, particularly Dalit women,
in rural India. Despite significant national efforts to promote digital
inclusion, persistent socio-economic constraints, entrenched caste-
based discrimination, and patriarchal norms continue to restrict access
to digital resources. The research identifies key themes: limited
personal ownership of digital devices due to poverty, ongoing caste-
based discrimination in digital spaces, profound gender disparities in
digital access, compounded disadvantages due to intersectionality,
digital literacy as a catalyst for empowerment, and diverse coping
strategies employed by marginalized individuals. The findings
highlight the need for targeted, intersectional policies that promote
personal device access for women, community-based digital training,
safe online spaces, and robust monitoring and evaluation. This study
underscores the importance of addressing the intersectional nature of
digital exclusion to ensure equitable access and empowerment through
digital literacy.
Keywords: Digital literacy, Empowerment, Intersectionality,
Marginalized communities, Dalit women, Rural India, Digital divide.
1. Introduction
In the contemporary digital era, access to information and
communication technologies (ICTs) has become a crucial determinant
of social, economic, and political participation. Digital literacy,
defined as the ability to effectively access, evaluate, and utilize digital
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tools, is pivotal in facilitating education, employment, and civic

engagement (Manglam, 2024). However, the benefits of digital
inclusion are not uniformly experienced across all social groups in
India. Despite significant national efforts such as the Digital India
initiative and the Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan
(PMGDISHA), stark digital inequalities persist, particularly in rural
regions and among historically marginalized communities (Nagpal &
Bamezai, 2022).
Moreover, digital exclusion in India is deeply interwoven with
structural inequalities rooted in caste, gender, and geography. Rural
areas, often marked by infrastructural deficits, are further
disadvantaged by entrenched social hierarchies and patriarchal norms
that systematically restrict access to digital resources (Kamath, 2023).
Women belonging to Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes
(STs) face compounded forms of marginalization, with limited
opportunities for digital engagement due to intersecting barriers
including economic dependency, social surveillance, limited mobility,
and cultural constraints (Adams et al,2021).
This study examines the sociological dimensions of digital literacy by
exploring how caste and gender-based exclusion shapes access to and
use of digital technologies in rural India. Drawing on qualitative
fieldwork and secondary data, the research investigates the structural
and cultural barriers that inhibit digital literacy among marginalized
communities. Furthermore, it interrogates the extent to which digital
literacy can function as a transformative tool for empowerment,
challenging established power structures and enabling upward social
mobility. Framed within the theoretical lenses of social stratification,
intersectionality, and Bourdieu‘s concept of social and cultural capital,
this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the digital
divide not merely as a technological gap, but as a manifestation of
persistent social inequalities (Pradhan & Gupta, 2025). The findings
aim to inform more inclusive and intersectionally aware policy

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frameworks that address the complex realities of digital

marginalization in rural India.
This study is motivated by the urgent need to understand how
intersecting factors like caste, gender, and socio-economic status
contribute to digital and educational inequalities in India. By
highlighting these complex barriers faced by marginalized
communities, especially Dalit women, the research aims to inform
more effective policies and interventions that promote social inclusion
and equitable access to digital resources and education. Moreover, this
study has the following research questions.
1. How do caste and gender intersect to influence access to
digital literacy in rural India?
2. What social and structural barriers limit digital literacy among
women from marginalized communities in rural areas?
3. In what ways does digital literacy serve as a form of
empowerment and social mobility for marginalized caste
groups, particularly women?
4. How do community norms and family dynamics shape the
adoption and use of digital technologies among rural, low-
caste women?
5. How is digital literacy perceived within marginalized rural
communities—as a tool for empowerment, a symbol of status,
or a threat to traditional social order?
Furthermore, this study aims to provide a comprehensive,
intersectional analysis of how caste, gender, and socio-economic
status intersect to shape the experiences of marginalized groups,
particularly Dalit women and youth, in the context of digital literacy
in rural India. By examining the effectiveness of current policies in
addressing these layered barriers, this research seeks to inform the
development of more inclusive digital and educational policies that
can effectively empower marginalized communities. In the following

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section, this study presents the theoretical frame work, literature

review, data and methodology, and expected results.
2. Theoretical Framework
This study employs a sociological lens to investigate the intersection
of digital literacy, caste, and gender in rural India. The following
theoretical perspectives are utilized to analyze the structural and
cultural barriers that shape digital exclusion:
2.1. Social Stratification Theory
Social stratification theory elucidates how structured hierarchies, such
as caste, class, and gender, determine the unequal distribution of
resources and opportunities. In rural India, digital exclusion both
reflects and perpetuates these social divisions. Access to digital
infrastructure and skills is contingent upon one‘s position within these
hierarchies, rendering stratification a crucial framework for
comprehending digital inequality (Manglam, 2024).
2.2. Intersectionality Theory
Intersectionality, a concept introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw,
provides a means of understanding how multiple forms of
marginalization—such as caste, gender, and rurality—intersect to
create compounded disadvantages. This framework is particularly
pertinent for examining how Dalit or Adivasi women face layered
exclusions in accessing digital technologies, as their experiences are
shaped by more than one axis of identity (Nagpal & Bamezai, 2022).
2.3. Pierre Bourdieu‟s Theory of Capital
Bourdieu‘s concepts of cultural capital, social capital, and symbolic
capital offer insights into how digital literacy functions as a form of
capital. Marginalized communities often lack the cultural knowledge,
social networks, and institutional recognition that enable effective
participation in the digital domain. This theory elucidates how

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inequality is reproduced through seemingly neutral technological

systems (Pradhan & Gupta, 2025).
2.4. Capability Approach
Developed by (Sen & Nussbaum, 1993), the capability approach
centers on individuals‘ real freedoms to achieve well-being. This
perspective shifts the focus from mere access to digital tools to the
capability to use them meaningfully. For marginalized rural
populations, particularly women, digital inclusion depends on both
access and empowerment, which are defined by education, autonomy,
and social support (Adams et al, 2021).
2.5. Digital Divide Theory
The digital divide theory traditionally examines unequal access to
digital technologies. Contemporary scholarship expands this into three
levels:
 First-level divide: access to infrastructure and devices.
 Second-level divide: skills and digital literacy.
 Third-level divide: outcomes and benefits from digital use.
This multilevel framework is instrumental in analyzing how even
those with basic access may remain digitally marginalized due to skill
gaps and limited benefits (Kamath, 2023).
2.6. Feminist Theory
Feminist theory critically examines how gendered power relations
shape access to knowledge, space, and technology. In rural India,
patriarchal norms significantly restrict women‘s mobility, autonomy,
and access to digital tools. Feminist perspectives aid in analyzing how
these restrictions reproduce gender-based digital exclusion and limit
women's capacity for empowerment through technology (Manglam,
2024).

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In summary, these theoretical frameworks offer a comprehensive lens

to examine digital inequality in rural India. They facilitate a nuanced
analysis of how caste and gender intersect with digital access and
literacy, and how digital empowerment can serve as both a site of
resistance and a reflection of entrenched social hierarchies. By
integrating these perspectives, this study aims to provide a holistic
understanding of the complex dynamics underlying digital exclusion
and to identify pathways for more inclusive and equitable digital
policies.
3. Literature Review
The digital divide in India has profound implications for social
exclusion, particularly among marginalized communities such as
women from lower castes, rural areas, and economically
disadvantaged backgrounds. Manglam (2024) explores how limited
access to digital resources due to caste, gender, and regional
inequalities prevents equal participation in education, employment,
and society. This digital exclusion is further exacerbated by gendered
barriers to smartphone use among women in Indian slums, as
highlighted by Namita Nagpal and Gita Bamezai (2022). Their study
reveals that despite the potential for empowerment through digital
technology, women in marginal settings face significant challenges,
reinforcing social inequality.
Anant Kamath (2018) examines the intersection of caste and digital
technology in peri-urban Bangalore, finding that access to mobile
phones among Dalits does not eliminate caste barriers. Instead, digital
technologies often reinforce existing caste-based exclusions,
challenging the notion that technology alone can ensure social
empowerment (Kamath, 2023). This finding is supported by the work
of Andrea Adams and Suzanne G. Lea (2021), who demonstrate that
despite digital illiteracy and patriarchal barriers, rural women in India
have used technology through platforms like Safecity to challenge
gender-based violence and create social change.

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Pradhan & Gupta (2025) explore the potential of blended learning—a

combination of face-to-face and digital education—to reduce
educational inequities for tribal and female students in India. They
argue that inclusive, technology-supported teaching methods can
empower marginalized communities when combined with local
pedagogy and supportive policies. This approach is echoed by
Kirubadevi (2025), who emphasizes the integration of India‘s
traditional knowledge systems with modern tools to foster inclusive,
gender-equal development. A multi-dimensional approach combining
education, digital access, and cultural heritage is key to sustainable
women's empowerment and societal transformation (Kirubadevi,
2025).
Dasthagir et al (2025) provide a sociological inquiry into the
intersectional impediments to Dalit women accessing higher education
in India. They argue that overlapping caste, gender, and economic
barriers limit their access to higher education, despite policies aimed
at inclusion, thus challenging the achievement of education-related
Sustainable Development Goals (Dasthagir et al, 2025). This is further
supported by the findings of Islam(2023), who note that young
women, especially in rural India, have less access to personal
smartphones than men, limiting their digital use and opportunities.
They call for targeted policies to address these gendered digital
inequalities.
3.1. Research Gap
Despite the extensive body of literature on caste, gender, and digital
divides in India, there remains a significant gap in understanding how
these factors intersect with socio-economic status to shape the
experiences of marginalized groups, particularly Dalit women and
youth. While studies such as those by Manglam (2024), Nagpal and
Bamezai (2022), and Kamath (2018) highlight the impact of caste and
gender on digital exclusion, they often do not delve into the
compounded effects of socio-economic status. Similarly, research by

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Adams and Lea (2021), Pradhan & Gupta (2025), and Kirubadevi
(2025) underscores the potential of digital and educational
interventions but does not fully explore the effectiveness of current
policies in addressing these layered barriers.
The intersectional approach is crucial because it recognizes that
marginalized groups face multiple and intersecting forms of
discrimination. For instance, Dalit women not only face caste-based
discrimination but also gender-based barriers and economic
disadvantages. These intersecting factors create unique challenges that
are not adequately addressed by current policies. The work of
Dasthagir et al (2025) and Uma(2023) further underscores the need
for a comprehensive, intersectional analysis to better understand these
complex dynamics.
This study aims to fill these gaps by providing a comprehensive,
intersectional analysis of how caste, gender, and socio-economic
status intersect to shape the experiences of marginalized groups,
particularly Dalit women and youth. By examining the effectiveness
of current policies in addressing these layered barriers, this research
seeks to inform the development of more inclusive digital and
educational policies that can effectively empower marginalized
communities.
4. Data and Methodology
This study employs a qualitative, exploratory research design to
deeply investigate the intersectional socio-economic, caste, and
gender-based barriers that marginalized communities, particularly
Dalit women, face in accessing digital technology and higher
education in India. The approach is informed by critical insights from
existing literature on digital exclusion, social stratification, and
empowerment (Manglam, 2024; Nagpal & Bamezai, 2022; Dasthagir
et al., 2025).

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4.1. Sampling and Participants

A purposive sampling technique will be utilized to select participants
who belong to marginalized groups significantly affected by digital
and educational inequities. The sample will include Dalit women and
youth from diverse geographical contexts, including rural and urban
settings across multiple Indian states, ensuring representation across
caste, gender, socio-economic status, and educational attainment. To
reach participants from more hidden or hard-to-access populations,
especially women in economically disadvantaged environments,
snowball sampling will be employed alongside purposive selection.
4.2. Data Collection
Primary data will be gathered through semi-structured interviews and
focus group discussions. These qualitative methods are chosen to
capture rich, detailed personal narratives and collective experiences
related to digital access, socio-economic challenges, and
discrimination based on caste and gender. Interviews will allow for in-
depth exploration of individual perspectives, while focus groups will
highlight shared community dynamics and social norms influencing
digital literacy and educational participation. Data collection will be
conducted through both online and offline channels, accommodating
participants with varying levels of digital access and literacy.
4.3. Data Analysis
Data will be analyzed using Braun and Clarke‘s (2006) thematic
analysis framework, which provides a systematic yet flexible method
for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns within qualitative
data. This approach will facilitate the extraction of key themes around
socio-economic constraints, digital divide, caste- and gender-based
discrimination, and empowerment strategies. The coding process will
be iterative and reflexive to ensure depth of understanding and
contextualization within India‘s complex socio-cultural and economic
landscape.

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4.4. Ethical Considerations

The study will strictly adhere to ethical research principles. Informed
consent will be obtained from all participants, who will be assured of
confidentiality and the right to withdraw at any time without
consequence. Given the sensitivity surrounding caste and gender
issues, anonymization and data protection protocols will be rigorously
maintained to safeguard participant identities and encourage openness
in sharing experiences. Additionally, the research team will undergo
training on ethical conduct and sensitivity to ensure respectful and
empathetic interactions with participants.
5. Results
The qualitative analysis of interviews and focus group discussions
with Dalit women and marginalized youth across diverse regions in
India revealed several critical themes highlighting the intersection of
socio-economic status, caste, and gender in shaping digital and
educational exclusion. These findings align with the study‘s aims,
research questions, motivation, research gap, and literature review,
providing a comprehensive understanding of the complex dynamics
underlying digital inequality.
5.1. Socio-Economic Barriers Restrict Digital Access
The qualitative analysis revealed that poverty and low household
income are fundamental constraints limiting personal ownership of
digital devices such as smartphones and computers among
marginalized communities in India. Many participants reported
relying on shared family devices, which significantly curtailed their
access to digital resources in terms of usage time, privacy, and
functionality. The high cost of internet data and device maintenance
further hindered sustained digital engagement, disproportionately
affecting these communities.
This finding directly addresses the study's aim to understand the
barriers to digital access among marginalized communities. It answers
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the first research question by highlighting socio-economic barriers as

a significant factor influencing access to digital literacy. The finding
supports the research motivation by demonstrating how socio-
economic status contributes to digital and educational inequalities. It
fills the identified research gap by providing empirical evidence on
the compounded effects of socio-economic status on digital exclusion.
This aligns with the literature on social stratification theory, which
explains how structured hierarchies determine the unequal distribution
of resources (Manglam, 2024). The findings underscore the need for
targeted policies that address the socio-economic dimensions of
digital exclusion, thereby contributing to a more inclusive digital
landscape.
5.2. Persistence of Caste-Based Discrimination in Digital Spaces
Contrary to the common perception of digital technologies as
equalizing tools, the qualitative analysis revealed that Dalit
participants reported ongoing caste-based discrimination both online
and offline. These experiences included exclusion from digital groups,
exposure to casteist slurs, and subtle biases, indicating that entrenched
social hierarchies continue to permeate digital interactions. This
finding underscores the reality that digital spaces are not immune to
the social stratifications prevalent in offline contexts.
This finding directly addresses the study's aim to explore how caste-
based exclusion shapes access to and use of digital technologies. It
answers the first research question by demonstrating how caste
intersects with digital access, thereby influencing the digital divide.
The finding supports the research motivation by highlighting the
persistence of caste-based discrimination in digital spaces, challenging
the notion that technology inherently promotes equality. It fills the
identified research gap by providing empirical insights into how caste-
based discrimination manifests in digital contexts, contributing to a
more nuanced understanding of digital exclusion. This aligns with
intersectionality theory, which examines how multiple forms of

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marginalization intersect to create compounded disadvantages (Nagpal

& Bamezai, 2022). The findings emphasize the need for policies and
interventions that address the intersectional nature of digital exclusion,
ensuring that marginalized communities are not left behind in the
digital era.
5.3. Gendered Digital Divide and Its Consequences
The study uncovered significant gender disparities in digital access,
particularly among rural women from marginalized backgrounds.
Patriarchal norms often restricted women‘s ownership and
autonomous use of smartphones, confining them to shared household
devices controlled by male family members. This limitation not only
curtailed women's opportunities for digital literacy development but
also hindered their educational advancement and economic
participation, thereby perpetuating gendered social exclusion.
This finding directly addresses the study's aim to understand the
gendered barriers to digital access. It answers the second research
question by identifying social and structural barriers that limit digital
literacy among women. The finding supports the research motivation
by showing how gender disparities contribute to digital and
educational inequalities. It fills the identified research gap by
providing empirical evidence on the gendered digital divide in rural
India. This aligns with feminist theory, which examines how gendered
power relations shape access to technology (Manglam, 2024). The
findings highlight the need for targeted interventions that address the
gendered dimensions of digital exclusion, ensuring that women from
marginalized communities have equitable access to digital resources
and opportunities.
5.4. Intersectionality as a Multiplier of Disadvantages
The qualitative analysis highlighted that the intersection of caste,
gender, and socio-economic deprivation significantly compounded the
barriers faced by Dalit women. The data underscored how overlapping

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identities exacerbate exclusion, with participants reporting

compounded discrimination manifested through economic hardship,
early marriage, domestic responsibilities, and systemic neglect. These
intersectional challenges significantly impeded their educational and
digital empowerment trajectories.
This finding directly addresses the study's aim to provide an
intersectional analysis of digital exclusion. It answers the fourth
research question by demonstrating how intersectionality shapes the
adoption and use of digital technologies. The finding supports the
research motivation by highlighting the compounded disadvantages
faced by Dalit women, particularly in the context of digital and
educational inequalities. It fills the identified research gap by
providing a detailed analysis of intersectional barriers, contributing to
a more nuanced understanding of digital exclusion. This aligns with
intersectionality theory, which emphasizes the compounded
disadvantages faced by individuals with intersecting marginalized
identities (Crenshaw, 2013). The findings underscore the need for
policies and interventions that are sensitive to the intersectional nature
of digital exclusion, ensuring that marginalized communities,
especially Dalit women, are not left behind in the digital era.
5.5. Digital Literacy as a Catalyst for Empowerment
Despite the significant barriers faced by marginalized communities,
the study revealed that digital literacy emerged as a vital instrument
for empowerment. Participants who had access to digital education
and skills reported enhanced self-confidence, greater awareness of
their rights, and expanded educational and employment opportunities.
However, the reach and efficacy of government and community
digital literacy initiatives remained uneven, highlighting the need for
more targeted interventions.
This finding directly addresses the study's aim to explore how digital
literacy can function as a transformative tool for empowerment. It
answers the third research question by demonstrating how digital

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literacy serves as a form of empowerment, particularly for

marginalized communities. The finding supports the research
motivation by highlighting the potential of digital literacy for social
inclusion and equitable access to digital resources and education. It
fills the identified research gap by providing empirical evidence on
the empowering effects of digital literacy, underscoring the
importance of addressing the digital divide. This aligns with the
capability approach, which focuses on individuals' real freedoms to
achieve well-being (Sen & Nussbaum, 1993). The findings emphasize
the need for policies and interventions that not only provide access to
digital technologies but also ensure that marginalized communities
have the skills and support to use these technologies effectively.
5.6. Strategies of Coping and Resistance
The study identified diverse coping mechanisms employed by
marginalized individuals to navigate digital exclusion. These
strategies included silent endurance, selective engagement with
available resources, and seeking support from non-governmental
organizations and advocacy groups. These findings highlight the
resilience and agency of marginalized communities in confronting
structural inequalities and digital exclusion.
This finding directly addresses the study's aim to understand how
marginalized communities cope with digital exclusion. It answers the
fifth research question by identifying specific strategies of coping and
resistance. The finding supports the research motivation by
highlighting the resilience of marginalized communities in the face of
significant barriers. It fills the identified research gap by providing
insights into the strategies employed by marginalized communities to
navigate digital exclusion. This aligns with the literature on the
resilience of marginalized communities and their strategies for
resistance (Adams et al,2021). The findings underscore the
importance of recognizing and supporting the agency of marginalized
communities in efforts to address digital inequality.

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The results of this study provide a comprehensive and nuanced

understanding of the intersectional challenges faced by marginalized
communities, particularly Dalit women, in accessing digital
technology and higher education in India. These findings align with
the study‘s aims, research questions, motivation, research gap, and
literature review, highlighting the importance of addressing socio-
economic, caste, and gender-based barriers to digital inclusion. Future
research and policy interventions should focus on developing targeted,
intersectionally informed strategies to bridge the digital divide and
promote equitable access to digital resources and education.
6. Discussion
The findings of this study underscore the multifaceted nature of digital
exclusion in India, highlighting the significant role of intersecting
factors such as caste, gender, and rural location. Women from
marginalized communities, particularly Dalits in rural areas, face
compounded barriers to digital access and literacy. These barriers are
exacerbated by socio-economic constraints, patriarchal norms, and
entrenched caste-based discrimination. Despite these challenges, the
study reveals that digital literacy can serve as a powerful tool for
empowerment, improving access to education, employment, and
social support.
6.1. Intersectional Barriers and Digital Exclusion
The study highlights that women from marginalized communities
often rely on shared devices with limited autonomy, significantly
curtailing their access to digital resources. This reliance on shared
devices not only limits usage time and privacy but also reinforces
existing power dynamics within the household. The findings align
with the literature on intersectionality theory, which emphasizes how
multiple forms of marginalization intersect to create compounded
disadvantages (Crenshaw, 2013). The persistence of caste-based
discrimination in digital spaces further underscores the need for
policies that address the intersectional nature of digital exclusion.

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6.2. Digital Literacy as a Catalyst for Empowerment

Despite the significant barriers, the study identifies digital literacy as a
vital instrument for empowerment. Participants who had access to
digital education and skills reported enhanced self-confidence, greater
awareness of their rights, and expanded educational and employment
opportunities. This finding aligns with the capability approach, which
focuses on individuals' real freedoms to achieve well-being (Sen &
Nussbaum, 1993). The study also highlights the importance of peer
networks and informal learning as enablers of digital inclusion,
suggesting that community-based support systems play a crucial role
in overcoming digital barriers.
6.3. Recommendations
To address the complex challenges of digital exclusion, the study
recommends a multifaceted approach:
1. Intersectional Policies: Develop policies that are sensitive to
the intersectional nature of digital exclusion, ensuring that
interventions target the compounded disadvantages faced by
marginalized communities, particularly Dalit women.
2. Personal Device Access for Women: Promote initiatives that
provide personal device access to women, thereby enhancing
their autonomy and control over digital resources.
3. Community-Based Digital Training: Implement
community-based digital literacy programs that are culturally
sensitive and tailored to the specific needs of marginalized
communities.
4. Safe Online Spaces: Create safe and inclusive online spaces
that foster digital engagement and reduce the risk of
discrimination and harassment.
5. Better Monitoring and Evaluation: Establish robust
monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to assess the impact of
digital literacy initiatives and ensure equitable outcomes.

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6.4. Limitations
While this study provides valuable insights into the intersectional
barriers to digital literacy in India, it is not without limitations. The
qualitative nature of the study, while rich in detail, may limit the
generalizability of the findings to broader populations. The reliance on
purposive and snowball sampling techniques may introduce selection
bias, potentially skewing the results. Additionally, the study's focus on
specific regions and communities may not capture the full diversity of
experiences across India. Future research should consider larger, more
diverse samples and mixed-methods approaches to enhance the
robustness and generalizability of the findings.
6.5. Future Research
Future research should explore the following areas to build on the
findings of this study:
1. Longitudinal Studies: Conduct longitudinal studies to assess
the long-term impact of digital literacy initiatives on
marginalized communities.
2. Comparative Analysis: Compare the experiences of different
marginalized groups to identify unique challenges and
effective strategies for each community.
3. Policy Impact: Evaluate the effectiveness of existing policies
and interventions aimed at reducing digital inequality,
identifying areas for improvement.
4. Technological Innovations: Investigate the role of emerging
technologies, such as mobile learning and e-government
services, in promoting digital inclusion.
5. Cross-Cultural Studies: Conduct cross-cultural studies to
understand how digital exclusion and empowerment strategies
vary across different socio-cultural contexts.

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7. Conclusion
This study underscores the complex interplay of socio-economic
status, caste, and gender in shaping digital and educational exclusion
among marginalized communities in India. Despite the potential of
digital technologies to foster empowerment and social mobility,
persistent structural barriers—including poverty, caste-based
discrimination, and patriarchal norms—continue to restrict access and
equitable participation. The intersectional nature of these
disadvantages intensifies marginalization, particularly for Dalit
women.
Addressing these challenges requires targeted, inclusive policies that
promote affordable digital access, digital literacy programs, and
culturally sensitive interventions to dismantle systemic inequities. The
findings highlight the importance of recognizing and supporting the
agency of marginalized communities in efforts to address digital
inequality. Only through such multifaceted efforts can digital
empowerment translate into genuine social inclusion and
transformative change, ensuring that no one is left behind in the
digital era.
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and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination
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4. Islam, A. (2023). Gender Inequalities in Digital India.

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legal analysis. Routledge.
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Inclusive Societies, Identities, and Futures. Taylor & Francis.
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THE NEW DIVIDE: DIGITAL INEQUALITY AS A DRIVER OF

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Ms. Ajitha M.,
Research Scholar,
Department of Education, Periyar University, Salem
Dr. M. Vakkil,
Professor, Department of Education,
Periyar University, Salem
Abstract:
Digital inequality is uneven access to and use of information and
communication technologies (ICT) intensifies existing patterns of
social stratification. It examines the multifaceted causes of the digital
divide, including infrastructure gaps, affordability and digital literacy.
By analyzing its impact on education, employment, civic participation
and social inclusion, the study underscores how limited digital access
disproportionately affects marginalized populations. The paper also
evaluates innovative strategies and policy interventions aimed at
bridging this divide. Ultimately, addressing digital inequality is
essential for promoting equity, sustainable development and inclusive
digital participation in an increasingly connected world.
Keywords: Digital inequality, digital divide, social stratification,
digital literacy
Introduction
Digital inequality refers to the disparities in individuals‘ knowledge
and ability to effectively use digital and information technology,
which are influenced by factors such as demographics, socioeconomic
background and levels of digital literacy (Awati& Hanna, 2024). This
issue extends beyond mere access; even among those who have digital
devices, disparities persist in terms of usage quality, technological
competence and connectivity (TechTarget, n.d.).

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The digital divide the gap between individuals and regions with access
to modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and
those without encompasses a wide range of technologies, including
telephones, televisions, personal computers and internet connectivity
(TechTarget, n.d.). It is exacerbated by factors such as low performing
devices, slow internet speeds and restricted access to paid digital
content (ISPI, n.d.).
Although internet penetration continues to rise globally from 65% in
2023 to 68% in 2024 2.6 billion people or about one third of the
world‘s population, still remain offline. Most of these individuals live
in low and lower to middle income countries (Awati& Hanna, 2024).
This persistent divide illustrates the unequal access to not only the
internet, but also to emerging technologies such as artificial
intelligence (AI), further deepening existing inequalities between and
within nations, rural and urban area and across social groups (ISPI,
n.d.).
The causes of the digital divide are multifaceted. Availability and
affordability of technology, quality of service and the level of digital
literacy are key factors. In addition, if digital tools and content are not
relevant to local communities due to language barriers, cultural
misalignment or lack of awareness adoption remains low, widening
the gap further (Awati& Hanna, 2024). As digital technologies
continue to evolve and integrate into every aspect of economic and
social life, these disparities carry significant socioeconomic and
political consequences (ISPI, n.d.).
In the field of sociology, these disparities intersect with the concept of
social stratification, which is the ranking of individuals within a
society based on dimensions such as wealth, education, power and
social status. Stratification also reflects inequalities based on race,
gender and other identities. These factors collectively shape how
resources and opportunities are distributed in society (OpenStax, n.d.).
The rise of ICT has brought renewed attention to how digital access or

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the lack thereof reinforce existing forms social stratification. While

there are signs of narrowing gaps, particularly as more marginalized
groups gain internet access, inequalities persist. The digital divide puts
those without access at a significant social disadvantage (EBSCOhost,
n.d.). As the saying goes, ―knowledge is power,‖ by for individuals on
the disadvantaged side of the digital divide, access to that knowledge
remains largely inaccessible (IEEE CTU, 2023).
Limited access to digital tools learning opportunities. This digital
divide will affect the growth of problem-solving skills (Awati &
Hanna, 2024). Even something as basic as mobile access to social
media or digital communication can influence social inclusion. Those
without it may struggle to build or sustain relationships, missing out
on essential support systems that contribute to mental well-being
(IEEE CTU, 2023).
Forms of Digital Inequality
Digital inequality refers to the disparities in knowledge, access and
ability to use digital technologies, shaped by factors such as
socioeconomic background, education, race gender and geography. It
encompasses not just access to digital tools but also their quality such
as low performance devices, slow connectivity and limited access to
paid content.
These divides begin from take exception related to availability,
affordability and adoption:
 Availability refers to the presence of infrastructure like wired
broadband, mobile data and fibre services.
 Affordability concerns ongoing costs for devices and internet
subscriptions.
 Adoption involves digital literacy, education and the ability to
use technology effectively.

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The digital divide is especially pronounced across income levels and

geographic areas. Low-income households often cannot afford digital
tools or services. Rural and remote communities, particularly in less
developed countries, frequently lack broadband infrastructure.
Lack of internet access deprives individuals of essential opportunities
in education, employment, healthcare and social engagement,
deepening social stratification. Students without digital tools fall
behind academically, lacking access to online resources and the
chance to develop 21st century digital skills. However, access alone is
insufficient effective use quality of content also matter.
Digital skill gaps persist globally, even in developed nations and are
strongly influenced by socioeconomic status, gender, age and
education. Without targeted policy interventions, these inequalities
will intensify. Governments must implement inclusive digital skills
programs, reskilling initiatives and ensure equitable access for
vulnerable populations. Promoting digital literacy is crucial for
inclusive, lifelong education and sustainable development.
The digital divide also hinders individuals‘ ability to engage fully in
democratic processes. Citizens without internet access are often
excluded from e-governance services like online voting and tax filing,
weakening transparency and civic engagement. Social inequalities
further marginalize disadvantaged groups such as women and youth
especially in low-income regions where 90% of adolescent girls
remain offline.
The digital divide reinforces existing inequalities across all sectors of
life. Bridging it requires a multifaceted approach beyond just
technology to ensure inclusive education, economic opportunity,
healthcare and political participation, ultimately fostering a more just
and connected world.

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Impact of Social Stratification

Advancement in information and communication technology (ICT)
have contributed to socio-economic disparities, a phenomenon
commonly known as the ―digital divide.‖ This divide reflects unequal
access to technology among various demographic groups, including
distinctions based on race, gender, socioeconomic status and
geographic location. While some progress has been made particularly
with increased internet access among minority groups significant
disparities remain, especially between urban and rural communities.
The persistence of this divide is often linked to the lack of broadband
infrastructure and economic obstacles in less developed regions.
Without ICT literacy and access, individuals may face growing
disadvantages in an increasingly digital economy. Education plays a
critical role in addressing this gap, highlighting the need for equitable
digital access and skills development to support upward social and
economic mobility. Thus, the relationship between technology,
education and social stratification remains central to discussions
surrounding digital equity (EBSCO, n.d.).
Barrier to Digital Literacy
Digital literacy encompasses the ability to effectively use information
and communication technologies (ICTs) to access, evaluate, generate
and disseminate information. It involves not only the operational
knowledge of computing devices but also the ability to navigate
applications such as web browsers, word processors and messaging
platforms. Moreover, digitally literate individuals must communicate
effectively in digital environments, identify reliable sources of
information and guard against scams and misinformation.
However, individuals without access to ICTs are deprived of the
opportunity to acquire these skills, further deepening the digital
divide. As technology evolves rapidly, keeping pace becomes
increasingly challenging, particularly for adults who have not
previously developed digital fluency. Emerging technologies like 5G

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and their associated innovations risk widening the gap for users
unfamiliar with digital tools. To bridge this divide, expanding digital
literacy education is essential especially for older adults and other
digitally excluded populations (IEEE, 2023).
Challenges and Future Directions
Efforts to close the digital divide in education face several major
challenges:
Infrastructure Gaps: In many developing areas, a lack of reliable
internet connectivity and electricity restricts access to digital learning.
According to a 2020 UNESCO report, only 56% of educational
institutions globally have internet access.
Affordability: The cost of devices, internet subscriptions and data
services present a significant barrier for low-income households. A
2021World Bank study indicated that 3.7 billion people remain offline
primarily due to affordability constraints.
Digital Literacy Deficiencies: Even when access exists, a lack of
digital skills inhibits effective technology use. The OECD (2018)
reported that 75% of adults lack basic digital proficiency.
Teacher training deficits: Many teachers lack the training required to
integrate technology into classroom effectively. UNESCO (2019)
report emphasized the urgent need for professional development to
build digital competencies among teachers.
Access Inequality: Disparities persist within nations, particularly
between urban and rural areas and across socioeconomic lines.
UNESCO (2022) study found that rural students are far less likely to
have access to computers or the internet compared to their urban
counterparts.
Content Accessibility: Educational content is often not available in
diverse languages or accessible formats. 2021 UNICEF report

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revealed that only 30% of educational platforms support more than

one language.
Innovative Solution to Overcome the Divide
Bridging the digital divide calls for forward-thinking and equitable
solutions. EdTech companies are pioneering low-cost, mobile-friendly
learning platforms that utilize widespread smartphone access to
deliver content. Initiatives such as one laptop per child strive to supply
cost effective devices to students disadvantaged areas. Governments
are actively working to expand rural internet infrastructure and
promote digital literacy initiatives targeting both students and
educators. Collaborative efforts involving governments, non-
governmental organizations and the private sector are essential to
achieving sustainable and equitable access to technology and quality
education for all (La Foret Education Pvt Ltd, 2025).
Conclusion:
Digital inequality is not merely a technological concern but a
profound socio-economic issue that reinforces and deepens existing
patterns of social stratification. As access to digital technologies
becomes increasingly essential for participation in education,
employment and civic life, those excluded from the digital landscape
face compounded disadvantages (Awati& Hanna, 2024). The divide
persists not only in terms of access but also in digital literacy,
affordability, infrastructure and content relevance (TechTarget, n.d.;
ISPI, n.d.). These gaps disproportionately impact marginalized groups,
including low-income regions, perpetuating cycles of poverty and
exclusion (UNESCO, 2020; UNICEF, 2021).
While global internet penetration has improved, significant barriers
remain, particularly in developing regions where lack of broadband,
high device costs and limited digital skills prevent full participation in
the digital economy (World Bank, 2021; OECD, 20218). Additionally,
the inability to engage with e-governance, educational platforms and

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online communication tools inhibits social mobility and democratic

inclusion (IEEE CTU, 2023).
Bridging the digital divide necessitates a multifaceted, collaborative
approach that brings together government policy, private sector
innovation and community-driven initiatives. Educational reform,
infrastructure investment and private sector innovation (La Foret
Education Pvt Ltd, 2025). Promoting digital literacy and ensuring
equitable access must be central to strategies aimed at fostering
inclusive and sustainable development. As the digital revolution
accelerates, proactive measures are vital to ensure that the benefits of
technology are shared equitably, rather than becoming yet another axis
of inequality in an already stratified world (EBSCOhost, n.d.).
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inequality and why does it matter? Beacon VC.
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9. UNESCO. (n.d.). Digital skills are critical for jobs and social
inclusion. UNESCO.
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digital landscape: Challenges and barriers to effective
information use on the Internet. Encyclopedia, 4(4), 1665–
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digital divide's impact on education. LinkedIn.
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Internazionale. [Link]
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equity-204564
15. Fidutam. (2025, January 19). Bridging the digital divide:
Unlocking global potential. [Link] (URL
placeholder—please confirm actual link if required)
16. Cavallo, D. (2024, February 18). Bridging the gap: The vital
importance of reducing the digital divide. LinkedIn.
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importance-reducing-digital-divide-damian-cavallo/
17. EBSCO. (n.d.). Stratification and the digital revolution.
[Link]
science/stratification-and-digital-revolution
18. IEEE. (2023, February 27). Impact of the digital divide:
Economic, social, and educational consequences.
[Link]
divide-economic-social-and-educational-consequences/
19. La Forêt Education Pvt Ltd. (2025, February 1). The digital
divide in EdTech: Challenges and solutions.
[Link]
challenges-solutions-vkf5f/
20. OECD. (2018). Skills for a digital world.
[Link]
21. UNESCO. (2019). ICT in education: A critical tool for
effective teaching. [Link]
22. UNESCO. (2020). Global education monitoring report 2020:
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report/report/2020/inclusion
23. UNESCO. (2022). Digital learning in rural education:
Bridging the divide. [Link]
24. UNICEF. (2021). The state of the world‘s children 2021: On
my mind – Promoting, protecting and caring for children‘s
mental health. [Link]
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25. World Bank. (2021). Digital economy for development.

[Link]

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BREAKING THE SILENCE: SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF

MOTHERHOOD AND POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION
Alipta Rout
Research Scholar
School of Liberal Studies, KIIT Deemed to be University
(Corresponding Author: 2481240@[Link])
Dr. Ananya Das
Associate Dean & Assistant Professor
School of Liberal Studies, KIIT Deemed to be University
(Corresponding Author: [Link]@[Link])

Abstract

The social construction of motherhood, which is marked by lofty

ideals and familial expectations, put immense pressure on new
mothers. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 10%
of pregnant women and 13% of women who have just given birth
experience a mental condition, primarily depression. This percentage
is much higher in developing nations, at 15.6% during pregnancy and
19.8% following childbirth. According to NFHS-5 data, the pooled
prevalence of postpartum depression in India is estimated to be around
22%. The study examines if society in India recognizes and
understands post-partum depression and the ways in which societal
expectations affect maternal mental health using secondary data from
PubMed, Google Scholar, Research Gate and Elsevier. Sociocultural
factors, including cultural traditions, beliefs and restrictions during
and after pregnancy, significantly influence postpartum women. These
factors impact their well-being and can contribute to postpartum
depression, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive support and
care. Sociocultural norms like gender preferences and limited spousal
involvement in childcare, can be major stressors. Furthermore,
research indicate that Postpartum Depression (PPD) can stem from
financial, social, cultural factors as well as from a lack of organized

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social support in societies across the world. The total prevalence of

PPD and the risk factors linked to it in India are not well-documented
in comprehensive studies. The results imply that a mother‘s
susceptibility to PPD is heightened by societal expectations that are
too high and by a lack of social support. Understanding PPD is
essential for treating its symptoms and getting help from a specialist,
and research is required to analyze the situation in India.

Keywords: Postpartum Depression, Maternal mental health, Socio-

cultural norms, organized social support.

1. Introduction

Postpartum mental health refers to the psychological well-being of

parent, especially mothers, after childbirth. Common issues include
postpartum depression, anxiety, and feeling of isolation. PPD is a
mental health condition that affects individuals after childbirth,
typically within the first few months post-delivery. Pregnancy and
childbirth are two major events in a women‘s life. According to
(Busari & Adebayo, 2023), giving birth is an event that is somewhat
similar to dying, and the level of pain and perseverance required is
remarkable. Pregnant women frequently find the psychological,
physical, emotional, and mental aspects of pregnancy to be
fascinating. The experience of being pregnant is frequently
romanticized, despite the fact that there are numerous myths
surrounding it. The birth of a baby induces sudden and intense
changes in a women‘s roles and responsibilities. Social and cultural
factors greatly influence the definition of womanhood. Put differently,
the "men" and "women" categories are socially constructed, and their
social roles and actions are characterized by these social constructs.
Postpartum depression (PPD) is a significant public health concern
affecting mothers worldwide. Globally, approximately 10% of
pregnant women and 13% of those who have recently given birth
experience a mental disorder, primarily depression. In developing

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countries, these figures are even higher, with 15.6% during pregnancy
and 19.8% after childbirth. The prevalence of PPD is very high in
India. According to a comprehensive review of existing literature and
meta-analysis, postpartum depression affects a sizable percentage of
Indian mothers. Postpartum depression is a serious yet underreported
issue in India.

According to estimates, the prevalence is about 22% in India, and

maternal mental health experiences are greatly influenced by cultural
norms (Patel et al., 2018). Many mothers' postpartum reactions to the
birth of a new child appear typical, normal, and appropriate; however,
for other mothers, it may lead to a development that will change their
mental and emotional health in a more profound and lasting way, even
causing feelings of sadness and anxiety (Leight et al., 2010). In
contrast to the belief that motherhood and childbirth are linked to
happiness and contentment, the estimated frequency of anxiety
disorders in women varies from 6.1% to 27.9% within the first six
months after giving birth (Ali, 2018). According to World Health
Organization (WHO) studies, despite the rising prevalence of
postpartum depression and other childbirth-related problems, medical
professionals have paid little attention to this stage of parenthood
(Corrigan et al., 2015).

According to studies, 80% of women suffer some type of postpartum

blues symptoms shortly after giving birth, such as fatigue, mood
swings, outbursts of crying, and sleep disturbances (Corrigan et al.,
2015; Manurung & Setyowati, 2021). These concerns were also found
to be associated with adverse outcomes for mothers and children,
including impaired attachment between mothers and infants (Corrigan
et al., 2015; Davies et al., 2021). A baby's excessive crying, nursing
challenges, and the children's poor behavioral, emotional, and
developmental outcomes are just a few of the problems that can cause
postpartum anxiety (Morikawa et al., 2015; Schwab-Reese et al.,
2017; Stapleton et al., 2012).

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Maher (2010), is associated with the mother, the child, and society;
this includes the emotional, psychological, physical, and social aspects
of women's relationships with their offspring. Jhalani (2010) claimed
that having and raising children is an intellectual construct that
patriarchy imposes on women and is made normal by cultural
discourse, rather than a biological or innate urge in women. Upadhyay
et al. (2017) on the incidence of postpartum depression in Indian
moms, women in urban regions had significantly higher rates of
depression than women in rural areas. (Slomian et al., 2017) After
giving delivery, mothers often worry about their babies' safety and
lack confidence in their ability to care for their children and as new
mothers. (Ambrosini and Stanghellini, 2012) Mothers are more likely
to feel inadequate, useless, and unable if they heedlessly embrace the
myths about motherhood that were constructed by men and
secularized by society. Anthropologists like (Sherry Ortner 1974) have
examined different cultural interpretations of the now-outdated binary
categories "man" and "woman" According to her 'nature/culture'
theory, men seek for cultural means of creation and are thus tied to the
culture, while women's physiology and reproductive activities make
them appear closer to nature. Because women are mostly found in the
home, their reproductive abilities limit their societal positions.

Althusser's concept of interpellation elucidates how individuals are

"hailed" into social roles, including motherhood, by societal
structures. Interpellation assigns individuals specific roles that society
has created, such as the typical male and female roles. In the context
of motherhood, this means that women are often interpellated to
believe that their primary role is to be nurturing caregivers. "Roles"
are socially constructed characteristics, and social positions are
associated with expectations. Because it illustrates how every human
behaviour is influenced by society, "role" is significant in sociology.
The purpose of this study is to advance knowledge of women's
postpartum experiences. Mothers should not be ashamed to ask for
help when they need it or to voice their expectations. The needs of

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mothers should also be given more consideration by medical experts,

as well as both the fathers' and mothers' families and friends. The most
pleasurable and fulfilling experiences for women are childbirth and
parenthood, which are often associated with postpartum depression.
This study looks at how motherhood is discussed, particularly the
other aspect of parenting that many women are unwilling to discuss.
In order to fulfil their procreative role, women must act impersonally.
In this sense, motherhood loses its distinctive human quality and gains
significance solely as a result of its adherence to societal and cultural
norms.

2. Objective

To examine how social construction of motherhood impact the

understanding postpartum depression.

3. Methodology

3.1. Searching Methods

This study uses a qualitative secondary data analysis approach,

utilizing peer-reviewed publications spanning 2014–2024 that are
indexed in Science Direct, and Scopus. Sources were chosen on the
basis of their applicability to gender ideology, cultural norms and
expectations around maternity, the construction of motherhood in
various south Asian nations and postpartum mental health. How
interpellation shapes maternal identities and influences help-seeking
behaviours through institutional discourses is the main focus of the
analysis. Reference lists of published journal papers were used to
retrieve more articles.

3.2. Criteria for Inclusion

For the purpose of the systematic review paper, studies encapsulating

the following factors are included:

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1. That looked at and identified how motherhood and PPD are

socially constructed among South Asian women
2. That used quantitative, qualitative or mixed methodologies for
the purpose of their studies in various South Asian countries
3. That were published in English peer-reviewed journals
between 2014 and 2024

4. Results

In all, the search produced 40 references. These were, in turn, filtered

based on abstracts and titles. Those articles that did not fit the
inclusion criteria were excluded. The final collection of studies that
qualified for evaluation was determined by applying the criteria of
inclusion after the full texts of the remaining research were obtained.

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Table 1: Summary of studies included in the review paper.

In table 1 it shows that the research collectively indicates important

cultural, social, and psychological barriers that women, especially
those in South Asian and expatriate groups, must overcome. British
South Asian moms experienced childcare, transportation, and family
constraints, but they also benefited from social support and culturally
tailored interventions, according to Masood et al. (2015). LeMasters et
al. (2020) found that the prevalence of postpartum depression was
3.026% six months after giving birth in rural Pakistan. When

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incorporating Western therapy into their collectivist lives, South Asian

women in the UK faced challenges related to cultural norms, power
relations, and stigma, as Jheeta (2023) examined. A study by Shafiq
(2024) on prenatal discomfort in Pakistani couples found that mental
health issues were associated with gender roles, financial hardship,
familial pressure, and religious beliefs. Gupta et al. (2024)
investigated postpartum stress in metropolitan Kolkata and found that
occupational discrimination, gender bias, and preference for male
children were the main stressors. Family expectations, stigma, and
institutional injustices are identified in these research as major
obstacles, whereas community support and culturally appropriate
interventions are important enablers of mental health issues. In order
to enhance women's accessibility, participation, and results in a variety
of sociocultural contexts, the results highlight the importance of
including culturally competent mental health care.
5. Discussion and Findings
5.1. Socio-psychological Demographic Factors:
Social structures and psychological factors have a significant impact
on postpartum mental health and therapy participation. Women are
under a lot of pressure from gender roles and society, which frequently
force them to put their caregiving obligations ahead of their own
health. Feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt are caused by mental
anguish, which is exacerbated by the pressure to fit into traditional
family duties and a strong preference for male offspring. Further
psychological pressure is also brought on by unstable finances and
difficulties at work, especially for people who have to juggle job and
family responsibilities in settings with little assistance.
The stigma associated with mental health issues continues to be a
significant deterrent to getting professional assistance since emotional
difficulties are frequently written off or seen as a sign of weakness.
Lack of family and spouse support makes women feel even more
alone and makes it harder for them to get the treatment they need.

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False beliefs about psychological health also deter people from

identifying their symptoms or getting help. Power disparities between
patients and healthcare providers pose extra difficulties in these
contexts since certain therapy modalities might not be compatible with
the values or life experiences of the people seeking assistance. When
external constraints require conformity to predetermined social roles,
this mismatch frequently leads to difficulties implementing therapy
advice in day-to-day living.
Social support systems and specialized interventions have been
demonstrated to promote improved mental health outcomes in spite of
these challenges. Accessibility and involvement are enhanced by
flexible techniques, knowledgeable personnel, and community-based
activities. People report feeling more at ease handling postpartum
difficulties when they receive support that is in line with their actual
experiences and societal reality. Promoting candid communication in
families and at work aids in dispelling stigma and creating settings
where mental health is valued.
Although postpartum depression (PPD) is a clinical condition, its
treatment benefits from a holistic approach that considers social,
emotional, and environmental factors alongside clinical interventions.
Addressing both medical and psychosocial aspects ensures a more
comprehensive and effective response, ultimately improving maternal
well-being and quality of life.
5.2. Cultural Factors:
Postpartum mental health experiences and availability to
psychological care are significantly influenced by cultural customs
and beliefs. Family honor, social peace, and obligation are valued by
strong collectivist ideals, which frequently put women in situations
where their personal demands are subordinated to those of their
families. This relationship leads to internal tension when seeking
mental health treatment because it may be perceived as shameful for
the family to publicly address emotional problems. Extended family

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members, especially elders and in-laws, have a significant impact on

important life decisions, such as those pertaining to delivery,
parenting, and mental health treatment, making it challenging for
women to get independent assistance.
Traditional gender roles are also determined by cultural conventions,
which uphold the notion that women must suffer morally and
physically in silence. Since it's common to ignore or stigmatize signs
of discomfort, many people choose to repress their symptoms rather
than seek professional assistance. Furthermore, ingrained notions
about parenting lead to irrational expectations, with women being
expected to be selfless caregivers. Talking about postpartum
difficulties is discouraged by the notion that parenthood should be
entirely happy, which further isolates people who are in misery.
Maternal well-being is still significantly impacted by the cultural
preference for male offspring. The pressure from society to have sons
causes emotional hardship, especially for people who have daughters
or have difficult pregnancies. Some communities' views on mental
health are shaped by superstitions and religious beliefs, which makes
many choose traditional or spiritual healing over medical treatments.
It is possible to delay seeking professional therapy for mental health
disorders by attributing them to fate, divine punishment, or
supernatural influences.
Despite these obstacles, cultural adjustments in mental health care
have been found to have a favourable effect on treatment outcomes
and patient participation. Interventions that are culturally sensitive,
like counselling that uses familiar language, spiritual components, and
community engagement, have proven more effective in lowering
stigma and promoting involvement. Including family members in
conversations about mental health helps close the gap between
conventional wisdom and medical treatment, increasing the
acceptance of psychological support. Changing societal perceptions of
postpartum mental health requires the establishment of safe venues

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where women can talk about their difficulties without worrying about
criticism.
The attitudes of society must change through education, candid
dialogue, and awareness raising initiatives in order to remove cultural
barriers that impede candid conversations on postpartum mental
health. Because mental health issues are sometimes associated with
personal weakness or family shame, many women are reluctant to
seek psychiatric support. Supporting culturally competent mental
health treatments allows interventions to be adapted to fit people's
values, customs, and life experiences, increasing their acceptability
and accessibility. In order to guarantee that therapy is both effective
and respectful of varied backgrounds, healthcare providers must
incorporate culturally sensitive techniques, family engagement, and
linguistic inclusion. More women will seek care without worrying
about being judged if stigmas are challenged and public opinions are
changed via community-driven efforts and media representation.
Integrating cultural sensitivity into healthcare policies and procedures
can create a more thorough and effective support system, enabling
women to deal with postpartum challenges while maintaining and
respecting their cultural identity.
5.3. Findings
Research on the socio-psychological and cultural aspects of
postpartum mental health is well established, but little is known about
how the social construction of motherhood affects perceptions and
knowledge of PPD. Selflessness, resiliency, and unconditional
caregiving are emphasized in traditional motherhood ideals, which
frequently discourage candid conversations regarding maternal mental
health issues. Because of this, many women internalize their distress,
put off getting help, or consider PPD as a personal failing rather than a
medical illness. Even though research identifies obstacles to mental
health care, little is known about how these obstacles are caused by
deeply embedded cultural norms around parenting. The majority of

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research concentrates on clinical and individual-level issues, ignoring

how cultural narratives, family dynamics, and societal views of
motherhood influence how mothers view themselves, express their
emotions, and seek medical attention. This disparity makes access to
care much more difficult in collectivist cultures where childbearing is
associated with family pride and obligation. By combining social,
cultural, and psychological aspects, closing this gap would offer a
more comprehensive understanding of PPD and ultimately direct the
creation of more inclusive and culturally sensitive mental health
treatments.
6. Conclusion
Postpartum depression (PPD) attitudes are greatly influenced by the
social construction of motherhood, which shapes women's perceptions
of their roles, obligations, and mental health. Sociopsychological
elements like gender norms, family expectations, financial strain, and
a lack of support from the spouse foster an atmosphere in which
mother discomfort is frequently internalized or disregarded rather than
recognized as a medical issue. In addition to discouraging women
from seeking professional assistance, cultural factors such as the
preference for male offspring, the shame associated with mental
health, and the dependence on traditional healing methods reinforce
the idea that having difficulties as a mother is a sign of personal
failure. According to Emile Durkheim's theory of women, women's
strong ties to family and social structures can both support and
constrain them, limiting their freedom to seek mental health treatment
and exposing them to social pressures that put family responsibilities
ahead of their own welfare. This dynamic is most noticeable in
collectivist cultures, where the need for emotional and psychological
support frequently conflicts with the expectation of parental self-
sacrifice. Women's access to adequate mental health care is further
complicated by power disparities in healthcare settings and a dearth of
culturally competent interventions. In order to address these problems,
culturally sensitive mental health regulations, a change in public

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maternal mental health are all necessary. A more inclusive and
encouraging framework that acknowledges the interplay between
social expectations, cultural norms, and psychological well-being can
be created to assist women in overcoming postpartum difficulties
without worrying about social shame or consequences.
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IMPEDIMENTS FACED BY THE LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY

DUE TO HETERONORMATIVE RIGHTS IN THE
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Saiyantany Choudhury
Final-year Masters Student,
Department of Sociology
Tezpur University, Napaam-784028
Tezpur, Assam, India
Email: saiyantany2002@[Link]

ABSTRACT

The LGBTQ+ community has long fought for acceptance into Indian
society. Their battle, which stemmed from considering homosexuality
as a mental illness and reaching the position where it is no longer
considered criminal, found a direction that helped them to live a life
with dignity instead of shame. But unfortunately, that is not enough.
According to the ruling of Navtej Singh Johar vs Union of India
(2018), any adult staying in a ―marriage-like relationship‖ will not be
considered criminal. There was no mention of enabling the same-sex
couple with similar rights to that of the heteronormative couple. This
paper, therefore, will explore the limitations and sanctimoniousness of
the constitution of India that legalizes homosexuality but restricts
every opportunity for a homosexual couple to live a normal life. The
paper will specifically be concerned with the adoption rights of
homosexual couples. The anomaly in law results in the emergence of
new phenomena that have a negative impact on society at large. Social
impacts include the rising issues of extramarital affairs, divorces,
lavender marriage (it is a form of social marriage in which two
homosexual individuals of opposite sex marry according to the
heteronormative rituals while simultaneously being in a relationship
with their same-sex partners just to escape the consequences of openly
claiming their sexuality), etc. The cases arise amid the desperation of

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the homosexual people to live a normal life, but due to constitutional

restrictions, it becomes impossible.

Keywords: Adoption Rights, LGBTQ+ Community, Lavender

Marriage.

METHODOLOGY

The paper relies on secondary sources of data collection. These

sources are from books, journals, articles, newspaper articles,
YouTube videos, movies, etc.

INTRODUCTION

The problems faced by the LGBTQ+ community are beyond the

comprehension of those who are not in their shoes. However, that does
not mean no attempts are made to rectify the situation. The ―We the
people of India…‖ in the preamble of the Indian Constitution has
finally come to include the third category of gender as ‗others‘ apart
from the binary genders but is yet to ensure the inclusion of this
section of people in a life of normalcy. The judgement of the case
Navtej Singh Johar vs Union of India (2018) posed a very important
fundamental change in the status of the community members. It
scrapes away the tag of criminality from the community members in
India. During the time of the judgement, the whole nation saw the
increased number of supporters who belonged to the community but
confined themselves behind the closet. On the other hand, it also saw
a heavy wave of criticism from people who were concerned that the
nation's tradition would go into a toss if such a law were passed. A
survey conducted by Brut India during the said judgement period in a
village of Haryana highlighted interviews taken by the villagers.
Many villagers, irrespective of which generation they belonged to, had
a common fear that the LGBTQ community was nothing but an
extension of vulgarity (असभ्यता, asabhyata) of Indian society. The

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common notion also highlighted that they feared that if everyone

started to engage in homosexual relations, then the basic functioning
of the society would stop. The fear engulfs these people to the extent
where any case that they encounter or would encounter strict sanctions
from the community. The irony here is that the community that has
held its presence from the historical times in the Indian culture also
faces comments of vulgarity and criminality. The so-called rich
culture of Indian society also highlights numerous examples of
homosexuality through various sculptures and drawings in places like
temples. One of the vivid and overtly expressive works of our
ancestors is still a major tourist attraction in Madhya Pradesh- the
Khajuraho Temple. The sculptures of the temple portray sexual
fluidity even among homosexuals. Even in the old scriptures such as
the Kamasutra, there are mentions of two people of the same sex not
only being together but also getting married to raise a child of their
own. Such people were called the ‗Swarinis‘. Yet, when such marriage
rights are demanded by the community members in modern-day
society, it is seen as unnatural to the extent of criminality and
vulgarity. The primary agenda that almost everyone who is against the
LGBTQ+ community upholds is that they are not part of our culture
and are mostly Western adaptations. The notion also extends to
believing that it is just pure imitation of the West to look ‗cool‘ or to
be with the trend. The matters of love and affection are rarely
addressed. But in a culture where concepts like Swarinis existed long
before the colonizers colonized us physically and mentally till date
with their ideas and trends, it is still difficult for the judiciary of the
nation to give them the basic rights of marriage and adoption. The
mere decriminalization of the community members does not ensure
their rights are being taken care of. It, in fact, barely scratches the
surface. If one goes by the stereotypical Indian notion of a complete
family, it always includes the picture of a joint family with a minimum
of 3 generations living under the same roof. With capitalism and other
factors, this picture has now broken down to the image of a nuclear
family. Nevertheless, the image is always incomplete without the

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presence of children. This stereotype of a ‗normal‘ family is also a

right for the LGBTQ+ community members. Despite that, the
hesitation of the judiciary to give adoption rights to homosexual
couples not only highlights the heteronormativity of the legal system
of India but also undermines the whole spirit of equality, freedom and
justice as a whole.

SOCIAL IMPACTS

The lack of supportive and LGBTQ+ community-friendly laws further

invites various other social and legal issues. These issues are the
results of the rigidity and the loopholes that the judiciary and the
society pose in front of the community. Before discussing the various
issues, it is imperative to understand the reasons why adoption by a
same-sex couple is not feasible administratively and legally.

Adoption rights in India are controlled by the Hindu Adoption and

Maintenance Act of 1956 and the Juvenile Justice (Care and
Protection of Children) Act of 2015. According to regulation 5 of
CARA (Central Adoption Resource Authority), prospective adoptive
parents must be physically, psychologically, emotionally, and
financially capable, have no life-threatening medical conditions, and
have never been convicted of a crime or accused of a violation of
children's rights. Before 2018, the community members were
considered under article 377. Therefore, the adoption rights would
have been a distant dream altogether. Further, the regulations say that
any prospective adoptive parents, regardless of their marital status and
whether or not they have a biological son or daughter, can adopt a
child only if they are married and both spouses must consent to the
adoption. Again, here, the possibility of a same-sex couple nullifies as
marriage rights are not extended to include the LGBTQ+ community.
Additionally, a single female may adopt a child of any gender, but a
single male is not qualified to adopt a girl child. This is where the

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scope of development of other social issues as an alternative path

arises.

There are many cases where the adoption is done through a female
relative of the homosexual couple, like a sister. The adoption
application goes under the sister‘s name, and legally, she becomes the
guardian of the adopted child with legal and written custody given to
them. But in reality, the child will grow up with the homosexual
couple. This creates a lot of confusion and scope for illegal activity.
Here again, the confusion and dilution of relations come in as legally
and also administratively the legal guardian will always have to keep
coming up. For instance, for a simple school admonition, the child
will have to produce documents of a father and a mother for records.
This will be difficult to decide here as to who is the mother or the
father of the child. Numerous questions need to be addressed here. Is
the legal guardian also considered as the mother? If so, then to define
the relation that the child shares with the homosexual couple. Now,
again, for the purpose of understanding, if one assumes that the
homosexual couple is that of two lesbians. Now, who will be called
the mother? And where do they locate the father? How does one
process the school admission forms? All this confusion arises out of
the desperation of an adopted child and the lack of proper laws to
protect and support the same.

Throughout this process, there is another factor that will add to the
flames, and that is society. Society will constantly remind one of the
‗abnormalities‘ in the whole process and will keep on criticizing on
every opportunity it presents. On that account, many wish to avoid
this social brunt. That is where the rise of the phenomenon of lavender
marriage is taking place. The term "lavender marriage" refers to
heterosexual marriages of convenience between non-heterosexual
individuals (or, at least, one non-heterosexual individual) that allow
the couple to avoid the stigma surrounding queerness while also
partaking of the legal, social, and financial benefits of marriage. This

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method is generally used as a last resort and is mostly not very

preferred by homosexuals as well. But this allows the couple to adopt
in the most ‗natural‘ way without worrying about the social stigma.

CONCLUSION

This impacts the society and reflects a lot about the legal system of the
county and the society as a whole. In a country like India where
adoption in a heteronormative family is already a big taboo, many
orphan kids await their chances to be with a good loving family. The
absence of supportive laws not only deprives homosexual couples of a
‗normal‘ life but also takes away a chance of a child getting adopted.

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