CHAPTER 10

BLINDNESS
AND LOW
VISION
PRESENTATION
Prepared by: Edaño, Jan Clyde R. and Tolentino, Shekinah P.
TedPaths I-23
 PRESENTER: Tolentino, Ma. Shekinah P.

I. DEFINITION
A. LEGAL DEFINITION OF BLINDNESS:
Legal blindness is defined based on:
Visual Acuity: 20/200 or less in the better eye with correction (Social Security Administration,
2015).
Field of vision: 20 degrees or less (normal is 160-170°) (Heward et al., 2017).
Partially sighted: Visual acuity between 20/70 and 20/200 (“).
Measured using Snellen Eye Chart (e.g., 20/20 = normal vision) (“).
Purpose: Helps determine eligibility for:
(1) Special education services
(2) Assistive technologies
(3) Government benefits (e.g., tax exemptions, talking books, free mail) (“).
Note: Not all legally blind students need special ed, and some who aren’t legally blind may still need
classroom support (“).

References:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
Social Security Administration. (2015). Disability determination under the Social Security Act (POMS DI 23010.001). Social Security Administration.
https://www.ssa.gov
I. DEFINITION
PRESENTER: Tolentino, Ma. Shekinah P.

B. EDUCATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT (IDEA)

IDEA DEFINITION: “Visual impairment including blindness means an impairment in vision that,
even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The
term includes both partial sight and blindness” (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA], 2004).
Educational Classifications:
Totally Blind: No usable vision; relies entirely on tactile and auditory senses (Heward et al., 2017).
Functionally Blind: Very limited vision; learns mostly through tactile and auditory input but may use some vision for
specific tasks (“).
Low Vision: Uses vision as the main way to learn, but still needs support from other senses (“).
C. AGE ONSET
Congenital vs. Adventitious
Congenital: Present at birth; most visual impairments in school-age children (“).
Adventitious: Acquired later in life (e.g., after an injury or illness) (“).
Difference in Experience:
Congenital blindness: Relies on hearing, touch, and other non-visual senses (“).
Adventitious blindness: Retains visual memory (e.g., colors, maps), but may require more emotional support due to
sudden vision loss (Wahl et al., 2006).
References:
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1401 (2004). https://sites.ed.gov/idea/statute-chapter-33/subchapter-I/1401
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
Wahl, H.-W., Kämmerer, A., Holz, F., Miller, D., Becker, S., Kaspar, R., & Himmelsbach, I. (2006). Psychosocial intervention for age-related macular degeneration: A pilot project. Journa
of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(9), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X0610000902
II. CHARACTERISTICS
PRESENTER: Tolentino, Ma. Shekinah P.

A. COGNITION AND LEARNING

Vision helps children connect and organize experiences and children who are blind may struggle with:
Making connections across experiences (Kingsley, 1997).
Incidental learning is limited; abstract ideas and idioms can be confusing.
e.g., “Shake a leg” taken literally (Dowse, 2009).
e.g.’ A blind child may hear a cat but not link it to touch (Ferrell, 2006)
Learning requires repeated, direct experiences using touch and hearing (Ferrell & Spungin, 2011), as visual
impairment affects how a child learns—not their intelligence.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND MOBILITY
Vision is crucial for motivation, spatial awareness, protection, and feedback in motor skill acquisition.
Blind or low vision children often have delays in motor development (Brambring, 2006).
Limited vision reduces movement, coordination, and imitation of others' actions, affecting balance and
motor skills (Bouchard & Tétreault, 2000; Stuart et al., 2006).
References:
Bouchard, C., & Tétreault, S. (2000). Motor skills development in children with visual impairments. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 17(1), 38-55.
Brambring, M. (2006). Motor development and visual impairment: A study of children with low vision. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53(3), 249-264.
Dowse, J. M. (2009). Understanding vision impairment: A teacher’s guide. Cambridge University Press.
Ferrell, K. A. (2006). The role of incidental learning in the development of children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(2), 108-115.
Ferrell, K. A., & Spungin, S. J. (2011). Teaching children with visual impairments: A guide for educators. Pearson Education.
Kingsley, K. (1997). The educational impact of vision impairment on children. Journal of Special Education, 31(1), 27-35.
Stuart, M., Lieberman, L. J., & Hand, B. (2006). Motor development in children with visual impairments: A review of recent research. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(6),
340-349.
II. CHARACTERISTICS PRESENTER: Tolentino, Ma. Shekinah P.

A. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND INTERACTION

Limited Social Interaction: Children with visual impairments interact less and struggle with social skills
development (Celeste, 2006; Zebehazy & Smith, 2011).
Social Isolation: Adolescents with visual impairments often face isolation and difficulty forming friendships
(Lifshitz et al., 2007; Sacks & Wolffe, 2006).
Difficulty with Social Cues: Blind children miss out on visual social cues like facial expressions and gestures,
hindering communication (Campbell, 2007).
Stereotypic Behaviors: Repetitive behaviors, such as body rocking, can cause social challenges (Kingsley, 1997;
Gense & Gense, 1994).
Negative Stereotypes: Myths about blindness lead to misperceptions and social barriers (Wagner-Lampl &
Oliver, 1994).

References:
Campbell, M. (2007). Social interaction and visual impairments. Journal of Special Education, 31(4), 127-134.
Celeste, J. (2006). Social skill development in children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(7), 431-438.
Gense, M., & Gense, A. (1994). Blind mannerisms and social adjustment. Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 25(3), 39-45.
Kingsley, K. (1997). Blindness and social interaction: A challenge. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 91(2), 27-30.
Lifshitz, H., Irit, H., & Weisse, D. (2007). Social isolation in adolescents with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 101(3), 135-141.
McAdam, D., O'Cleirigh, A., & Cuvo, A. (1993). Reducing stereotypic behaviors in children with visual impairments. Behavioral Interventions, 15(4), 285-290.
Sacks, L., & Wolffe, K. (2006). Social inclusion and children with visual impairments. Journal of Special Education, 41(1), 35-42.
Stuart, D., Lieberman, L., & Hand, A. (2006). Parental concern and social opportunities for children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(2), 99-104.
Wagner-Lampl, D., & Oliver, A. (1994). The folklore of blindness and its impact on social attitudes. Journal of Social Psychology, 134(4), 433-441.
Zebehazy, K., & Smith, J. (2011). Social experiences of children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 105(1), 10-18.
 III. PREVALENCE PRESENTER: Tolentino, Ma. Shekinah P.

Visual impairment is a low-incidence disability, affecting fewer than 2 in 1,000 school-age

children (American Foundation for the Blind, 2015a).
Only about 1 in every 200–250 students with IEPs receive special education under visual
impairments (U.S. Department of Education, 2014).
Some students are served under other categories like deaf-blindness or multiple disabilities,
making actual numbers higher.
In 2014, over 51,000 children (birth to age 21) were eligible for services for visual impairment
(American Printing House for the Blind, 2014).

References:
American Foundation for the Blind. (2015a). Statistics and sources for professionals. https://www.afb.org
American Printing House for the Blind. (2014). Annual report: Fiscal year 2014. https://www.aph.org/research/statistics/
U.S. Department of Education. (2014). Thirty-sixth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2014.
https://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/index.html
IV. TYPES AND CAUSES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
How We See – Key Process
Optical System: Light enters the eye
through the cornea, passes through the
pupil, lens, and vitreous humor, and is
focused on the retina.
Muscular System: Eye muscles enable
ocular motility (movement for tracking and
depth perception); internal muscles adjust
the lens to focus on near or far objects.
Nervous System: The retina’s cones
(color/detail) and rods (movement/dim
light) convert light into electrical signals, References:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An
which the optic nerve sends to the brain’s introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.

visual cortex for image processing (Heward

et al., 2017). PRESENTER: Tolentino, Ma. Shekinah P.
IV. TYPES AND CAUSES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
1. Refractive Errors:
Myopia (Nearsightedness): Light focuses in front of the retina, making distant objects blurry.
Hyperopia (Farsightedness): Light focuses behind the retina, making nearby objects blurry.
2. Structural Impairments:
Cataracts: Cloudiness in the lens that blocks light.
Glaucoma: High pressure within the eye, damaging the optic nerve.
Nystagmus: Involuntary eye movements that affect focus.
Strabismus: Misalignment of the eyes affecting focus.
3. Cortical Visual Impairments (CVI):
Caused by brain damage affecting visual processing (e.g., anoxia, head injury).
Visual functioning can fluctuate with conditions like photophobia or attraction to bright lights
(Heward et al., 2017).

References:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.

PRESENTER: Tolentino, Ma. Shekinah P.

IV. OTHER TYPES AND CAUSES OF VISUAL
IMPAIRMENT
Albinism – Lack of pigmentation; causes photophobia and nystagmus.
Amblyopia – Loss of vision in the weaker eye due to lack of use (e.g., strabismus, refractive errors).
Astigmatism – Irregularities in the cornea cause blurred vision.
Cataract – Cloudiness in the lens, leading to blurred vision.
Color Deficiency (Color Blindness) – Difficulty distinguishing certain colors, typically red-green.
Cortical Visual Impairment (CVI) – Vision problems caused by brain damage (e.g., anoxia, head injury).
Diabetic Retinopathy – Retinal damage due to diabetes; causes vision impairment.
Glaucoma – High pressure in the eye, leading to optic nerve damage.
Hyperopia (Farsightedness) – Difficulty seeing nearby objects; caused by a shorter eye.
Macular Degeneration – Deterioration of the retina’s central area, causing central vision loss.
Myopia (Nearsightedness) – Difficulty seeing distant objects; caused by an elongated eye.
Nystagmus – Involuntary eye movements that make it difficult to focus.
Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) – Genetic disease causing gradual retinal degeneration and night blindness.
Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP) – Caused by changes in oxygen levels in premature infants.
Strabismus – Misalignment of the eyes, caused by muscle imbalance.
PRESENTER: Tolentino, Ma. Shekinah P.
References:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
VI. EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

Educators have developed numerous specialized teaching methods and curriculum materials in an effort to overcome the obstacles to learning
presented by blindness and low vision (Heward et al., 2017).

Recent advances in technology have greatly increased access to the general education curriculum and academic success for students with visual
impairments (Heward et al., 2017).

However, the education of students with visual impairments is a field with a rich history of more than 150 years, and today’s developments were
made possible by the contributions of many teachers and researchers who came before (Geruschat & Corn, 2006).

SPECIALIZED INSTRUCTION FOR STUDENTS WHO ARE BLIND

1. BRAILLE
the primary means of literacy for people who are blind. Braille is a tactile
system of reading and writing in which letters, words, numbers, and
other systems are made from arrangements of raised dots. The Nemeth
code consists of braille symbols for mathematical and scientific notation
(Heward et al., 2017).

photo from Heward et al., (2017)

REFERENCES:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
Geruschat, D. R., & Corn, A. L. (2006). A look back: 100 Years of literature on low vision. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 100(11), 646-652+703-704.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482x0610001103
 VI. EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

SPECIALIZED INSTRUCTION FOR STUDENTS WHO ARE BLIND

2. BRAILLER
A six-keyed mechanical device that somewhat resembles a typewriter. Although it usually takes
several years for children to become thoroughly familiar with braille, it is no more difficult than
learning to read print for sighted children (Heward et al., 2017).

A. BRAILLE TECNOLOGICAL AIDS

Technological developments have made braille more efficient, thus enabling students who are
blind to function more independently in regular classrooms, universities, and employment settings
(Heward et al., 2017).
photo from Heward et al., (2017)

1. BRAILLENOTE
BrailleNote, a portable device with a standard Perkins-style keyboard, can translate braille into
synthesized speech or print, display downloaded books or text files in braille, and access Web pages, and
it has calculator and calendar features (Heward et al., 2017).

photo from Heward et al., (2017)

REFERENCE:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
 VI. EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

A. BRAILLE TECNOLOGICAL AIDS

2. MOUNT-BATTEN PRO BRAILLER

An electronic brailler that is easier to use than the manual, mechanical brailler. Braille embossers print
braille from digital text; some printers produce pages with both braille and print formats, enabling blind and
sighted readers to use the same copy (Heward et al., 2017).

B. TACTILE AIDS AND MANIPULATIVES

Manipulatives have long been recognized as effective tools for teaching beginning mathematics skills
to elementary students (Heward et al., 2017) .

1. CUISENAIRE RODS
Students use length to distinguish the various numerical values of the rods. Belcastro
developed a set of rods that enables students who are blind to quickly identify different values
by feeling the lengths and tactile markings associated with each (Belcastro, 1993).

REFERENCES:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
Belcastro, F. P. (n.d.). Use of Belcastro rods to teach mathematical concepts to blind students. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ399089
 VI. EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

B. TACTILE AIDS AND MANIPULATIVES

2. CRANMER ABACUS
Long used in Japan, the abacus has been adapted to assist students who are blind in
learning number concepts and making calculations. Manipulation of the abacus beads is
particularly useful in counting, adding, and subtracting (Heward et al., 2017).

3. SPEECH PLUS TALKING CALCULATOR

small electronic instrument that performs most of the operations of any standard
calculator. It “talks” by voicing entries and results aloud and also presents them visually
in digital form This is only one of many instances in which the development of synthetic
speech technology has helped people who are blind (Heward et al., 2017).

REFERENCES:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
BLINDNESS AND LOW VISION IN PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.
THE PHILIPPINE CONTEXT
BLIND PERSONS LITERACY RIGHTS AND
EDUCATION ACT OF 2010
An act strengthening the literacy program for blind or visually impaired students;
determining the need for braille instruction; providing funds therefore, and for other
purposes (Trillanes, 2010).

SEC. 2. Definition of Term. - As used in this Act, the term:

"Blind student" means an individual who is eligible for special education services,
and who:
photo from Trillanes, A. (2010)

I. Has a visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with correcting lenses or has a limited field of vision such that the widest diameter
subtends an angular distance of no greater than 20 degrees; or

2. Has a medically indicated expectation of visual deterioration.

SEC. 3. Individualized Planning and Assessment.

Each legally blind student must be identified and offered a special education program in consultation with a parent or legal guardian
No child who is legally blind may be denied the opportunity to receive instructions in Braille reading and writing on the basis that the child has the ability
to read and write print.
Each student must be given an assessment which must include an evaluation of the need for Braille Skills to be designed by the Department of Education
(DepEd), and shall include strengths and deficits.

REFERENCE:
Trillanes, A. (2010). BLIND PERSONS LITERACY RIGHTS AND EDUCATION ACT OF 2010. https://legacy.senate.gov.ph/lis/bill_res.aspx?congress=15&q=SBN-390
VII. PLACEMENT OPTIONS PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

Most children with visual impairments now attend public schools rather than residential schools (Heward et al., 2017).

65% are educated in regular classrooms,

13% spend part of their day in resource rooms, and
11% are taught in separate classrooms.

INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM AND ITINERANT TEACHER MODEL

Students with visual impairments were among the first students with disabilities to be included in regular classrooms. Although
Cruickshank (1986) suggested that “the blind child is perhaps the easiest exceptional child to integrate into a regular grade in the
public schools”, successful inclusion requires a full program of individualized special education and related services.

Most students with visual impairments in regular classrooms receive support from
itinerant teacher-consultants, sometimes called vision specialists. These specially
trained teachers may be employed by the school district; a nearby residential school;
or a regional, state, or provincial education agency (Heward et al., 2017).

REFERENCES:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
Cruickshank, W. M. (1986). Disputable decisions in special education. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
VII. PLACEMENT OPTIONS PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

SUPPORTING STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS IN

THE GENERAL EDUCATION CLASSROOM

Although each student with a visual impairment is unique and requires a specially designed set of accommodations and modifications to meet her
own academic and social goals, teachers should follow some fundamental guidelines when working with any student who relies on nonvisual
senses for communication and learning (Heward et al., 2017).

COMMUNICATE WITH CLARITY AND RESPECT (HEWARD ET AL., 2017).

Always state the name of the student you are speaking to in the classroom. The student with a visual impairment will not notice
eye contact.
Indefinite pronouns such as ‘this,’ ‘that,’ and ‘there’ can be confusing to students with visual impairments. It is better to name
specific items, events, or people.
Include specific spatial references when giving your student directions. For example, telling the student, “The book is on
your left,” or “The desk is 10 feet in front of you,” is better than saying, “It’s over there,” or “It’s near the table.”
Always give a verbal warning when you are about to hand something to a student with visual impairments. This avoids
unnecessary surprises and helps the student respond efficiently.
When writing or drawing on the board, describe your actions verbally in a manner useful for all students in the class. Be sure not
to talk down to the student with a visual impairment.

REFERENCE:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
VII. PLACEMENT OPTIONS PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

SUPPORTING STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS IN

THE GENERAL EDUCATION CLASSROOM

EXPECT AND ENABLE INDEPENDENCE (HEWARD ET AL., 2017).

If students are expected to perform jobs or responsibilities in your classroom, be sure also to assign a meaningful job to your
students with visual impairments.
Allow students with visual impairments time to obtain and put away materials. If a student had to use glue and scissors for an
activity, make sure she returns those items to their proper places. Although it is often much easier to get and put away materials for
students with visual impairments, it is critical that they learn to become self-sufficient and pick up after themselves.
Peers are often the most effective and efficient teachers of social skills. Cooperative groups are a great way for students with
visual impairments to learn important social skills.
Always make safety a priority, but do not overprotect students with visual impairments. Hands-on experiences are the best way
for a student to learn new concepts.
Provide real-life experiences whenever possible. When on a school field trip, give the student with a visual impairment sufficient
time to explore her environment.

REFERENCE:
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
 RELATED LITERATURE
TITLE:

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION, INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES AND THE DEMISE OF FULL

INCLUSION

AUTHOR/YEAR: Hornby, G., & Kauffman, J. M. (2024).

REFERENCE/CITATION: Hornby, G., & Kauffman, J. M. (2024). Inclusive education, intellectual disabilities and the demise of full inclusion.
Journal of Intelligence, 12(2), 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12020020

KEYWORDS: Intellectual disabilities, Full inclusion, Inclusive education, Special education

SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:

Is full inclusion, where all students with disabilities are educated in mainstream classrooms, a realistic and effective approach, particularly for
students with intellectual disabilities?
What are the significant obstacles hindering the successful implementation of full inclusion for students with intellectual disabilities?
What alternative approaches might be more effective and equitable in serving the needs of students with intellectual disabilities?

METHODOLOGY:

The authors employed a primarily review-based methodology, synthesizing existing literature and research on inclusive education, special
education, and the long-term outcomes of students with intellectual disabilities.

PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

 RELATED LITERATURE
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION, INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES AND THE DEMISE OF FULL
INCLUSION

FINDINGS:

The study finds that while inclusive education has gained global support, it remains particularly controversial for students with intellectual
disabilities due to their unique developmental needs, especially in acquiring social, vocational, and life skills essential for adulthood. It
highlights that the full inclusion movement originally centered on students with intellectual disabilities but has since faced significant challenges in
effectively addressing these needs. The study explores the theoretical foundations driving the international push for full inclusion and contrasts
them with the practical realities of implementing inclusion policies worldwide. It also reviews research on the impact of mainstream inclusion for
students with intellectual disabilities, revealing mixed outcomes and underscoring the persistent difficulties in ensuring that these students
receive the necessary support within inclusive settings.

CONCLUSION

The article concludes that the full inclusion movement, while initially focused on students with intellectual disabilities, has reached a dead end due to
its inability to effectively address their unique needs within mainstream schools. Evidence suggests that special education placements often yield
better post-school outcomes. The authors advocate for a pragmatic approach, "Inclusive Special Education," combining the philosophy of inclusion
with effective special education strategies to optimize outcomes for all students, including those with intellectual disabilities, acknowledging that
some students benefit more from special classes or schools. They call on organizations like UNESCO and EASNIE to re-evaluate their full-inclusion
stances and adopt more realistic policies.

PRESENTER: Edano, Jan Clyde R.

REFERENCES:
Geruschat, D. R., & Corn, A. L. (2006). A look back: 100 Years of literature on low vision. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 100(11), 646-652+703-704.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482x0610001103
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
Belcastro, F. P. (n.d.). Use of Belcastro rods to teach mathematical concepts to blind students. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ399089
Trillanes, A. (2010). BLIND PERSONS LITERACY RIGHTS AND EDUCATION ACT OF 2010. https://legacy.senate.gov.ph/lis/bill_res.aspx?congress=15&q=SBN-390
Cruickshank, W. M. (1986). Disputable decisions in special education. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Social Security Administration. (2015). Disability determination under the Social Security Act (POMS DI 23010.001). Social Security Administration.https://www.ssa.gov
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1401 (2004). https://sites.ed.gov/idea/statute-chapter-33/subchapter-I/1401
Wahl, H.-W., Kämmerer, A., Holz, F., Miller, D., Becker, S., Kaspar, R., & Himmelsbach, I. (2006). Psychosocial intervention for age-related macular degeneration: A pilot project. Journal of
Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(9), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X0610000902
Bouchard, C., & Tétreault, S. (2000). Motor skills development in children with visual impairments. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 17(1), 38-55.
Brambring, M. (2006). Motor development and visual impairment: A study of children with low vision. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53(3), 249-264.
Dowse, J. M. (2009). Understanding vision impairment: A teacher’s guide. Cambridge University Press.
Ferrell, K. A. (2006). The role of incidental learning in the development of children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(2), 108-115.
Ferrell, K. A., & Spungin, S. J. (2011). Teaching children with visual impairments: A guide for educators. Pearson Education.
Kingsley, K. (1997). The educational impact of vision impairment on children. Journal of Special Education, 31(1), 27-35.
Stuart, M., Lieberman, L. J., & Hand, B. (2006). Motor development in children with visual impairments: A review of recent research. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(6), 340-
349.
Campbell, M. (2007). Social interaction and visual impairments. Journal of Special Education, 31(4), 127-134.
Celeste, J. (2006). Social skill development in children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(7), 431-438.
Gense, M., & Gense, A. (1994). Blind mannerisms and social adjustment. Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 25(3), 39-45.
Kingsley, K. (1997). Blindness and social interaction: A challenge. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 91(2), 27-30.
Lifshitz, H., Irit, H., & Weisse, D. (2007). Social isolation in adolescents with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 101(3), 135-141.
McAdam, D., O'Cleirigh, A., & Cuvo, A. (1993). Reducing stereotypic behaviors in children with visual impairments. Behavioral Interventions, 15(4), 285-290.
Sacks, L., & Wolffe, K. (2006). Social inclusion and children with visual impairments. Journal of Special Education, 41(1), 35-42.
RELATED LITERATURE:
Stuart, D., Lieberman, L., & Hand, A. (2006). Parental concern and social opportunities for children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(2), 99-104.
Hornby, G.,D.,&& Oliver,
Wagner-Lampl, Kauffman, J. M.
A. (1994). (2024).of Inclusive
The folklore education,
blindness and its impact intellectual disabilities
on social attitudes. and
Journal of thePsychology,
Social demise of full 433-441.
134(4), inclusion. Journal of Intelligence, 12(2), 20.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12020020
Zebehazy, K., & Smith, J. (2011). Social experiences of children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 105(1), 10-18.
American Foundation for the Blind. (2015a). Statistics and sources for professionals. https://www.afb.org
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