2 Boolean Algebra

Introduction y Logic gates are used to perform or

implement logical operations or functions
y Boolean algebra is a system of mathematical in Boolean algebra.
logic. y Some examples of logic gates are AND
y In our daily life, we come across so many gate, OR gate, NOT gate, NAND gate, NOR
two-valued problems such as ‘true or gate, X-OR gate and X-NOR gate.
false’, ‘good or bad’, ‘right or wrong’, etc.
y All the above problems can be precisely
solved by mathematical analysis of logic
Rack Your Brain
(logical algebra) and it is commonly
known as Boolean algebra.
Logic circuits which use three gates only,
y Boolean algebra has many differences
i.e., AND, OR and NOT are called AND/OR/
compared to ordinary algebra and binary
INVERT (AOI logic).
number systems. Some of the key
differences are as follows:
Classification of logic gates:
Grey Matter Alert!
The logic gates are classified into three
categories, namely, the basic gates, the
Boolean algebra or logical algebra was universal gates and the special purpose gates
invented by George Boole in 1854. (derived gates).

Boolean Algebra Ordinary Algebra

A+A=A A + A = 2A

A−A=A A − A = A2
Table 2.1

Fun facts Fig. 2.1 Classification of Logic Gates

1. In Boolean algebra 1 + 1 = 1, whereas in

binary number system 1 + 1 = 0 with carry
1 and in ordinary algebra 1 + 1 = 2. Rack Your Brain
2. Any variable or function of variables in
Boolean algebra can assume only two AND gate is also called an all or nothing
values, either a ‘0’ or a ‘1’, whereas the gate.
variables or functions in ordinary algebra
can assume an infinite number of values. Applications of logic gates:
Logic Gates The major applications of logic gates are as
follows:
y The building blocks or building
components of any digital circuit are y They are used to build complex devices
called logic gates. such as binary counters, etc.

Boolean Algebra 29
 y In automatic control of machines, they
are used for decision making.
y They are used in computers, calculators AND operator/AND gate
and digital measuring techniques. Fig. 2.2 AND Operation
y In musical instruments, games and 2. O
 R operator: In Boolean algebra, a plus (+)
domestic appliances, etc. sign is used for the OR operator.
The OR gate is called as OR operator, and
Basic Operators
it performs logical addition.
The three basic operators to perform or For example:
implement a logical operation or function in If A + B = C, then
Boolean algebra are: If A is true, (i.e., A = 1) or if B is true, (i.e.,
1. AND operator B = 1), then C will also be true, (i.e., C = 1).
2. OR operator C will be false, (i.e., C = 0), only when both
3. NOT operator A and B are false, (i.e., A and B = 0).

1. AND operator: In Boolean algebra, the

AND operator is defined by the use of
Rack Your Brain
multiplication (x) sign or dot (⋅) sign.
The AND gate is called as AND operator,
‘An OR gate is also called an any or all
and it performs logical multiplication, i.e.,
gate.’
AND operation.
The different combinations of A and B are
Definitions shown below:

‘A gate or a logic gate is a device that acts

as a building block for digital circuits.’ Input Output

For example: A B C

If A · B = C, then 0 0 0
If A is true, (i.e., A = 1) and B is true, (i.e., B =
1), then only C will be true, (i.e., C = 1), else C 0 1 0
will be false, (i.e., C = 0).
1 0 0
The different combinations of A and B are
shown below: 1 1 1
Table 2.3 OR operation

Input Output

A B C OR operator/OR gate
Fig. 2.3 OR Operation
0 0 0
3. N
 OT operator: In Boolean algebra, the not
0 1 0 operator is defined by the use of an over
bar (–) or apostrophe (‘).
1 0 0 The NOT gate is called as NOT operator,
and it performs the inversion operation.
1 1 1 For example:
Table 2.2 AND operation If A = 0, (i.e., false), then A = 1 , (i.e., true).

30 Boolean Algebra
 Law 1: A + 0 = A
Input Output
Law 2: A + 1 = 1
A A Law 3: A + A = A
Law 4: A + A = 1
0 1
4. Commutative laws
1 0 There are two commutative laws that
Table 2.4 NOT operation allow the change in position of variables
in OR and AND operations. These are:
Law 1: A + B = B + A [The order in which
variables are ORed is immaterial]
NOT operator/NOT gate Law 2: A · B = B · A [The order in which
Fig. 2.4 Truth Table of NOT Gate
variables are ANDed is immaterial]
Axioms and Laws of Boolean Algebra
Note:
y Axioms or postulates of Boolean algebra This law can be extended to any number of
are a set of logical expressions that can be variables. For example:
accepted without proof and upon which a A·B·C=B·C·A=C·A·B=B·A·C
set of useful theorems can be built. 5. Associative laws
y Actually, axioms are the definitions There are two associative laws that allow
of the three basic logic operators and the grouping of variables.
their operations that we have already Law 1: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
discussed: AND, OR and NOT. This law states that the way in which
variables are grouped and ORed is
Laws of Boolean algebra:
immaterial.
1. Laws of complementation (NOT laws)
Law 2: (A · B) · C = A · (B · C)
Complement means to invert, i.e., to change
This law states that the way in which variables
0s to 1s and vice-versa. The symbol is an
are grouped and ANDed is immaterial.
over-bar.
Five laws of complementation are as Fun facts
follows: These laws can be extended to a number of
Law 1: 0 = 1 variables. For example:
Law 2: 1 = 0 y A + (B + C + D) = (A + B + C) + D = (A + B)
Law 3: If A = 0, then A = 1 + (C + D)
Law 4: If A = 1, then A = 0 y A · (B · C · D) = (A · B · C) · D = (A · B) · (C · D)
Law 5: A = A
2. AND laws 6. Distributive laws
Four AND laws are as follows: There are three distributive laws that allow
Law 1: A · 0 = 0 factoring or multiplying out of expressions.
Law 2: A · 1 = A Law 1: A · (B + C) = AB + AC
Law 3: A · A = A Law 2: A + BC = (A + B) (A + C)
Law 4: A · A = 0 Let us prove this:
RHS = (A + B) (A + C)
Note:
= AA + AC + BA + BC
The fourth law represents that if one input, ∴
= A + AC + AB + BC ( AA = A)
(i.e., A) is logic 1, then the other input A
= A(1 + C + B) + BC
would be logic 0, so the output is zero and ∴
= A · 1 + BC ( 1 + C + B = 1)
vice-versa.
= A + BC = LHS
3. OR laws Law 3: A + AB = A + B
Four OR laws are as follows: Let us prove this:

Boolean Algebra 31
 RHS = A + B
A⋅A =
0 A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C
= 1 · (A + B)
∴
= (A + A ) (A + B) ( A + A = 1)
= AA + AB + A A + A B 0=1 A + B · C = (A + B)(A + C)
∴
= A + AB + 0 + A B ( A A = 0)
= A(1 + B) + A B 1=0 A ⋅ (A + B) =
AB
∴
= A (1) + A B ( 1 + B = 1)
= A + AB Boolean algebra basic rules
= LHS
Table 2.5 General Boolean Algebra Expression
7. Absorption laws
There are three absorption laws:
Demorganisation
Law 1: A + (A · B) = A
Let us prove this: The transformation A + B = A ⋅ B and A ⋅ B = A + B
LHS = A + (A · B) can be extended to complicated expressions
= A(1 + B) by the following three steps:
∴
= A(1) ( 1 + B = 1)
Step 1: The entire function is initially
=A
complemented.
= RHS
Law 2: A · (A + B) = A Step 2: All AND operations are replaced by
Let us prove this: OR operations and vice-versa.
LHS = A · (A + B) Step 3: Finally, complement the individual
=A·A+A·B variables. This procedure is commonly
∴
=A+A·B ( AA = A) known as Demorganisation.
= A (1 + B)
∴ Example 1:
=A·1 ( 1 + B = 1)
=A Prove that ( A + B + AB) ( A + B ) ( AB) =0
= RHS
Solution:
Law 3: A · ( A + B) = AB
Let us prove this: LHS = ( A + B + AB) ( A + B) ( AB)
LHS = A · ( A + B) But A + AB = A
= A A + AB LHS = ( A + B) ( A + B) ( AB)
= 0 + AB
= AB = ( AA + AB + AB + BB) ( AB)
= RHS
But A • A = A and B ⋅B =
B and
AB + AB = B ( A + A ) = AB
A+0=A A=A
∴ LHS = ( A + AB + B ) ( AB)
A+1=1 A+B=B+A
= A ( 1 + B ) + B ( AB)
A+A=A A·B=B·A
But ( 1 + B ) =1
A+A =
1 A + AB = A ∴ LHS= ( A ⋅ 1) + B ( AB)

∴ LHS =( A + B ) ( AB) since A • 1 = A

A·0=0 A + AB =A + B
= A A B + A BB
A·1=A (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) But AA 0=
= and BB 0

A·A=A (A · B) · C = A · (B · C)  LHS = 0 + 0 = 0

32 Boolean Algebra
 Example 2: +A B CD + A BCD + A BCD + A BCD
Simplify the following expression: = A BD (C + C ) + A BD (C + C ) + ABC (D + D ) + ACD (B +
Y= ( AB + A + AB ) = A BD (C + C ) + A BD (C + C ) + ABC (D + D ) + ACD (B + B) + ABC (D + D )
Solution:
= ABD + ABD + ABC + ACD + ABC
Y= (AB + A + AB) = AD (B + B) + AC (B + B) + ACD
But AB= A + B …DeMorgan’s second theorem
= AD + AC + ACD
∴ Y= ( A + B + A + AB ) =AD + A ( C + CD )
But A + A =
A = AD + A C ( 1 + D ) + CD
∴ Y= ( A + B + AB) = AD + A C + CD + CD
Now use DeMorgan’s first theorem, which = AD + AC + AD
states that
= AC + AD + AD
A + B + C = A ⋅B ⋅C
= AC + ( A ⊕ D )
∴ Y = A ⋅ B ⋅ AB
Example 4:
But A A=
= and B B
Simplify the following function using Boolean
∴ Y = A ⋅ B ⋅ AB algebra

But AB
= ( A + B) … DeMorgan’s second X = ABC + ACD + AB + ABCD + ABC
theorem
Solution:
∴ Y =A ⋅ B ( A + B ) =AAB + ABB
X = ABC + ACD + AB + ABCD + ABC
=AA 0=
and BB 0 = ABC + ABC + ACD + AB + ABCD
∴ Y = 0 ⋅B + A ⋅ 0 = AB (C + C ) + ACD + AB + ABCD

= 0 + 0 …since 0 • B = 0 and A • 0 = 0 But C + C =

1

 Y=0 ∴ X = AB + AB + ACD + ABCD

Example 3: = B ( A + A ) + ACD + ABCD

Minimise the given Boolean function with the But A + A =

1
help of Boolean algebra rules ∴ X = B + ACD + ABCD
ACD (B + B ) + ABCD
ABB+CD
f ( A,B, C,D ) = A B CD + A B CD + A BCD + A BCD + A B CD +=
=B + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD
CD + A B CD + A BCD + A BCD + A B CD + A B CD =B + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD
+A B CD + A BCD + A BCD + A BCD =B + ABD (C + C ) + ABCD =B + ABD + ABCD

Solution: =B ( 1 + ACD ) + ABD

f ( A,B, C,D ) = A B CD + A B CD + A BCD + A BCD + A B CD + A B CD
∴ X = B + ABD
B CD + A B CD + A BCD + A BCD + A B CD + A B CD

Boolean Algebra 33
 Truth Table
Input Output
A logical table which shows the possible A B C
combinations of inputs and outputs in
Boolean algebra is called as truth table. 0 0 0
0 1 0
Every logic gate, as well as its conversion, can
be represented by a truth table. For example: 1 0 0
The truth table of an AND gate is expressed 1 1 1
below. Table 2.6 Truth Table for AND Operation

Logic Gate Symbol Boolean Function Truth Table

A B X
0 0 0
OR X=A+B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

A B X
0 0 0
AND X=A·B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

A X
NOT OR
X=A 0 1
INVERTER
1 0

A B X
0 0 1
NOR X (A + B)
= 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

A B X
0 0 1
NAND X (A ⋅ B)
= 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

X= A ⊕ B A B X
or 0 0 0
Exclusive
0 1 1
OR or XOR X = A ⋅B + A ⋅B
1 0 1
1 1 0

34 Boolean Algebra
 Logic Gate Symbol Boolean Function Truth Table

A B X
X= A ⊕ B 0 0 1
Exclusive NOR
or 0 1 0
or XNOR
1 0 0
X = A ⋅ B + AB
1 1 1

Table 2.7
Demorgan’s Theorem

DeMorgan’s theorem represents two most powerful laws in Boolean algebra.

Law 1: A + B = A ⋅ B
This law states that ‘the complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of their
individual complements.’ Schematically, each side of this law can be represented as:

LHS RHS
A A A A ·B
=
B B B
Bubbled AND Gate

A B A+B A+B A B A B A⋅B

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
º 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
The last column shows that the NOR gate is equivalent to bubbled AND gate
Fig. 2.5 Table Representing Demorgan’s Theorem

Law 2: A B= A + B
This law states that ‘the complement of the product of variables is equal to the sum of their
individual complements.’ Schematically, each side of this law can be represented as:

LHS RHS

A B AB A B A B A +B

0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
º
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
The last column shows that the NAND gate is equivalent to a bubbled OR gate
Fig. 2.6 Truth Table for NAND Operation

Boolean Algebra 35
 Example 5:
Standard SOP Standard POS
Demorganize Y = (A + B)(C + D) .
Solution:
For example: For example:
The given function is Y =(A + B)(C + D) F(A,B,
= C) ABC + ABC F(A,B, C) = (A + B + C) ⋅
F(A,B,
= C)
On complementing the entire function, weABC + ABC
(A + B + C) ⋅ (A + B + C)
get (A + B)(C + D) +ABC + ABC
It is standard SOP It is a standard POS
Changing ANDs to ORs and ORs to ANDs, we because all the because all the sum
get A ⋅ B + C ⋅ D product terms terms contain all
contain all the the three variables
Now, on complementing the variables, we
three variables of of the function.
get Y = A ⋅ B + C ⋅ D
the function.
Example 6:
Table 2.8
Demorganize AB(CD + EF)(AB + CD) . Minterms and Maxterms
Solution:
y Each variable in a Boolean expression is
The given expression is: a literal.
Let Y = AB(CD + EF)(AB + CD) y Boolean variables can appear either in
normal form (x) or complemented form ( x ).
Y = AB + CD + EF + AB + CD y A minterm is an AND combination of terms.
Y = AB + (CD ⋅ EF) + (AB ⋅ CD) y A maxterm is an OR combination of terms.
Y = AB + (C + D) ⋅ (E + F) + ABCD Minterm: Each individual product term in a
standard SOP is called as minterm.
SOP, POS and Canonical Forms of Boolean For example:
Function Representation Two variable functions f(A, B), the minterms for
all the possible combinations are as follows:
SOP (sum of products):
It is a summation of product terms.
For example: Rack Your Brain
Y =AB + ABC + ABC
POS (product of sums): ‘A NAND gate is equivalent to a bubbled
It is a product of sum terms. OR gate.’

For example:
Y = (A + B)·(A + C) ⋅ (A + B) Variables Minterms

Canonical forms:
A B SOP

Standard SOP Standard POS AB → m0

0 0

In a SOP In a POS expression,

expression, if if all the sum terms 0 1 AB → m1
all the product contain all the
terms contain all variables of the 1 0 AB → m2
the variables of function, then it is
the function, then called as standard
1 1 AB → m3
it is called as POS.
standard SOP. Table 2.9

36 Boolean Algebra
Maxterm: Each individual sum term in a Representing functions with minterms:
standard POS is called as maxterm.
Minterm number is the same as the row
For example: position in the truth table (starting with 0 at
the top).
Two variable functions f(A, B), the maxterms
for possible combinations are as follows: Let there be a truth table of a circuit as
shown below, and we have to represent it by
Variables Maxterms a Boolean function (in minterms).

A B POS A B C f
0 0 0 1 m0
0 0 A + B → M0
0 0 1 1 m1

0 1 A + B → M1 0 1 0 1 m2

0 1 1 0
1 0 A + B → M2
1 0 0 1 m4

1 0 1 1 m5
1 1 A + B → M3
1 1 0 0
Table 2.10
Example 7: 1 1 1 0
Represent the given Boolean function in Table 2.11 Table Representing Min Terms
minterms
f(A,B)
= AB + AB

Solution: Rack Your Brain

AB is represented as m3, and AB is represented
as m1. ‘A NOR gate is equivalent to a bubbled
AND gate.’

Previous Years’ Questions

It can be represented by a Boolean function
as:
The output of a logic gate is ‘1’ when all
its inputs are at logic ‘0’. The gate is: f = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
(A) a NAND or an Ex-OR gate f = m0 + m1 + m2 + m4 + m5
(B) a NOT or an EX-NOR gate f = ∑m(0, 1, 2, 4, 5)
(C) a NOR or an EX-NOR gate
(D) an AND or an EX-OR gate Representing functions with maxterms:
Solution: (C)
Maxterm number is the same as the row
position in the truth table (starting with 0 at
Hence, the given function can be represented the top).
as:
Let there be a truth table of a circuit as
f(A, B) = ∑m(1, 3) shown below, and we have to represent it by
a Boolean function (in Maxterm).

Boolean Algebra 37
 f = ABC + ABC + ABC
A B C f
0 0 0 1 ↓

0 0 1 1 f = m3 + m6 + m7 = ∑(3, 6, 7)

0 1 0 1 ↓ Conversion in

0 1 1 0 m3 maxterms

1 0 0 1 f = M0 M1 M2M4 M5 = πM(0, 1, 2, 4, 5)
↓
1 0 1 1
f = (A + B + C) ⋅ (A + B + C) ⋅ (A + B + C)
1 1 0 0 m6
⋅ (A + B + C) ⋅ (A + B + C)
1 1 1 0 m7

Table 2.12 Table Representing Maxterms

Nand and Nor Implementation

It can be represented by a Boolean function NAND and NOR gates are called as universal
as: gates. They can be used to produce any other
logic or Boolean function with the NAND and
f = (A + B + C) ⋅ (A + B + C) ⋅ (A + B + C)
NOR gates being minimal.
f= M3 · M6   · M7
NAND and NOR gates are called as minimal
f = πM(3, 6, 7) sets in themselves since they can be used
individually or together to construct many
Conversion between canonical forms: other logic circuits.
y It is quite easy to convert minterms into Hence, the complete set of operations of the
maxterms and vice versa. main logic gates can be defined as:
y Firstly, we will represent it by a Boolean
function (in minterms) and convert all y AND, OR and NOT (a full set)
AND operations with OR operations and y AND and NOT (a complete set)
vice versa. y OR and NOT (a complete set)
y Finally, complement the individual variables. y NAND (a minimal set)
y Let us understand the conversion with y NOR (a minimal set)
the help of an example; a truth table of a Implementation of logic functions using only
digital circuit is shown below. NAND gates:

A B C f
NAND Gate symbol
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
NOT Gate/Inverter
0 1 0 0
Fig. 2.7 Representation of NOT Gate
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
AND Gate
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Buffer
1 1 1 1
Table 2.13

38 Boolean Algebra
 Buffer

OR Gate

AND Gate
Fig. 2.10 Design of AND Gate Using NOR Gate

NOR Gate

NAND Gate

Exclusive-OR Gate
Fig. 2.8 Design Of Standard Logic Gates Universal
Gates

Exclusive-OR Gate

Exclusive-NOR Gate
Fig. 2.9 Design Of EX-NOR Gate
Using Universal Gate Exclusive-NOR Gate
Fig. 2.11 Design of EX-NOR Gate Using
Implementation of logic functions using only NOR Gate
NOR gates:
Two level Nand-Nand Implementation
The simplified Boolean function of SOP
NOR Gate Symbol expression can be implemented by using
AND-OR gates. The AND-OR implementation
is a two-level implementation. For such
NOT Gate/Inverter implementation, it is necessary to convert the
logic diagram from AND-OR logic to NAND-
NAND logic. In the figure below, two equivalent
symbols for NAND gates are shown.
OR Gate

Boolean Algebra 39
 Previous Years’ Questions
Fig. 2.12 Two Graphic Symbols for Nand Gates

Minimum number of 2 input NAND gates

NAND-NAND implementation: required to implement the function
The following steps are followed to convert given below is:
AND-OR logic to NAND-NAND logic. F=(X + Y)(Z + W)
1. Simplify the given logical expression and,
(A) 4
after that, convert it into the corresponding
(B) 5
SOP form
(C) 6
2. Draw the AND-OR realisation.
(D) 7
3. Replace AND gate by NAND gate and OR
Solution: (A)
gate by invert OR gate.
4. Replace invert OR gate by NAND gate.
5. Finally, draw the circuit using only NAND Step 3:
gates. The output NAND gate is redrawn with the
6. A bubble denotes complementation, and AND invert graphic symbol.
two bubbles along the same line represent
double complementation. So, they should
be removed.
Example 8:
Implement the given Boolean function with
Fig. 2.15
NAND-NAND gate logic.
The above figure can be verified algebraically.
F = AB + CD
The function it implements can be easily
Solution: converted to SOP using DeMorgan’s theorem.
Step 1:
F = (A ⋅ B)(C ⋅ D) = AB + CD
The function is implemented with AND-OR
gates. Two level NOR-NOR implementation
The two graphic symbols for NOR gates are
shown in the figure.

Fig. 2.13 Fig. 2.16 Two Level NOR-NOR Representation

Step 2:
NOR-NOR implementation:
The AND gates are replaced by NAND gates
and OR gate is replaced by a NAND gate with The implementation of a Boolean function
an OR invert graphic symbol. with NOR-NOR logic requires that the
function should be a simplified POS
expression. In the first implementation, all
sum terms are implemented by the NOR gate,
and in the second level, all ANDed terms are
implemented using the equivalent of the
Fig. 2.14 NOR gate. The following steps are used:

40 Boolean Algebra
1. Simplify the logic expression and convert
it into POS form.
2. Draw an OR-AND logic circuit for the
above-simplified expression.
3. Replace OR gate by NOR gate and AND Fig. 2.19
gate by invert AND gate.
4. Replace invert AND gate by NOR gate. Example 10:
Implement the following Boolean function
Example 9: using 2-input NAND-NAND logic if the inputs
Implement the given Boolean function using are given in normal and complement form.
2-input NOR-NOR gate logic if the inputs are
F(A, B, C) = åm(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7)
given in normal and complement form.
Solution:
F = AC + BC + D Step 1:

Solution: Simplifying the given standard SOP by using

a 3-variable K-map as shown below:
Following steps are used:
Step 1:
Express the given Boolean function in POS
form by using DeMorgan’s theorem. Thus,
F=(A + C)(B + C)(D)

Step 2: F(A,B, C) =C + AB + AB

Implementing the Boolean function with OR- Fig. 2.20

AND logic. Step 2:
Implement the logic function with AND-OR
logic.

Fig. 2.17

Step 3: Fig. 2.21

OR gate is replaced by NOR, and AND gate is
Step 3:
replaced by bubble AND gate.
Replace AND gate by NAND gate and OR gate
by invert OR gate or bubbled OR gate.

Fig. 2.18

Step 4: Fig. 2.22

Finally, replace invert AND gate by NOR gate.

Boolean Algebra 41
 Step 4:
Replace bubble OR gate by NAND gate.

Fig. 2.27

Fig. 2.23 Multilevel ‘NAND’ and ‘NOR’ gate Logic

Example 11: We have studied that the standard form of
Implement the following Boolean function expression Boolean functions results in two-
using 2-input NOR-NOR logic if the inputs level implementation. Sometimes, the design
are given in normal and complement form. of digital systems results in gating structures
with three or more levels.
F(A, B, C) = pM(0, 2, 4, 5, 6)
The most common procedure in the design
Solution: of multilevel circuits is to express the
Step 1: Boolean function in terms of AND, OR and
complement operation. These functions
Simplify by using a suitable K-map as below:
can be implemented with AND-OR-NOT
gates.
Multilevel NAND implementation:
The following steps are followed to implement
multilevel NAND implementation.
1. Draw the logic diagram for the given
F C(A + B)
= Boolean expression using AND, OR and
NOT gate.
Fig. 2.24
2. Replace all AND gates by NAND gates with
Step 2: bubbled AND (Invert AND) symbols and all
Implement the logic function with OR-AND OR gates by NAND gates with bubbled OR
logic. (Invert OR) graphic symbols.
3. All the bubbles in the diagram have to be
carefully checked, i.e., see whether all the
bubbles along the same line in the diagram
are compensated by another small circle
Fig. 2.25
or not. If not, then insert an inverter (one-
Step 3: input NAND gate) or complement the
Replace OR gate by NOR gate and AND gate input variable. The invert OR gate is also
by invert AND gate. replaced by a NAND gate.

Example 12:
Perform the NAND implementation of the
following function if the inputs are given in
Fig. 2.26
normal and complement form.
Step 4: F(A,B, C,D)
= A(BC + D) + AB
Replace invert AND gate by NOR gate.

42 Boolean Algebra
Solution: 3. A
 ll the bubbles in the diagram have to
be carefully checked. Insert an inverter
Step 1:
equivalent NOR gate for every bubble that
Implement the logic function with AND, OR
is not compensated by another bubble
and NOT gates.
along the same line. Finally, replace the
invert AND gate by NOR gate.

Example 13:
Perform the NOR implementation of the
following Boolean function:
F(A,B, C,D)
= A(BC + D) + AB
Solution:
Fig. 2.28 Step 1:
Step 2: Implement the logic function by AND, OR and
NOT gates.
Replace the AND gates by NAND gates and
OR gates by invert OR gates.

Fig. 2.31
Fig. 2.29
Step 2:
Step 3:
The input D line has only one bubble. Now, Now, replace OR gate by NOR gate and AND
the input D is complemented. Replace invert gate by invert AND gate.
OR by NAND.

Fig. 2.32
Fig. 2.30
Step 3:

Multilevel NOR implementation: Replace invert AND by NOR.

The following steps are followed in the NOR

implementation.
1. Draw the logic diagram for the logic
expression using AND, OR and NOT gates.
2. Replace all AND gates by invert AND gates
and all OR gates by NOR gates. Fig. 2.33

Boolean Algebra 43
 Chapter Summary

y Boolean algebra or logical algebra was invented by George Boole in 1854.

y It is used to analyse and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only binary numbers,
i.e., 0 and 1.
y Variables used in Boolean algebra can only have two values.
y For HIGH, binary 1 is used, and for low, binary 0 is used.
y Boolean functions can be represented by using truth tables.
y Truth tables are basically a means to express the characteristics of Boolean functions
as well as logic circuits.
y A Boolean function and its digital representation are properly matched with each
other.
y AND, OR and NOT are called as basic logic gates.
y NAND and NOR are called as universal gates.
y An X-OR gate is also called an anti-coincidence gate or inequality detector.
y An X-NOR gate is also called a coincidence gate or equality detector.

Practice Questions

1. The number of Boolean functions that n 4. The simplified form of the logical
variables can generate are equal to: expression F =  A + BC  ( AB + ABC ) is:
(A) 22n–1  
(A) 1
(B) 22n
(B) AB
(C) 2n–1
(C) ABC
(D) 2n
(D) 0

2. The logical expression y= A + AB is

5. If the functions W, X, Y and Z are as
equivalent to:
follows:
(A) y = AB
W =R + PQ + RS
(B) AB
X = PQRS + PQRS + PQRS
(C) y= A + B
(D) y = A + B Y = RS + PR + PQ + PQ

Z = R + S + PQ + PQR + PQS
3. The minimised form of the logical Then,
expression (ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC) is:
(A) AC + BC + AB (A) =
W Z,
= X Z
(B) AC + BC + AB (B) W = Z, X = Y
(C) AC + BC + AB (C) W = Y
(D) AC + BC + AB (D) W= Y= Z

44 Boolean Algebra
6. The Boolean expression AC + BC is (A) B(A + C)(A + C)
equivalent to: (B) B(A + C)(A + C)
(A) AC + BC + AC
(C) B(A + C)(A + C)
(B) BC + AC + BC + ACB
(D) B(A + C)(A + C)
(C) AC + BC + BC + ABC
(D) ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC 8. The Boolean expression
Y = ABCD + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD
7. The Boolean expression for the truth can be minimised to:
table shown is:
(A) Y = ABCD + ABC + ACD
A B C f
(B) Y = ABCD + BCD + ABCD
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 (C) Y = ABCD + BCD + ABCD
0 1 0 0 (D) Y = ABCD + BCD + ABCD
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

Practice Solutions

1. Solution: (B) 2. Solution: (D) 3. Solution: (A) 4. Solution: (D)

5. Solution: (A) 6. Solution: (D) 7. Solution: (A) 8. Solution: (D)

Boolean Algebra 45