GLY 308 Exam Questions – Full Answers
(300 Level Geology, OAU)
SECTION A
QUESTION ONE (a)
During the 18th Century, the development of modern stratigraphy was influenced by
several notable scientists. Nicolaus Steno laid the groundwork with his three laws: the
Law of Superposition (younger rocks lie above older ones), Original Horizontality
(sediments are initially deposited horizontally), and Lateral Continuity (layers extend
horizontally until they thin out or encounter a barrier). James Hutton advanced the idea of
uniformitarianism, which stated that geological processes observed today operated
similarly in the past. William Smith contributed by producing the first geological map
and proposing the principle of faunal succession, which observes that fossil assemblages
succeed one another in a recognizable order through geological time. These contributions
laid the foundation for understanding the chronological arrangement and correlation of
rock layers, which is central to modern stratigraphy.
QUESTION ONE (b)
Unconformities are surfaces representing gaps in the geological record, either due to
erosion or non-deposition. There are different types of unconformities: angular
unconformity (where tilted or folded strata are overlain by flat-lying layers),
disconformity (parallel strata above and below an erosional surface), and nonconformity
(sedimentary rocks overlying igneous or metamorphic rocks). To recognize and evaluate
these, geologists look for signs such as erosion surfaces, abrupt lithological changes,
fossil gaps, and differences in bedding orientation. These criteria help in reconstructing
geological histories and recognizing sequence boundaries.
QUESTION TWO
i. Repetitive Stratification refers to the regular, repeated layering of sediments due to
cyclic processes like tides, floods, or seasonal changes. This pattern helps identify
depositional environments and energy variations over time.
ii. Eustatic Sea Level Changes are global changes in sea level caused by factors like
glacial melting or thermal expansion of seawater. These changes influence sedimentation
patterns and lead to the formation of sequence boundaries and flooding surfaces.
iii. McKee and Weir’s Bedding Classification Scheme categorizes bedding types based
on their physical characteristics. It includes structures like planar bedding, cross-bedding,
ripple bedding, and graded bedding, which help interpret depositional processes and
current directions.
iv. Post-depositional Changes in Sediments refer to diagenetic processes such as
compaction, cementation, and bioturbation that occur after deposition. These changes
alter the texture, porosity, and structure of the sediment, affecting reservoir quality.
v. Principle of Organic Evolution states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a
definite and recognizable order. This principle underpins biostratigraphy and allows
geologists to correlate strata based on fossil content.
QUESTION THREE (a)
In establishing a tentative stratigraphic framework for a well, different datasets provide
unique insights. Sedimentological data such as grain size, texture, and sedimentary
structures help interpret depositional environments. Gamma ray logs measure natural
radioactivity and are particularly useful in identifying shale layers, flooding surfaces, and
sequence boundaries. Microfossils serve as biostratigraphic markers, helping date strata
and correlate between wells. Together, these datasets allow for a comprehensive
understanding of the stratigraphy, including facies relationships and depositional trends.
QUESTION THREE (b)
Correlation involves matching rock layers across different regions based on lithological
and fossil characteristics. Physical evidence includes similar rock types, grain size, color,
and sequence of beds. Paleontological evidence relies on index fossils that are
widespread and existed for a short geological time. These tools help geologists identify
equivalent stratigraphic units, recognize unconformities, and trace lateral facies changes.
SECTION B
ANSWER QUESTION FOUR AND ANY OTHER QUESTION
QUESTION FOUR
i. Flood Plains are flat regions adjacent to rivers where fine sediments like silt and clay
are deposited during floods. They often exhibit features like levees and meandering
channels.
ii. Deltas form at river mouths where sediment is deposited faster than it can be removed.
They show coarsening upward sequences and consist of distributary channels and
interdistributary bays.
iii. Lagoons are shallow water bodies separated from open sea by barrier islands. They
receive fine sediments and are characterized by low energy and restricted water
circulation.
iv. Tidal Flats are coastal areas exposed at low tide and submerged at high tide. They are
dominated by muds and silts with features like ripple marks and mud cracks.
v. Estuaries are semi-enclosed bodies of water where freshwater mixes with seawater.
They are influenced by tides and receive sediments ranging from sand to mud.
QUESTION FIVE (a)
A cycle of deposition refers to the repetitive pattern of sedimentation due to sea level
changes or shifting depositional environments. In a transgressive sequence, sediments
fine upward (e.g., sand → silt → clay), while in a regressive sequence, they coarsen
upward. On a seismic section or outcrop, these cycles are identified through bed
geometry, onlap, offlap, and reflector patterns.
QUESTION FIVE (b)
Marine environments can be classified into several sub-environments:
- Continental Shelf: Shallow, well-lit zone where sand and mud dominate.
- Continental Slope: Steeper slope beyond the shelf, with finer sediments and gravity
flow deposits.
- Abyssal Plain: Deep marine environment with clay and biogenic ooze.
- Reefal Zones: High energy, shallow zones dominated by carbonate-producing
organisms.
Each sub-environment has distinct sediment types, fossil content, and depositional
energy.
QUESTION SIX (a)
Geologic media useful in sequence stratigraphy include:
- Core samples: Provide direct observation of lithology and sedimentary structures.
- Well logs: Gamma ray, resistivity, and sonic logs help identify lithological boundaries
and flooding surfaces.
- Seismic data: Detect large-scale stratigraphic surfaces and depositional patterns.
- Biostratigraphy: Uses fossils to date and correlate sequences.
- Outcrop data: Offers detailed facies and architectural information.
QUESTION SIX (b)
Sediment characteristics in terrestrial environments include coarse grain size (sand,
gravel), oxidized colors (red, brown), sedimentary structures (cross-bedding, ripple
marks, mud cracks), and presence of plant fossils or root traces. These features help
identify environments like rivers, alluvial fans, and deserts.
